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JICTS  FOR  FARMERS; 

ALSO   FOR 

THE    FAMILY    CIRCLE. 

A  COMPOST  OF  RICH  MATERIALS  FOR  ALL   LAND-OWNERS, 

ABOUT 

D03IESTIC  ANIMALS  AND  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY; 

FARM    BUILDINGS; 


FAIIM  Cr.OPS,   TOOLS.  FEIfCES,   FERTILIZATION,   DRALMNG,  AND  IRRIGATION. 


Illustnitcli  toitlT  .steel  ingtuiiiiigs. 


EDITED    BY 

SOLOIST     ROBINSOIS^, 

AGRIUCLTL-RAL   BDITOK   Of  TiUi   NEW   TORK    "TRIBUNE,"    AND   AUTHOK   OP   SEVERAL   POPULAR    WORKS. 

VOLUME  I, 

NEW   YORK: 
JOHNSON    AND    WARD,     PUBLISHERS, 

No.     113    FULTON    STREET. 
1805. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlie  year  1803,  by 
A.     J.     JOHNSON, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  tlie  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


DAVIES    &    KENT, 
1S8  William  Strtet,  JV.  1'. 


PLATE    I. 

(The    Fko.nti9pieok.) 

This  is  the  genial  face  of  a  fanner,  engaged  in  a  work  of  love  for 
his  calling.  It  is  placed  here  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the 
author.  He  has  been  persuaded  to  allow  his  face  to  be  seen  by 
those  who  purchase  this  collection  of  things  useful  to  a  very 
numerous  class  through  the  solicitation  of  the  publisher,  who 
knows  that  it  will  be  a  satisfaction  to  them  to  see  how  their  old 
friend  looks  at  the  age  of  sixty.  An  old  friend  he  will  seem  to 
those  who  read  his  earnest  appeals  for  agricultural  impi'ovement 
twenty  or  thirty  years  ago.  As  a  writer  and  lecturer  upon  agri- 
culture, and  extensive  traveler  to  observe  its  condition  in  the  United 
States,  few  men  are  better  knovtrii  than  the  original  of  this  portrait. 
Therefore  this  likeness  will  be,  the  publisher  believes,  highly  appre- 
ciated as  well  by  those  who  look  upon  a  familiar  face  as  those  who 
see  it  here  for  the  first  time. 

The  author  was  born  a  farmer,  and  will  probably  end  his  days 
where  he  now  lives  (a  few  miles  out  of  the  busy  hum  of  the  city), 
in  the  peaceful  quiet  of  his  "home  in  the  country,"  where  this 
volume  of  fiicts  for  farmers  has  been  prepared  as  a  last  legacy  of  his 
good-will  to  the  brotherhood. 

Like  other  farmers'  sons  of  New  England,  he  learned  to  follow 
the  plow  there,  though  in  early  life  he  became  a  Western  pioneer,  and 
while  a  prairie  farmer,  became  widely  known  as  a  writer  advocating 
agricultural  improvement,  and  more  widely,  in  1841,  as  the  origin- 
ator of  the  National  Agricultural  Society,  and  ea'-nest  advocate  of 
State  and  County  societies.  His  connection  with  the  New  York 
Tribune  since  1850  wiU  make  this  picture  interesting  to  all  its 
readers.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  the  publisher  has  incurred  the 
expense  of  its  production.  •• 


^m^y 


PREFACE. 


THE  AUTHOR  TO  HIS  READERS. 

"Facts  for  Farmers?"  "What  facts?"  "What  new  theories 
have  we  here  in  a  jionderous  volume  ?  Is  it  iilled  with  dry  dis- 
sertations about  what  farmers  should  or  should  not  do?"  "What 
does  this  author  know  about  farming  ?" 

The  author  answers — the  last  question  first.  Nothing.  Who 
does?  He  does  not  advance  new  theories.  He  only  collects  old 
ones.  He  has  made  a  ponderous  volume,  not  of  dry  dissertations, 
but  of  short,  ci-isp  facts.  The  book  is  full  of  little  things  ;  glean- 
ings from  many  fields  ;  from  all  the  agricultural  papers  ;  from  con- 
versations of  farmers  ;  from  talks  at  farmers'  clubs  ;  from  books  a 
little  ;  from  personal  experience  much  ; — from  the  memory  of  a  long- 
life  devoted  to  the  practice  and  study  of  agriculture,  this  volume  is 
born.  It  is  the  fruit  of  years  of  labor  in  a  great  and  good  field. 
It  certainly  contains  much  that  will  be  useful  to  all  classes  who 
till  the  earth,  or  live  in  farmers'  houses.  It  should  be  in  every 
rural  home,  as  a  work  of  reference.  It  is  arranged  in  the  most  con- 
venient form  for  this  purpose.  Each  chapter  comprises  one  general 
subject.  Each  section  embraces  a  separate  branch.  Each  num- 
bered paragraph  is  complete  in  itself,  and  conveys  an  item  of  infor- 
mation. Each  subject  is  completely  indexed.  As  a  whole,  though 
containing  much,  it  is  not  an  encylopedia  of  agriculture.  It  does 
not  pretend  to  teach  all  that  a  farmer  should  know.  That  must  be 
learned  by  daily  perusal  of  agricultural  papers  and  books. 


PREFACE. 

Tliougli  not  perfect,  farmers  will  find  this  book  a  useful  one.  If 
not  invaluable,  I  hope  it  is  one  that  they  can  not  afford  to  do  with- 
out. In  its  compilation,  the  author  has  enjoyed  many  facilities 
and  much  experience  :  he  has  also  labored  under  many  difficulties, 
while  daily  engaged  as  an  agricultui'al  editor  of  a  great  daily  and 
weekly  paper.  You  will  find  here  stored  up  for  future  use  many 
of  the  valuable  little  items  that  you  have  read  approvingly  in  the 
Tribune,  and  many  from  other  sources,  useful  to  every  farmer's 
family,  and  worthy  of  preservation. 

Usefulness  instead  of  elegance  has  been  aimed  at.  I  have  given 
more  facts  than  theories.  I  have  often  given  the  opinions  of  several 
upon  the  same  subject,  and,  as  some  of  these  vaiy,  I  leave  the 
reader  to  adjust  differences. 

In  trying  to  avoid  diffuseness,  I  have  left  much  for  inference,  and 
purposely  treated  subjects  iu  such  a  manner  as  to  induce  readers  to 
make  further  research.  A  word  of  explanation.  At  thq  end  of 
the  volume  you  will  find  a  list  of  agricultural  papers,  which  the 
author  had  read  for  years  previous  to  the  commencement  of  this 
compilation.  Also  a  list  of  individuals,  some  of  whom  are  eminent 
authority  in  agricultural  knowledge.  From  all  these  he  has  drawn 
matter,  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without,  credit  to  individ- 
uals, when  facts  have  been  condensed  from  their  articles.  Con- 
ciseness has  been  a  study  ;  else,  how  could  twelve  hundred  subjects 
be  crowded  into  a  thousand  pages  ?  Those  whose  articles  I  have 
used,  must  not  complain  that  I  have  pruned  too  closely,  or  failed  to 
give  credit  in  all  cases  where  credit  is  due.  I  freely  acknowledge 
my  obligations  to  all. 

This  book  is  one  that  may  be  opened  at  any  page,  profitably, 
to  occupy  five  minutes'  leisure.  It  is  printed  in  such  large,  clear 
type  that  it  can  be  easily  read.  The  author  and  publisher  hope  that 
it  will  be.  Then  it  is  illustrated  as  no  agricultural  book  published 
iu  America  ever  has  been.     Look  at  the  many  large,  handsome. 


PREFACE. 

steel  engravings !      These  alone  are  worth  the  cost  of  the  whole 
volume. 

Farmers !  you  ai'o  earnestly  invited  to  read,  if  nothing  more,  the 
titles  and  contents  of  chapters,  and  their  subdivisions  of  sections. 
If  you  do  that,  and  find  nothing  that  promises  instruction,  lay  the 
volume  aside.  If  so  far  it  is  promising,  turn  over  its  pages,  glanc- 
ing at  the  black-letter  titles  of  paragraphs.  Of  one  thing  be  as- 
sured ;  lengthy  as  the  volume  appears,  it  is  not  made  so  by  extreme 
dilution  ;  the  last  chapter  is  better  than  any  that  precedes  it. 
Throughout,  no  subject  is  lengthily  treated  ;  no  subject  is  treated 
that  does  not  contain  something  useful  to  some  one  ;  something  that 
you  can  not  always  remember,  but  which  you  should  always  have 
at  hand,  convenient  for  frequent  consultation. 

To  those  who  know  the  name  of  the  author — and  the  number  is 
large — I  hope  this  book  will  be  a  welcome  bequest.  I  hope  it 
will  be  the  means  througli  which  that  name  may  live  in  love  and 
honor  with  your  children  and  children's  children  around  many  an 
American  hearthstone. 

Of  the  author's  portrait,  a  word.  It  is  the  publisher,  and  not  the 
author,  who  inserts  it.  It  represents  him  correctly,  as  he  is  at  the 
age  of  nearly  sixty. 

In  conclusion,  I  earnestly  hope  these  Facts  will  be  an  acceptable 
offering  to  a  very  large  number  of  those  whose  prosperity  I  would 
promote,  for  I  am  one  of  the  Buotheriiood  of  American  Farmers. 
To  them  it  is  commended,  with  the  love  and  respect  of  their  old 
friend, 

SOLON  ROBINSON. 

New  York,  May  1,  1863. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
13 

19 

31 
51 

5G 

60 

81 

97 

123 

157 

176 

203 
218 

275 

CHAPTER  I. 

DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

Section  I.— INTRODUCTION  TO  FACTS  ABOUT  STOCK 

Sec.  II.— swine 

Tliis  section  embraces  facts  about  the  best  breeds,  and  best  mode  of  feeding,  gross  and 
net  weight,  etc. 
Sec.  III. — COWS  :   What  is  a  good  cow,  and  how  to  choose  one;  food  necessary;  health; 

Sec.  IV.  —BEEVES  :  Eeeord  of  the  largest  known,  and  their  weights 

Sec.  v.— STATISTICS  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  CATTLE  MARKET,  and  Improvements  in 

Sec.  VI.— FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM  STOCK  :  Selecting  calves  ;  shelter ; 

training  ;  kindness  ;  value  of  kinds  of  feed  ;  use  of  salt ;  watering  ;  diseases  of  cattle.  . . . 

Sec.  VII.— sheep  HUSBANDRY  :  Breeds  of  sheep  ;  care  and  management ;  weight  of  hay 

Sec.  VIII.— HORSES  AND  MULES  :  History  of  the  horse  ;  varieties ;  how  to  use ;  proper 
tize ;  color ;   diseases  ;   treatment  of  colts  ;  how  to  shoe  horses ;  breeding  horses  and 

Sec.  IX. — POULTRY  ;  Full  description  of  all  kinds  of  poultry,  and  proper  treatment 

CHAPTER  H. 

SMALL    ANIMALS    AND    INSECTS. 

Sec.  X. — BEES  :  Their  history,  use,  and  value,  management,  and  reasons  for  keeping 

Sec.  XL— BIRDS  :  Reasons  for  preserving  ;  their  food  ;  and  laws  for  protecting 

Sec.  XII. — ENTOMOLOGICAL  :  Wliat  are  insect.^,  and  what  kinds  mfest  and  injure  various 
crops,  and  how  to  detect  friends  from  foes,  and  various  remedies 

Sec.  Xin.— wild  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM  :  Dogs,  cats,  rats,  mice,  moles, 
rabbits,  squirrels,  gophers,  skunks,  toads,  goats,  camels,  and  breeding  fish  for  family  use . 

CHAPTER  HI. 

TUE      FAEMERY. 

TUE   BUILDINGS,    TAEDS,    WELLS,    CISTEENS,    AQUEDDOTS,    AND   STIJUCTUEES   NECESSAET   TC 
CAEET   ON   THE   BUSINESS    OF   THE   FARM,    BEIKFLY   DESCEIBED. 

Sec.  XIV.— farm-houses  :  They  should  be  convenient,  roomy,  light,  ventilated  ;  their  in- 

. 

viii                                                     CONTENTS. 

Sec.  XV.— cellars,   CHIMNEYS,   AND   ICE-HOUSES  ;   How  to  Imihl  them,  and  their 

Sec.  XVI.— the  BAKN  AND  ITS  Al'PURTENANCES  :  Location,  size,  and  use  of  barns ; 

Sec.  XVII.— WA'IT.R   FOR  THE   KAKMERY  :  Cisterns,  size,  cost,  and  how  to  build  ;  ,ique- 

ducts  and  wells,  how  to  construct ;  hydraulic  rams 308 

Sec.  XVIII. -STACKING    AND    STORING    GRAIN  ;    CORN    CRIRS,    PIGGERIES,   AND 

PIG  FEEDING  ;  SMOKE-HOUSE,  AND  CURING  BACON  ;  FRUIT-DRYING  HOUSE.  318 

Sej.  XIX.-  ECONOMICU.  FARM  RUILDINGS  :  Balloon  frames,  concrete  walls,  and  other 

cheap  styles  of  building  ;  how  to  make  balloon  frames,  and  their  cost 32-5 

Sec.  XX.— ROOFS  AND  ROOFING  :  Paints  and  whitew.i.«h  for  farm  buildings  ;  nails  ;  mor- 

tar ;  farm  gates  ;  sawed  shingles,  their  value,  and  hciw  to  preserve  shingles 332 

Stc.  XXI. -LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS:  Protection  of  farm  buildings  from  fire  ;  windroills 

and  their  use "...  842 

CHAPTER  IV. 

DOMESTIC    ECONOMY. 

Sec.  XXII.— the  FOOD  QUESTION:  Quantity,  quality,  variety,  adaptation,  adulteration. 

changes  produced  hy  cooking,  water  for  cooking,  and  effect  on  health 3-')l 

Pec.  XXIII  -^THE  BRE,\.D  QUESTION  :  Varieties  ;  quality  ;  how  to  make  bread  and  yeast, 

Sec.  XXIV.— SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BREAD,  in  green  corn,  dried  corn,  pop-corn,  hominy,  and 

Sec.  XXV.-EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR   HOUSEWIVES :  Economy  of 

lights;  use  of  tea,  coffee,  and  sugar;  preserving  fruits,  pork,  hams,  and  beef;  remedies 

Sec  XXVI.-  DOME?!TIC    WINES,    CIDER,    AND   PRESERVES  :    Rules  of  wine-making 

from  various  fruits,  and  cider  and  vinegar  making 419 

Sec.  XXVII.— HYGIENIC :  Prep.aratiiin  of  food   for  the  sick ;  remedies  for  poisons,  bites, 

Sec.  XXVIII.— ITIE  DAIRY :  Butter  and  cheese  making ;  how  much  milk  for  a  pound  of 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE   gaehen   and  its   fkuits. 

Skc.  XXIX. -pleasure  and   PROFIT  OF  GARDENING  :   Origin  and  history  of  veg- 

Sec.  XXX.— GARDEN  CULINARY   VEGETABLES:  Protection  from  insects;  value  of  va- 

rious things  for  food  ;  chiccory  culture  ;  what  should  be  grown  in  the  garden  ;  number  of 

Skc.  XXXI. —THE  IXOWEK  GARDEN:  Varieties  and  cultivation  of  flowers  ;  suitable  soil 

and  pi eparatifin  ;  lists  of  choice  flowers ;  flowers  grown  as  a  crop ^>00 

_ 

CONTESTTS.                                                              ix 

PAQK 

Sec.  XXXII. — LAWNS  :  How  to  make  and  how  to  keep  them  ;  trees  and  plant.s  suitable  for 

Sec.   XXXni.— HOT-BEDS  :  Cold  frames     plant  protectors  ;  how  to  make  and  use  hot-beds .  62i 
Sec.  XXXIV.— small  FRUITS  OF  THE  GARDEN :  Currants,  varieties  and  cultivation ; 
strawberries,  variety  and  growth  ;  raspberries  ;  blackberries  ;  quinces 030 

CnAPTER  YI. 

THE     OKCHARD. 

Sec.  XXXV.— propagation,   PLANTING,   AND  CULTIVATION  OF  TREES :   Time  to 

Sec.  XXXVI.— the   AET  OF  PRUNING,   GRAFTING,   AND   BUDDING  :  How  and  when 

to  prune  ;  how  and  when  to  bud  and  graft ;  how  to  make  wax 570 

Sec.  XXXVII.— APPLE   AND   PEACH   TREES:   Their  general  management;  select  list  of 

apples,  and  descriptions  ;  peach-trees,  how  to  grow  ;  how  to  treat  an  old  orchard 579 

Sec.  XXXVIII. — CHERRIES  :  Best  varieties ;  soil,  situation,  and  cultivation  ;  history,  use. 

Sec  XXXIX.— PEARS  :  Soil,  situation,  cultivation,  and  varieties  ;  select  list  of  sorts;  when 

to  gather  and  how  to  ripen  ;  is  the  cultivation  profitable 601 

Sec  XL.— plums,    NECTARINES,    APRICOTS,    MULBERRIES,    AND    OTHER    FRUIT  : 

How  to  transplant  fruit ;  choice  selection  of  plums 012 

Sec.  XLI.— MISCELLANEOUS    M.ATTERS  ABOUT  FRUIT  CULTURE  :    Cranberries  as  a 
crop  ;  how  to  grow  them  ;  best  varieties  ;  cider-making 021 

CHAPTER   VII. 

THE     VINEYARD. 

Sec  XLH.— HOW  TO  PLANT  AND  CULTIVATE  VINES  :  What  sorts  to  plant  ;  history  of 

varieties  ;  profits  of  culture  ;  grape-growing  in  California 030 

Sec.  XLIII.  -  CULTURE   OF   GRAPES   FOR   WINE  :    Rules  for  wine-making  ;   wine  from 
various  kinds  of  grapes  ;  rules  of  a  French  wine-maker  ;  rules  of  American  wine-makers  657 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

C  E  R  E  A  I,  I  A  . 

Sec.  XLIV.— wheat,   RYE,   OATS,   BARLEY,   MILLET,   BUCKWHEAT :  Preparation  of 
soil  and  fertilization  ;  quantity  of  aeed  ;  harvesting,  stacking,  and  storing  ;  thrashing  and 
cleaning  ;  profits  of  wheat  culture  ;  oats,  how  and  when  to  sow  ;  cultivation  of  barley  ; 
buckwheat ;  millet 067 

Sec.  XLV. — INDIAN   CORN:   Its  history;   product;   profit  as  a  crop;   when  to  plant,  and 
how  to  cultivate  ;  great  yield  per  acre.  North  and  South  ;   how  to  store  corn,  and  how  to 

_ 

CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    GKASSES,     THEIR    CULTIVATION    AND    USE. 

p 
Seo.  XLVI.— mowing  and  pasture  lands  :  Seeding  land ;  varieties  of  grass  ;  what 
is  grass  ;  what  kinds  arc  rgcommcuded  for  culUvation  ;  clover,  its  cultivation  ;  harvc-st- 

ing  seed 

Sec.  XLVIL— haying  AND  HAYING  JLVCHINES  :  Hay  caps  ;  stacking  ;  how  much  hay 
land  should  produce,  and  how  much  it  is  necessary  to  provide  ;  how  to  measure  hay  in 
bulk 


CHAPTER  X. 

EOOT  CKOP8  AND  SUGAE  CROPS. 

Sec  XLVIII.— potatoes,  TURNIPS,  BEETS,  CARROTS,  PARSNEPS,  ONIONS  :  How  to 
plant  and  cultivate,  and  how  much  thuy  should  produce  ;  Iiistory  of  the  potato  ;  charac- 
ter of  varieties ;  importance  of  the  crop ;  what  seed  should  be  used,  and  how  planted  ; 
suhstitutL'S  for  the  potato  ;  sweet  potato  culture  ;  turnip  culture  ;  carrots  as  a  crop,  and 
sowing  and  cultivation  ;  onions  as  a  crop,  how  grown,  and  profits 78j 

Sec.  XLIX.— CHINESE  SUGAR-CANE,  AND  SORGO-SUGAR  MAKING  :  Preparation  and 
time  of  planting  cano;  soil  and  situation;  harvesting;  manufacturing,  and  yield  and 
profits  as  a  crop ^"'-- 

Sec.  L.— MAPLE-SUG^VR  M^VKING  :  Tapping  trees  ;  spouts,  buckets,  and  boilers  ;  process  of 
manufactuj'c  ;  cost,  yield,  aud  profit  of  maple-sugar 8C5 


CHAPTER  XL 

FORESTS    AND    FENCES. 

Sec.  LI.— trees  AND  TREE  PLANTING  ;  WOOD  OR  COAL  FOR  FUEL  :  What  trees  to 
phrnt,  and  how  and  where  ;  descriptive  list  of  trees;  value  of  various  trees ;  how  to  make 
timber  durable  ;  how  to  season  fuel 845 

Sec.  LII. — FENCES  :  Their  cost ;  kinds  most  economical  ;  laws  regulating  ;  how  to  make 
hedges,  stone  walls,  wire  fence,  and  farm  gates  ;  how  to  kyauize  fence  posts  ;  waste  of  land 
aiound  fences  ;  portable  fence,  its  use 801 


CHAPTER  XH. 

FERTILIZATION. 

Sec.  LIII.— THE  ART,  USE,  AND  ECONOMY  OF  MAKING,  SAVING,  AND  APPLYING 
MANURES  AND  FERTILIZING  FARM  CROPS  :  Color,  fineness,  and  moisture  of  ma- 
nure affects  its  value ;  nitrates,  muriates,  sulphates,  lime,  plaster,  and  bones,  how  to 
apply  ;  guano,  its  history  and  use  ;  muck,  its  value  ;  sea-weed  and  other  matters  ;  value 
of  salt ;  special  manures  for  various  crops ;  soiling  to  save  manure ;  manuring  with 
clover  ;  water,  its  value  as  a  fertilizer 877 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  Xm. 

IRRIGATION. DRAINING. PLOWING. FARMING    TOOLS. 

PAQR 

Sec.  LIV.— irrigation  AND  TILE  DRAINING  :  Value  of  irrigation  ;  its  practice  in  Italy 
and  otlier  countries  ;  what  lands  are  most  benefited  ;  tile  draining,  its  importance,  cost, 
practice,  and  pi-ofit ;  how  and  what  land  should  be  drained  ;  the  mole-draining  plow. . . .   904 

Sec.  LV.— plows  AND  PLOWING  :  History  of  cast-iron  plows  ;  subsoil  plows,  and  their 
use  and  value  ;  steel  plows  and  steam  plows  ;  other  farming  tools  ;  labor  saved  by  using 
farm  machinery , 917 


CHAPTEE  XIY. 

SOUTHERN  STAPLE  CROPS COTTON,  CANE,  RICE,  TOBACCO. 

Sec.  LVI.— mSTORY,  GROWTH,  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  COTTON  :  History  of  the 
cotton  gin  ;  upland  cotton  ;  sea  island  cotton  ;  how  cotton  is  grown,  picked,  and  pre- 
pared for  market ;  profit  of  the  culture  ;  flax  cotton 928 

Sec  LVn.— sugar  cane  CULTIVATION:  Statistics  of  its  culture  in  Louisiana  ;  yield  of 
sugar  per  acre  ;  cost  of  making,  and  how  it  is  made 943 

Sec.  LVllI. — RICE  :  Its  cultivation,  production,  and  preparation  for  market ;  yield  per  acre  ; 
value  and  profit ;  statistics  of  rice  plantations  ;  upland  rice 948 

Sec  LIX. — ^TOBACCO  :  Its  history,  cultivation,  production,  and  profits ;  exports  and  con- 
sumption of  tobacco  ;  eifect  of  cultivation  upon  the  soil  ;  its  culture  in  New  York  and 
Connecticut ;  rules  for  cultivation,  curing,  and  packing 953 

Sec.  LX.— CULTIVATION  OF  HEMP,  FLAX,  AND  OTHER  FIBROUS  PLANT'S  :  Hemp  ; 
soil  and  climate  ;  how  it  is  sown,  harvested,  and  yield  per  acre  ;  cost  and  profit ;  effect 
upon  the  soil ;  flax  cultivation  ;  how  to  prepare  the  soil,  sow  the  seed,  and  quantity  per 
acre 965 


CHAPTER  XY. 

GLEANINGS    OF    THE    FIELD. 

Sec  LXL— MISCELLANEOUS  TTEMS  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  TO  FARMERS  :  This 
last  chapter  embraces  many  things  not  classed  under  other  titles,  such  as  temperature  for 
seeds  to  germinate  and  grow ;  nutriment  in  food  substances  ;  weights  and  measure  of 
grain  ;  measuring  land  ;  proverbs  and  maxims  for  young  and  old  farmers,  farmers'  wives 
and  children ;  maxims  of  health  ;  things  to  be  thought  about ;  how  to  dress  skins,  fix 
pumps,  mend  pipes,  and  prognosticate  the  weather  ;  farmers'  clubs  ;  farm  laborers  ;  farm 
accounts ;  farm  economy,  and  finis 971-1010 


INDEX    TO    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plait.  I. — Likeness  of  the  Author - Frontispiece. 

Platk  II.— Frontispiece  of  Chap.  I. ,  illustratrating  the  subject  of  Domestic  Animals Page  Vi 

Plate  in. — Frontispiece  of  Sec.  III.     This  Plate  Is  intended  to  answer  the  question,  "  What 

is  a  ETOod  Cow  ?"    It  also  exhibits  different  breeds  of  Cattle 31 

Platk  IV. — Different  Breeds  of  Cattle — Durham,  Devon,  Hereford,  .\yrs!iire,  Dutcli,  and  AI- 

demey  Bulls  and  Cows H 

Plate  V. — The  Milk  Jlirror,  showing  how  to  select  a  good  Cow,  and  form  of  Teetli  at  dif- 
ferent Ages 48 

Plate  VI. — Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Swine 81  and  10 

1'i.ATi;  VII. — Frontispiece  of  Sec.  VIII. — Portraits  of  celebrated  Horses,  and  Illustrations  of 

different  Breeds 07 

Pirates  VIII.  and  IX. — Illustrations  of  the  Teeth  of  Horses  at  all  Ages,  showing  how  to 

judge  the  Age  from  One  to  Eighteen  Years lOG 

Plate  X. — Frontispiece  to  Poultry,  Sec.  IX 123 

Plate  XI. — Turlteys,  Ducks,  Oeese,  Swans,  and  Pea  Fowls 140 

Plate  XII.     The  Bee-Keeper  at  his  Work 15" 

Plate  XIII. — ^Tlic  Farmery  of  Fanner  Snug  and  Farmer  Slack— Frontispiece  of  Chap.  III. .  275 

Platk  XIV.^Frontispiece  of  the  Garden  and  its  Fruits,  Chap.  V 461 

Plate  XV. — Frontispiece  to  the  Flower  Garden,  Sec.  XXXI 500 

Plate  X.V1. — Frontispiece  to  the  Orcliard,  Cluap.  VL — A  Dessert  fit  for  a  Fiirmer — .V  Rural 

Scene  and  rich  collection  of  Fruit 555 

Pl.\te  XVII. — Frontispiece  to  Chap.  VIII.— Ccrealia,  representing  Insects  injurious  to  Wheat ; 

also  Grapevine  Pests 007 

Plate  XVIII. — Frontispiece  to  Sec.  XLV. — Illustrations  of  Insects  wliicli  are  injurious  to 

Farmers,  and  others  which  are  l>cncficial 709 

Plate  XIX. — Frontispiece  to  Chap.  IX. — The  Grasses 748 

Plate  XX. — Frontispiece  to  Chup.  XIV. — The  Cotton  Plant  and  Cotton  Field- Gathering 

the  Crop 928 

Plate  XXI.— Insects  injurious  to  Cotton  and  Corn 912 

Plate  XXII. — Frontispiece  of  Sec.  LIX. — Tobacco  in  all  stages  of  Growth  .and  Curing  for 

Market 953 


PLATE    II. 

(Page  13.) 

Every  American  farmer  will  look  upon  this  picture  with  pride. 
It  is  a  fitting  illusti'ation  of  a  chapter  upon  Domestic  Animals.  It 
contains  representatives  of  a  well-stocked  farm,  assembled  in  the 
farm-yard  on  the  south  side  of  one  of  the  farmery  buildings  in  one 
of  the  sunny  days  of  spring,  which  are  so  well  calculated  to  make 
such  a  collection  of  well-fed  animals  feel,  as  these  look,  full  of 
gladness.  There  is  no  danger  that  such  liogs  as  these  will  destroy 
young  lambs  and  poultry.  Here  we  sec  the  sheep  and  lambs,  goats 
and  kids — goats  that  yield  valuable  fleeces,  which  are  described  in 
this  chapter — the  work-horses  and  brood-mare  and  colt — the  mules 
and  their  progenitor,  who  is  in  an  attitude  of  war  Avith  a  well-fed 
heifer  that  is  absorbed  in  admiration  of  the  peacocks  on  the  roof 
of  the  poultry-house.  How  surlily  the  bull  looks  upon  the  white- 
faced  cow,  which  is  deeply  interested  in  contemplating  the  two  hens 
that  the  cock  has  just  called  to  enjoy  a  few  grains  of  corn !  By  tlie 
earnest  looking  of  one  cow  and  two  horses,  we  judge  that  they  see 
their  good  friend  and  master  approaching.  Geese,  ducks,  turkeys, 
rabbits,  and  pigeons,  and  a  boat  on  the  water,  enhven  the  scene, 
which,  altogether,  is  one  of  tranquil  beauty.  It  is  a  scene  to  con- 
template and  admire.  It  teaches  a  lesson. '  It  will  stimulate  many 
a  young  man  to  a  determination  to  become  the  owner  of  such  a'  one, 
or  something  equally  worthy  of  the  artist  who  desires  to  represent 
American  farm  life.  It  will  stimulate  all,  we  hope,  who  look  upon 
this  pictorial  index  of  this  chapter  to  read  it  carefully. 


FACTS    FOR    FARMERS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

SECTION.  I— INTllODUCTION  TO  FiVCTS  ABOUT  STOCK. 


HE  very  foundation  of  all  farm  improvement  is  the 

domestic  animals  which  consume  the  coarse  products 

of  the  farm,  such  as  are  not  fit  for  human  food,  or 

grown   ill  greater  abundance  than   is   needed   for 

that  purpose,  which,   being  so  fed,  are  converted 

into  milk,  butter,  cheese,  beef,  pork,  mutton,  wool, 

leather,  and   the   many  other  valuable  animal   products. 

But  above  all  are  animals  valuable  to  the  farmer,  because 

they  convert  the  coarse  products  of  the  farm  into  manure, 

without  which  the  owner  can  not  produce  food  for  his  own 

sustenance. 

Viewing,  then,  as  I  do,  successful  farming  as  based  upon 
stock,  it  seems  to  me  very  fitting  that  I  should  make  the 
treatise  of  it  the  leading  chapter  of  the  volume.  And  as  swine  are  more 
univereally  kept  by  all  classes  of  Americans,  and  the  flesh  more  universally 
used  every  week  in  the  year,  it  will  be  very  proper  to  make  this  branch 
of  farm-stock  the  leading  subject. 

I  am  not  going  to  give  learned  dissertations  upon  stock-breeding,  nor,  in 
fact,  long  essays  upon  this  or  any  other  subject,  but  such  little  fugitive  facts 
as  come  to  hand,  in  short  paragraphs,  consecutively  numbered  for  reference, 
with  black-letter  titles  to  each  subject,  to  attract  attention,  and  so  arranged 
that  facts  may  be  gathered  at  a  glance,  and  valuable  information  obtained 
during  leisure  moments  which  might  otherwise  be  lost. 

Many  of  the  statements  given  are  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
interesting  information — such,  for  instance,  as  the  weights  of  the  largest 
animals  ever  slaughtered — but  as  an  incentive  to  others  to  try  to  produce 
the  like.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  man  who  never  saw  a  bullock  of 
over  12  cwt.  should  attempt  to  make  one  of  36  cwt. ;  nor  will  lie  be  likely 
to  make  the  attempt  before  he  learns  the  important  fact,  that  the  particular 
breed  which  he  has  kept  all  his  life  never  attain  tliat  weight. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  inciting  improvement  that  I  give  some  statistics 


Li  brary 
^N'  estate  College 


14  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Coap.  I. 

of  the  New  York  livestock  market,  which  I  have  been  familiar  with  for 
many  years.  Farmers  slioiild  knuw  that  there  is  a  certain  market  for  all 
the  meat-giving  animals  they  can  produce,  and  what  they  realize,  as  well  as 
what  varieties  sell  best. 

I  have  purposely  adopted  a  dcsnltory  method,  because  I  tliiuk  it  will  be 
more  satisfactory  to  my  readers,  whom  I  do  not  expect  to  read  the  work  in 
consecutive  order,  and  because  I  find  it  more  convenient  to  pick  up  the 
fugitive  facts  and  jot  them  down  in  a  sort  of  mosaic-work,  something  as 
nature  does  its  autumn  tints,  which  are  now  glowing  before  my  window  in 
the  full  eifulgence  of  an  October  sun. 

And  here,  too,  as  I  look  abroad  upon  my  neighbors'  fields,  and  at  their 
cattle  gnawing  the  short  pasture,  and  running  after  every  chance  apple 
dropping  from  the  trees,  and  then  stretcliing  up  their  necks,  looking  for 
more,  and  browsing  off  the  lower  limbs  of  tlic  trees,  I  am  forcibly  reminded 
that  this  is  not  a  profitable  method  of  keeping  larm-stock.  Day  by  day  the 
milch  cows  fail  to  give  the  supply  that  good  pasture  will  always  give  in  this 
good  butter-making  month  of  October ;  and  day  by  day  the  flesh  of  all  the 
animals  is  wasting,  so  that,  by-and-by,  when  the  cold  and  storms  of  November 
force  their  owner  to  bring  them  into  winter  quarters,  they  are  not  in  such 
a  condition  that  he  may  carry  thcui  economically  through.  There  is  a  great 
error  in  farming,  that  the  scene  before  me  forcibly  reminds  me  of — it  is  the 
error  of  keeping  any  kind  of  iarm-stoek  upon  short  pasture,  and  most 
jjarticularly  in  autumn,  so  that  they  come  to  winter  quarters  falling  off  in 
flesh,  rather  than  gaining,  which  is  tlio  condition  tliat  all  animals  should  be 
in  when  brought  from  the  pasture  to  the  stable  or  feeding  lot. 

Some  of  the  farmers  of  the  Eastern  States  of  the  kind  just  alluded  to, 
who  keep  their  stock  upon  the  shortest  possible  pasture,  and  consequently 
generally  have  scrubby  animals,  and  always  meet  with  great  difficulty  in 
wintering  those,  would  learn  a  useful  lesson  if  they  would  visit  the  blue- 
grass  pastures  of  Kentucky,  and  see  in  what  luxuriant  feed  the  sleek 
Durhams  of  that  region  are  kept.  They  would  there  learn  one  of  the 
secrets  of  value  of  that  breed,  and  why  they  attain  at  three  years  old  a  size 
and  weight  of  beef  never  equaled  at  six  years  old  by  tlie  scrub  breed 
common  in  Virginia  and  in  the  liilly  regions  of  Oliio  and  Indiana,  which  are 
sometimes  designated  in  the  New  York  market  as  "  pony  cattle,"  or  "  old 
stjdc,"  and  averaging,  when  fat,  about  six  hundred  pounds  in  the  beef.  A 
similar  scrub  breed  is  known  in  Kentucky  as  "  mountain  cattle,''  and  the  same 
style  is  very  common  in  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  other  Southern  States, 
wlicrc  I  liave  often  seen  full  grown  steers,  and  fat,  killed  ibr  beef  at  four 
years  old,  that  would  not  average  four  liundred  pounds  of  beef.  These 
cattle  were  treated,  too,  all  their  lives,  just  like  too  many  of  the  same  class 
in  all  the  New  England  and  Middle  States — like  those  now  before  me,  eking 
out  their  existence  upon  the  scanty  herbage  of  autumn,  in  a  closely-cropped 
summer  pasture,  and  never  fed  with  forage  prepared  for  winter,  until  the 
owner  is  driven  to  it  by  an  early  winter  storm. 


Sec.  1.]  CATTLE   OX  A  MISSISSIPPI   STEAMBOAT.  15 

Such  is  not  the  right  way  to  keep  stock ;  but  so  long  as  men  will  keep  it 
thus,  it  is  not  of  much  advantage  to  try  to  improve  the  breed. 

Tliere  is  a  great  want  of  information,  not  only  upon  the  subject  of 
improvements  in  the  kinds  of  stock,  but  in  the  modes  of  keej^ing  it.  It  is 
not  my  intention,  in  this  chapter  upon  domestic  animals,  to  attempt  to  give 
all  this  information,  but  only  a  few  brief  hints,  which  may  lead  to  reflection 
and  improvement. 

Above  all  things  that  will  tend  to  improvement,  are  annual  visits  to  great 
cattle-shows,  where  the  varieties  in  the  bi'eeds  of  cattle  may  be  studied,  and 
judged  as  to  which  -would  be  the  most  profitable,  or  whether  either  would 
be  more  so  than  the  old-style  breed  at  home. 

It  would  be  of  great  importance,  too,  to  all  farmers  to  travel  more.  How 
strange  it  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  a  Yankee  farmer,  who  had  occupied 
a  forty-acre  farm  all  his  life,  to  see  a  thousand  hogs,  and  half  as  many 
bullocks,  all  turned  into  a  grand-prairie  corn-field,  of  a  size  large  enough  to 
cover  his  entire  farm  and  that  of  twenty  or  thirty  of  his  ueighboi-s!  His 
first  exclamation  would  probably  be,  "  Oh,  what  a  waste  !"•  His  subsequent 
opinion  would  be  about  like  this :  "  "Well,  after  all,  I  begin  to  believe  that 
is  not  so  bad  a  way  of  harvesting  corn  as  I  thought  it  was." 

And  this  is  not  the  only  curious  thing  that  he  might  see  in  relation  to 
farm-stock  in  traveling  through  the  West.  He  would  see  the  same  bad 
management  as  at  home,  about  bringing  the  stock  into  winter  quarters,  for 
they  are  too  often  allowed  to  run  in  a  corn-field,  after  the  grain  has  all  been 
harvested,  living  upon  the  dry  stalks  until  after  tlie  first  snows  of  winter. 
He  might  also  see  some  very  amusing,  as  well  as  instructive  things,  in 
connection  with  cattle. 

Shipping  cattle  o?i  a  Mississippi  stcamhoat,  as  I  once  witnessed,  afibrded 
infinite  amusement;  and  I  am  disposed  to  giv^e  a  photograph  of  it,  before  I 
take  up  the  more  practical  details  of  farm-stock. 

Engagements  for  boats  to  stop  and  take  cattle  on  board  at  various 
landings  are  frequently  made  before  leaving  port,  and  it  often  happens  that 
the  boat  reaches  these  points  in  the  night ;  and  tlien  a  scene  occurs  which 
might  employ  a  more  graphic  pen  than  mine  to  describe,  or  which  would 
have  been  a  fit  subject  for  Hogarth  to  paint. 

I  will  try  to  give  my  readers  some  idea  of  such  a  scene,  although  one  so 
common  on  the  Mississippi  it  rarely  meets  a  passing  notice ;  yet  it  is  full 
of  interest. 

The  steamer  left  St.  Louis  about  sundown  of  a  dark  day,  during  the  latter 
part  of  which  the  rain  came  down  in  torrents,  corresponding  to  tlie  size  of 
the  great  river  they  were  destined  to  fill.  Of  course  mud  was  a  component 
part  of  all  the  little  tributary  streams ;  but  it  did  not  discolor  the  great 
river — that  is  always  muddy. 

At  ten  o'clock  we  saw  a  light  on  the  right  bank,  and  run  in  for  it. 
Tliougli  the  rain  had  ceased,  the  night  was  dark — one  which  gave  tlie  pilot 
but  little  chance  to  see  any  but  the  most  prominent  landmarks. 


16  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

"Whose  place  is  this?"  sung  out  tlie  captain,  wlien  he  had  approached  as 
near  the  light  as  lie  thought  safe — for  in  time  of  "a  fresh,"  the  master  of  a 
boat  always  approaches  shore  with  great  care. 

"  Why,  dis  is  my  massa's  place ;  what  boat  dat  ?  If  you  is  de  Heniy 
Clay,  den  dis  nigger  mighty  glad,  'cause,  gorra,  cap'en,  hab  been  watching 
all  dis  two  free  nights  for  de  old  Clay." 

"  Have  you  got  your  cattle  there  ?" 

"All  in  do  lot— gorra  brcss  you,  den  you  is  de  Henry  Clay,  sure — right 
here  by  do  light." 

"  Is  the  water  good  in  shore  ?" 

"  Why,  spec  him  is  good  for  the  steamboat,  but  not  very  good  to  drink." 

"  IIow  deep  is  it  near  the  bank  ?" 

"  Oil,  Lord,  massa,  dat  mor'n  dis  nigger  knows  for  sartin,  'cause  him 
mighty  deep." 

"That  will  do.  Forward  there.  Get  your  lines  ready.  Light  them 
torches — let's  see  where  we  are.  Call  all  hands ;  hero  is  a  hundred  head  of 
cattle  to  be  got  aboard." 

In  a  few  minutes  the  lights  flashed  a  bright  glare  over  the  boat  and 
shore,  bringing  to  view  a  scene  worth  a  long  journey  to  behold.  The 
torches  are  composed  of  "  light  wood,"  which  is  the  concentrated  pitch  of 
old  pine  trees,  of  the  long-leaf  variety — the  richest  of  all  the  family  in 
turpentine.  This  wood  is  split  in  small  pieces  and  put  in  an  iron  frame, 
with  a  staft"  not  unlike  the  common  hod  used  to  carry  mortar,  so  it  can  be 
carried  about  or  stuck  in  the  ground,  where  by  a  little  replenishing  it  will 
burn  for  hours,  giving  a  light  unequaled  by  any  other  portable  contiivance 
I  ever  saw.  In  the  present  case,  it  disclosed  more  mud  than  anything  else. 
The  whole  bank  was  alluvial  claj'  loam.  The  face  was  steep,  and  sixty  or 
eighty  feet  high.  The  boat,  made  fast  to  stakes  driven  into  the  soft  earth, 
lay  within  twenty  feet  of  the  shore,  between  which  and  the  guards  was  a 
gangway  made  of  long  planks  lashed  together,  about  six  or  eiglit  feet  wide, 
without  side-railing,  or  anything  to  prevent  springing  down  in  the  center. 
The  cattle  were  in  a  yard  on  the  top  of  the  bank,  where,  around  the  watch- 
lire,  huddled  about  a  dozen  sleeiiy  negroes,  amongst  which  the  anxious 
face  of  massa  soon  made  its  appeiirance,  having  been  awakened  at  his  house, 
two  miles  distant,  by  the  tremendous  noise  wliicli  is  made  by  one  of  these 
river  steamers,  by  the  pulls  of  her  high-pressure  engine. 

"  Ilalloo,  Captain  Smith,  is  that  you  ?  I  might  have  known  it,  though,  for 
no  other  fool  would  come  hero  in  the  night  for  such  a  job  as  this.  What 
are  you  going  to  do — hold  on  till  morning  T' 

"Hold  the !" 

"Well,  I  might  just  as  well  as  hold  you.  I  do  believe,  if  the  Clay's 
engine  should  break  going  up  stream,  the  boat  would  not  stop — there  is 
steam  enough  in  the  captain  to  keep  her  going." 

Evidently  pleased  with  this  compliment,  he  jumped  ashore,  with  that 
most  encouraging  of  all  words,  "  Come,  boys,"  and  floundered  up  the  muddy 


Sso.  1.]  HANDLING   A   AVILD   STEER.  17 

road,  to  greet  his  planter  friend  with  one  of  those  hearty  shakos  of  the  hand 
which  alone  is  equal  to  a  whole  volume  on  the  man's  character. 

"Well,  captain,  you  see  how  it  is.  I  am  all  ready  ;  the  cattle  are  here, 
wet,  wild,  and  muddy,  and  the  bank  awful.  I  couldn't  help  it.  It  would 
I'aiu,  and  the  river  is  on  the  fall.  I  doubt  whether  your  men  can  stand  on 
the  slippery  bank.  My  boys  will  take  down  some  of  the  gentle  ones,  but 
Lord  help  you  M'ith  two  or  three ;  we  had  to  bring  them  in  with  the  dogs." 

"  So  much  the  better,  then,  tliat  the  road  is  wet — they  will  slide  tlie  easier. 
Hopes  and  men  will  bring  them  down  ;  don't  you  fret,  colonel." 

"  Well,  well,  I'll  leave  it  to  you  ;  I'll  risk  the  cattle,  if  you  will  your  neeks. 
Better  wait  for  daylight,  thougii — what  say?" 

"  Never !  what  should  I  do  with  that  surplus  steam  you  say  I  carry  ?  Wait 
— no  ;  I  intend  to  have  them  all  aboard,  and  win  half  of  them  playing  poker 
with  you  before  morning;  and  at  daylight  1  am  going  to  take  in  Tom 
Kilgc'-e's,  at  Rocky  Landing.  So  bear  a  hand,  boys.  Stir  up  your  lights, 
and  rouse  'em  out,  one  at  a  time,  and  often." 

In  a  few  minutes  tliere  was  a  line  of  men  and  bullocks  from  the  top  of  the 
bank  to  the  boat.  The  first  dozen  or  two  came  down  very  orderly  to  the 
end  of  the  gangway,  where,  if  they  hesitated,  a  rope  was  tlirown  over  so  as 
to  encircle  them  behind,  and  two  or  three  stout  fellows  at  each  end  gave 
them  material  aid  about  coming  on  board.  Tiie  owner  said  Ave  should  see 
fun  directly,  but  not  caring  to  participate  in  it  personally,  he  took  care  to 
make  himself  one  of  the  spectators,  in  a  safe,  comlbrtable  position  on  board 
the  boat.  Upward  of  half  were  brought  down  without  giving  us  a  taste  of 
the  promised  amusement,  though  the  whole  scene  was  exceedingly  interesting. 

At  length  they  got  hold  of  one  of  the  animals,  which  the  colonel  said  was 
wilder  than  forty  deer,  and  vicious  as  an  old  buck  in  running  time  ;  and  then 
there  was  fun.  lie  was  a  great,  long-legged,  five-year-old  steer,  of  the  mouse 
color,  long  taper-horned  Spanisli  cattle,  who  had  never  before  felt  the  weiglit 
and  strength  of  a  man's  hand  upon  his  heretofore  unrestrained  wild-woods 
liberty.  Round  and  round  the  yard  he  went,  carrying  or  dragging  through 
the  mud  as  many  negroes,  sailors,  and  firemen  as  could  find  horn,  car,  nose, 
or  tail  to  hold  to.  Finally  they  got  a  rope  round  his  horns  and  drew  liini  up  to 
a  stake  at  the  edge  of  the  bank,  to  wait  till  others  were  caught  to  lead  down 
first,  thitdving  that  he  would  better  follow  than  take  the  front  rank.  He  did 
follow.  When  about  a  dozen  or  fifteen  head  were  on  the  way  down,  the 
wild  one  was  cast  off  from  his  moorings  and  led  np  to  the  edge  of  the  bauk„ 
wlien  just  at  that  moment  the  engineer  blowed  off  steam,  at  wliich  the 
frightened  animal  leaped  forward  on  to  the  slippery  path,  Inst  his  foothold, 
and  down  be  went  against  the  ne.xt,  and  the  next,  and  so  on  ;  like  a  row  of 
bricks,  one  tumbled  or  slid  against  another,  upsetting  men  and  beast,  till  the 
whole  came  down  like  an  avalanche  upon  the  end  of  the  platform  with  such 
force  that  the  strain  upon  the  mooring  line  of  the  bow  drew  out  the  stake, 
when  the  strong  current  almost  instantly  swung  her  off  shore  so  far,  before 
the  men  could  get  hold  of  the  line  and  make  fast  again,  that  the  platform 


18  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

dropped  off  into  the  water,  and  with  it  eight  or  ten  men  and  steei-s,  among 
which  was  the  one  that  caused  all  the  mischief.  I  must  say  the  fun  was  not 
80  great  as  the  fright,  for  a  minute,  as  it  did  not  take  much  longer  to  finish 
off  the  greatest  feat  of  "  slidhig  down  hill"  which  I  have  witnessed  since 
tlie  halcyon  days  of  hand-sleds  and  boyhood  upon  the  snow-clad,  wintry  hills 
of  my  native  land.  Tiiat  all  were  got  out  safe  was  owing  to  the  instant 
thought  and  action  of  the  mate,  who  sprang  ashore  with  a  polo  which  he 
placed  in  the  wheel,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  floating  down  past  the 
stern,  where  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  them  to  get  up  the  soft, 
tilijjliery  bank.  As  it  was,  some  of  them  were  in  the  water  over  an  hour; 
the  catamount,  as  the  colonel  called  him,  being  purposely  left  until  the  last, 
and  severely  threatened  with  being  towed  to  New  Orleans.  But  when  he 
was  at  length  taken  out,  tliere  was  not  a  more  docile  animal  in  the  herd ;  he 
had  been  completely  subdued.  The  whole  affair,  though  fraught  with  danger 
at  first,  afforded  all  hands  a  scene  of  most  uproarious  mirth.  Even  at  the 
time  when  it  looked  as  though  half  a  score  of  men  might  be  killed  in  the 
grand  tumble,  it  was  almost  impossible  to  avoid  laughing,  the  whole  thing 
was  so  extremely  ludicrous. 

One  big  negro  fellow,  finding  himself  hard  pressed  b}'  tlie  bullock  he  was 
leading  and  half  a  dozen  more  behind  him,  either  for  sport  or  to  save  his 
shins,  jumped  upon  the  animal's  back  and  came  down  witli  a  surge  into  the 
water ;  but  he  never  let  go  till  he  had  him  safe  ashore  again,  where  he  met 
some  of  the  most  hearty,  though  rude  congratulations  of  his  companions,  for 
his  skillful  feat  of  horsenuinship  on  an  ox. 

Finally,  in  spite  of  mud  and  peril,  the  grand  entertainment  of  shipping 
cattle  on  the  Mississippi  was  concluded,  and  the  boat  was  ofl'  before  daylight 
for  the  next  landing,  where  the  operation  was  to  be  repeated.  Owing  to 
better  ground  and  a  difterent  plan  adopted,  this  was  not  quite  so  entertaining. 
The  cattle  were  yarded  in  a  lo:ig,  narrow  pen,  M'hich  came  near  the  shore. 
A  rope  being  passed  over  the  horns  of  the  forwartl  steer,  with  the  other  end 
through  a  snatch-block  on  the  boat,  a  dozen  or  fifteen  men  would  lay  hold 
of  it,  while  two  men  by  the  tail  to  steer,  and  one  on  each  side  to  keep  him 
on  the  gangway,  would  have  the  fellow  out  of  the  pen  and  eliding  up  the 
planks  before  he  knew  what  he  was  bellowing  for. 

As  in  all  cases  where  science  and  skill  direct  human  efforts,  the  labor 
was  lessened  and  business  expedited. 

And  so  in  all  cases  where  science  and  skill  are  exercised  in  regard  to  all 
kinds  of  domestic  animals,  success  may  be  looked  for. 

And  now,  after  this  little  incidental  digression  from  the  main  intent  of 
this  chapter,  in  the  exhibition  of  a  life-like  scene  on  the  Mississippi,  we  will 
begin  to  arrange  our  facts  in  order  and  shape  for  useful  reference,  always 
aiming  more  at  the  practical  than  ornamental. 

As  we  shall  arrange  each  subject  under  its  separate  and  proper  head,  we 
will  begin  the  chapter  upon  domestic  animals  with  that  kind  in  most  universal 
use. 


Sec.  2.] 


SWINE. 


19 


SECTION  IL-SWINE. 

eeding  Pigs  and  Faiting  Pork. — Next  to  procuring 
a  good  breed  of  swine — that  is,  a  breed  suitable 
to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  required — the 
best  way  to  feed  the  stock  liogs,  and  the  cheapest  and 
best  way  to  fatten  them,  is  the  most  important  master 
for  a  farmer  to  consider.  No  man  can  say,  "  My  breed 
is  the  best  of  all,"  unless  he  specifies  for  wliat  purpose  it 
is  best  for.  A  good  grazing  breed  would  be  best  for 
some  situations ;  quite  the  contrary  for  some  others.  Tiie 
Berkshire,  Essex,  and  Suffolk  have  each  been  denomi- 
nated "  the  gentleman's  jjig,"  because  well  fitted  for 
keeping  up  in  close  pens,  one  or  two  to  a  family  ;  while  a 
much  larger  breed  is  required  bj''  the  great  corn-growere 
of  the  "West.  And  this  brings  us  to  the  next  most 
important  question. 
3.  Corn  and  Pork— Uow  much  Pork  will  a  Bnsliel  of  torn  make?— This 
is  one  of  the  most  important  questions  that  can  be  asked  by  every  man 
who  raises  a  bushel  of  corn  or  feeds  one  to  a  liog.  Yet  it  is  a  question  that 
not  one  in  ten  can  answer.  To  see  the  ignorance  of  mankind  upon  subjects 
of  most  importance  to  them,  makes  us  ready  to  exclaim,  Does  anybody  know 
anything  about  anything?  In  conversation  with  many  farmers,  we  have 
not  yet  found  a  man  who  could  say  how  much  corn  it  i-equired  to  make  a 
hundred  pounds  of  pork,  and  consequently  could  not  fix  upon  any  relative 
price  of  one  or  the  other,  at  which  it  would  be  profitable  to  feed  corn  to 
hogs.  In  some  experiments  made  by  Henry  L.  Ellsworth,  at  Lafayette,  Ind., 
in  warm  weather,  with  thrifty  young  porkers  in  a  pen,  fed  with  corn  in  the 
ear,  if  we  remember  aright,  he  gained  12  lbs.  of  pork  per  bushel  of  corn. 
Samuel  II.  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  gained  17^  lbs.  per  bushel,  feeding  the  corn 
in  the  form  of  cooked  meal.  As  a  general  thing,  we  should  like  to  know 
if  corn,  fed  as  it  usually  is  in  the  "West,  averages  six  pounds  of  pork  to  the 
bushel  of  shelled  corn. 

We  have  received  several  answers  to  this  question,  but  they  only  proxi- 
mately settle  the  point.  Leroy  Buckingham,  of  Cadiz,  Cattaraugus  Co., 
N.  Y.,  says,  a  pig  that  weighed  52  lbs.  when  commenced  with,  fed  on  the 
spare  milk  from  one  cow  and  800 lbs.  of  raw  coin-meal, weighed  364  lbs.  (live 
or  dead  not  stated)  when  killed  at  seven  and  a  half  months  old.  He  thinks 
each  bushel  of  corn  made  about  20  lbs.  of  pork. 

The  two  following  letters  we  print  entire,  and  commend  them  to  the  careful 
attention  of  all  farmers,  although  they  do  not  contain  all  that  is  necessary  to 
be  known  upon  the  subject : 


20  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  [Chap.  1. 


"Glenn's  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  23,  1858. 

"Sir:  You  think  it  important  that  farmers  should  know  how  much  pork  a 
harrol  of  corn  will  make.  It  is  an  important  question,  and  I  am  sorry  to  say 
I  think  there  are  ten  lawyei's  and  mechanics  to  one  farmer  that  can  answer 
the  (question  correctly.  I  once  made  a  very  accurate  exj^eriment  in  Kew 
York;  the  first  day  of  September  I  weighed  into  the  pen  two  hogs,  a  year 
and  a  lialf  old,  and  three  pigs,  six  months  old.  I  measured  old  corn 
accurately,  and  had  it  ground.  At  night  I  wet  with  boiling  water  (to  a 
consistency  that  would  run  freely)  meal  sufficient  for  the  next  day's  feed. 
The  hogs  had  no  slo])s  from  the  house — nothing  but  the  meal  and  water.  I 
killed  them  the  first  of  December,  deducted  five  cents  per  pound  for  what 
they  weighed  the  fii-st  of  September,  and  found,  at  six  cents  per  pound  for 
the  pork,  they  had  paid  ninety-eight  cents  per  bushel  for  the  eoni,  which 
would  give  about  sixteen  and  one  third  pounds  of  j)()rk  to  the  bushel.  One 
year  gincc  I  fatted  fifteen  old  liogs  and  tliirty  five  pigs  on  India  wheat  ai;d 
potatoes.  I  measured  the  feed  accurately,  steamed  the  potatoes,  and  mixed 
the  meal  in  while  hot,  twelve  hours  before  feeding.  At  five  cents  per  ]>oi:i,d 
for  the  ]>ork,  they  paid  firty-two  cents  per  bushel  for  the  India  wheal,  and 
fifteen  cents  for  the  potatoes.  Of  course  the  relative  value  of  the  wheat  and 
potatoes  is  guessed  at  in  that  experiment.  I  "worked"  tlie  hogs  in  ihe 
manure  business,  carting  in  muck,  weeds,  etc.  I  got  15  cords  of  manure 
although  less  pork' — I  suppose  for  the  working  the  hogs.  I  would  like  much 
to  know  if  any  one  (especially  in  the  Western  States)  has  made  tlic  exj>eri- 
ment  of  turning  hogs  into  the  corn-field,  with  free  access  to  watei',  and  let 
them  help  themselves. 

"If  any  otiier  class  of  business  7ncn  knew  as  few  facts  in  rcgai'd  to  their 
business  as  farmers  do,  they  would  all  fail  every  year.  New  Mausu." 

A.  G.  Perry,  of  Newark  (State  not  named),  weighed  a  thrifty  pig,  five 
nionlhs  old,  15011)s.,  and  then  fed  it  50  lbs.  corn  meal,  mixed  with  hot  water, 
thin  enough  to  answer  ibr  victuals  and  driidv.  This  was  eaten  in  six  and 
a  half  days,  and  the  gain  was  18  lbs. 

A  correspoiulent  writes  from  Norlh  Cliatham,  Columbia  Co.,  N.  Y. : 
"Tlie  2-ith  of  August  I  put  up  a  sow  to  fatten — a  large  proportion  Suffolk 
— lier  weight,  235  lbs.  Price  on  foot,  4  cents  per  pound.  For  food  from 
August  24th  to  October  4th,  gave  her  309  lbs.  rye  bran.  Rye  bran  is  Avorlh 
here  $1  12|  per  100  lbs.  October  4th  her  weight  was  295  lbs.,  making  CO 
lbs.  increase  from  the  bran.  From  October  4th  until  November  17th  I  fed 
her  10  bushels,  by  weight  560  lbs.,  of  marketable  corn.  Killed  her  Nov. 
17tli.  Her  live  weight,  just  before  killing,  was  413  His.  Increase  from  the 
10  bushels  corn  (or  5(50  lbs.),  being  118  lbs.  pork — it  taking  a  fraction  more 
than  A\  lbs.  corn  for  1 11).  pork — and  is  a  fraction  less  than  12  lbs.  ]>ork  fi-om 
1  bushel  of  corn,  making  the  increase  per  day  a  little  less  than  23  lbs.  The 
present  ])rice  of  corn  here  is  70  cents  jier  busliel,  and  the  pork  7  cents 
per  pound,  being  barely  a  paying  business." 


Ssa  2.] 


SWINE— PROFIT  OF  FEEDING. 


21 


J.  J.  Carter,  of  Ilornville,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  says  that  B.  P.  Kirk  kept  a 
debt  and  credit  account  with  his  pig.  He  fed  49^'j  bushels  of  corn,  at  GO 
cents  a  bushel,  and  added  the  tirst  cost  of  the  pig,  at  two  months  old,  $5, 
making  a  total  of  $31  46.  At  17  months  old  the  animal  weighed  649  lbs., 
and  sold  for  71  cents  a  pound,  making  §18  67,  giving  a  profit  of  $11  21.  A 
little  bran  was  fed,  but  that  was  reduced  to  the  equivalent  of  corn,  and 
coimted  as  above.  The  breed  of  hogs  common  in  Chester  County  is  one  of 
the  best  in  the  world.  The  hogs  arc  of  a  white  color,  medium-sized,  easily 
tatted  to  weigh  300  to  100  lbs.  at  10  to  15  months  old,  and  have  small 
bones,  fine-grained  flesh,  large  hams,  well  marbled,  and  large  leaves  of 
kidney  fat.  It  is  a  distinct  American  breed,  and  one  of  the  best  for  farmers 
who  desire  to  graze  their  hogs  in  part,  and  then  fatten  them  easil}^  upon 
honsa-slops,  apples,  potatoes,  and  coarse  grain.  Even  for  large  fnrmers,  and 
for  making  pork  upon  a  large  scale,  there  are  not  many,  if  any,  breeds  of 
swine  iu  this  country  superior  to  that  known  as  "Westchester,  or  Chester  County 
(Pa.)  hogs.  And  as  I  consider  it  an  important  fact  that  farmers  should 
know  where  to  get  a  real  good  breed  without  paying  fancy  i^rices,  I  am  glad 
of  the  ojiportunity  to  make  this  breed  better  known. 

D.  C.  Nye,  of  Lexington,  Mass.,  iu  reply  to  an  inquirer  in  the  Genesee 
Farmer^  writes  that — 

"The  Chester  County  hogs  are  distinguished  for  their  early  maturity, 
great  facility  for  fattening,  and  are  very  quiet  and  docile.  They  are  well 
covered  with  bristles,  and,  unlike  the  Suft'olks,  can  endure  the  heat  and  cold. 
The  Chesters  will  jirobably  make  as  much  pork  (and  of  a  sujierior  quality) 
on  a  given  amount  of  food  as  any  other  breed — some  of  them,  when  well 
fed,  having  attained  the  weight  of  six  or  seven  hundred  pounds." 

Another  correspondent  of  the  same  pajier  says,  in  addition,  that  the 
thorough-bred  Chester  hogs  are  always  white,  and  that  "they  are  peculiar  in 
being  fit  for  slaughtering  at  any  time." 

But  to  proceed  with  the  subject  of  feeding  hogs.  The  second  letter  is 
very  much  to  the  point.     It  says : 


*'  In  answer  to  your  question,  '  How  much  pork  will  a  bushel  of  corn 
make?'  I  send  you  the  result  of  two  experiments,  made  some  years  ago, 
while  occupying  a  farm  in  the  northern  part  of  Chester  County,  Pa. 

"  My  first  experiment  was  with  five  very  ordinary  pigs  that  I  bought  of  a 
neighbor;  weighed,  October,  1851,  219 lbs  ;  fed  on  corn  and  cob  meal,  boiled 
into  mush,  of  which  they  consumed  in  30  days  279  lbs.,  and  gained  87  lbs. 
live  weight 

"In  the  next  32  days  tliey  consumed  375|lbs.,  and  gained  75 lbs.  live 
weight,  making  a  gain  of  157  lbs.  in  62  days,  having  consumed  651|  lbs.  of 
corn  and  cob  meal,  which  is  equal  to  about  9i  bushels  pure  meal;  or  one 
bushel  pure  meal  cooked  made  16.8  lbs.  live  weight. 

"My  second  experiment  was  with  a  lot  of  five  very  superior  pigs,  of  the 
Chester  breed;  they  weighed,  Feb.  7,  1S53,  COoIbs;  consumed  in  9  days 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

252  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal,  scalded,  and  gained  78  lbs.  In  the  next  £ 
days  they  consumed  1:^5  lbs.  whole  corn,  boiled,  and  128  lbs.  of  corn-cob 
meal,  scalded,  and  gained  57  lbs. 

"In  the  next  t)  days  they  consnmed  278 lbs.  corn-cob  meal,  scalded,  and 
gaisied  70  lbs.,  making  a  gain  in  27  days  of  205  lbs.  on  a  consumption 
of  C5Slbs.  corn-cob  meal,  and  125  lbs.  wliole  corn.  Assuming  that  70  lbs. 
of  the  cob-mcal  contains  5G  lbs.,  or  one  bushel  jinre  meal,  ■we  have  9| 
busliels  of  pure  meal  and  2}  bushels  whole  corn,  making  a  consumption  of 
11 J  bushels  nearly,  and  a  gain  of  205 lbs.  flesh;  or  5Glbs.  of  pure  meal, 
scalded,  made  17.41  lbs.  of  live  weight. 

"The  above  surprising  gain  for  food  consumed  was  the  result  of  very 
careful  feeding,  clean  and  warm  bedding,  and  a  tight  house. 

"  RicHAKD  TuATCHEE,  Darby,  Pa." 

Thomas  Iloag,  of  Somhanock,  N.  Y.,  lias  sent  us  a  detailed  statement  of 
the  feeding  of  ten  pigs,  out  of  a  litter  of  twelve  from  a  native-breed  yearling 
sow,  taken  from  her  at  seven  weeks  old,  and  fed  till  slaughtered,  at  forty 
weeks  old,  with  the  following  substances,  with  estimates  of  expense  added : 


Pasture $3  00 

Wood  used  in  boiling  food 2  00 

Extras 2  CO 

Value  of  pigs  at  seven  weeks  old 80  00 


2121  bushels  of  com,  at  75  cents $1.59  38 

G;!  bushels  of  oats,  at  45  cents 28  35 

r^iiil  for  crrinding 14  79 

1:!  busliels  of  small  potatoes,  12i  cents.       1  63 

(i  loads  of  pumpkins,  at  $1 6  00 

20a  lbs.  of  carrots 1  00        Total $2-18  15 

These  hogs  weighed,  dressed,  4,066  pounds,  and  sold, 

(in  1853),  at  Lansingburg,  N.  Y.,  at  $7  50  per  cwt $304  95 

Kough  fat,  175  lbs •. 17  50 


Total $322  45 

Total  cost 248  15 


Balance S74  30 

This  is  the  amount  of  profit,  or,  rather,  pay  for  labor,  and  tli,e  spare  milk 
of  four  ordinary  cows  fed  to  tlieni,  and  not  estimated  as  above. 
At  six  cents  a  pound  the  result  would  have  been 

4,000  llw.,  at  G  cents $243  90 

Eough  fat 17  60 


Total $261  46 

Cost 248  15 

Profit $13  31 

This  certainly  docs  not  give  a  very  flattering  picture  of  the  probable  profits 

of  pork-making  in  this  section  of  the  country,  where  every  kind  of  feed  is 

salable  at  high  prices. 

Other  letters  were  subsequently  received,  from  one  of  which  we  gather 

the  following  information :  Wm.  Renick,  of  Circleville,  Ohio,  a  large  farmer, 

and  long  engaged  in  the  raising  of  cattle  and  hogs,  writes  more  extensively 

than  we  can  tiiul  I'oom  tor.     Mr.  Renick  thinks  that  farmers  are  not  ignorant 

of  the  fact  "  Imw  luiu-h  ])ork  v»-ill  a  bushel  of  corn  make,"  and  says: 


Seo.  2.]  SWINE— GAIN  IN  FEEDING.  23 

"  Probably  nine  tenths  of  our  best  practical  farmers  could,  without  lie?ita 
tiou,  give  you  an  approximate  answer  in  general  terms." 

This  is  exactly  what  we  supposed,  and  that  they  would  give  nothing  but 
an  approximate  answer  in  general  terms,  because  there  is  a  general  lack  of 
positive  information  upon  this  and  many  otlier  important  matters  connected 
with  the  farming  interest.  Mr.  Renick  gives  the  gain  upon  five  liogs  fed  by 
himself  in  the  common  rough  method  of  the  West — tliat  is,  turned  into  the 
corn-field,  200  head  together.  Three  of  these  hogs  weighed,  at  seven  months 
old,  liOlbs.  each,  and  two  older  ones  weighed  125  lbs.  each.  After  feeding 
120  days,  the  three  weighed  280  lbs.  net  average,  and  the  two  185  lbs. 

"  Now,  say  that  hogs  on  an  average  will  eat  20  bushels  of  corn  per  hundred 
head  per  day  for  the  first  60  days,  16  bushels  for  the  next  30  days,  and  12 
bushels  per  hundred  head  per  day  for  the  last  30  days,  and  we  have  21 
bushels  per  head  for  the  whole  time  of  120  days  (though  this  is  under  rather 
than  over  the  mark),  and  we  have  a  production  in  the  case  of  the  three  hogs 
of  101  lbs.  of  gross  pork  for  a  bushel  of  corn,  and  but  a  small  fraction  over 
5  lbs.  per  bushel  for  the  two  hogs." 

Now,  this  is  exactly  in  jiroof  of  what  we  originally  stated.  It  is  all  guess- 
work.    Mr.  Renick  further  says : 

"The  large  feeders  of  hogs  and  cattle  are  oftentimes  greatly  mistaken  in 
their  calculations  in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  stock  their  corn  will  feed, 
sometimes  largely  overrunning,  and  again  falling  largely  short  of  their 
calculations." 

Tills  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  it  is  considered  that  no  one  pretends 
to  have  any  settled  rule  of  action,  but  buys  as  many  leau  cattle  or  hogs  as 
he  guesses  he  can  fatten.  Mr.  Renick  thinks  the  most  common  answer  to 
the  question  M"ould  be  something  like  this : 

"That  hogs  fed  in  the  ordinary  way  will  gain  from  one  pound  to  one  and 
a  half  pounds  per  day,  and  tliey  will  consume  some  twenty  bushels  or  more  of 
corn  in  three  and  a  half  or  four  months ;  that  it  all  depends  upon  the  quality 
of  the  hogs,  quality  of  the  corn,  weather,  and  other  contingencies." 

The  gain  varies  from  five  to  twelve  pounds  gross  per  bushel.  So  he  says: 
"  AVe  will  compromise  the  matter  by  guessing  that,  all  things  favorable,  one 
bushel  of  corn,  fed  in  the  ordinary  way,  will  make  seven  pounds  gross  weight." 
It  is,  after  all,  then,  nothing  but  guessing.  And  we  guess  that  feeding  corn, 
where  it  is  worth  a  dollar  a  bushel,  as  it  frequently  is  in  and  about  New 
York,  won't  pay  while  dressed  hogs  are  sold  from  the  hooks,  as  they  gener- 
ally are,  at  seven  or. eight  cents  a  pound,  and  the  average  price  of  live  hogs 
is  less  than  six  cents  a  pound.  With  our  arithmetic  we  can  not  figure  up  any 
profit  for  a  farmer  hereabouts  to  keep  a  single  hog  more  than  he  wants  to 
eat  up  the  milk  and  house-slops,  and  a  little  waste  grain  ;  and  probably  that 
could  be  more  profitably  fed  to  poultry. 

The  greatest  advantage  from  feeding  grain  to  make  pork  in  all  the  New 
England  States  must  be  looked  for  more  in  the  manure  than  in  the  meat. 
Where  manure  must  be  purchased,  it  may  be  profitable  to  purchase  corn- 


24  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Ciiap.  I. 


meal  to  convert  into  manure  through  the  pig-pen  manufactory.  The  next 
jiaragrapli  is  to  the  point  in  this  connection,  of  feeding  pigs  to  make  manure. 
4.  Working  Pigs. — "We  once  recommended  farmers  to  make  their  pigs 
working  animals.  To  this  a  writer  in  an  agricultural  paper  objected ;  l)c- 
cause,  as  he  alleges,  the  same  amount  of  food  consumed  by  an  idle  Img  will- 
nuike  12  pounds  of  jiork  as  easily  as  it  will  make  S  pounds  if  the  animal  is 
allowed  to  exercise  his  natural  propensity  to  root.  In  this  we  entirely  agree, 
and  iiavc  often  contended  that  when  a  Iiog  is  shut  up  to  fatten,  if  lie  was 
coiiiined  in  a  slip  so  narrow  that  he  could  not  turn  round,  having  one  side 
of  his  narrow  prison  nuide  so  as  to  be  moved  out  as  he  increased  in  bulk,  lie 
v.otild  fatten  faster  than  in  any  other  position.  Kow,  will  the  writer,  who 
thinks  that  we  differ  from  him  in  opinion,  read  over  again  the  article  that  ho 
criticises,  and  see  that  it  is  the  pig-pen,  and  not  the  fatting-hog  pen,  that 
we  were  talking  about.  Our  facts  are  not  intended  to  be  elaborated  into 
proofs  and  arguments  for  farmers,  but  rather  as  texts  for  thinking  men  to 
think  over  and  reason  upon  with  themselves  and  neighbors.  Our  opinion  is, 
tiiat  all  the  swine  family  should  be  kept  imprisoned,  if  not  in  close  pens, 
certainly  in  strongly  fenced  lots ;  and  in  all  the  Eastern  States,  where  manure 
is  so  valuable,  it  is  very  doubtful  wliether  a  farmer  can  ali'ord  to  let  any  of 
the  family  out  of  the  pen — which,  as  we  before  hinted,  should  be  a  great 
manure  manufactory — except,  perhaps,  for  a  sliort  season  to  eat  clover,  peas, 
or  glean  a  stnbble-lield.  If  there  is  a  greater  neighborhood  nuisance  tlian 
hogs  in  the  highway,  we  have  j'ct  to  liud  it  out;  and  as  we  would  always 
keep  "Mr.  Pig"  in  tlie  pen,  we  recommended  to  make  him  woi-k  in  the 
manuiactory,  furnishing  a  part  of  the  mateiials  to  be  worked,  and  tlie  farmer 
the  remainder.  In  his  immediate  preparation  for  death  we  don't  care  how 
idly  he  spends  the  last  of  his  days.  As  long  as  farmere  will  pei-sist  in 
making  tlie  flesh  of  swine  their  leading  article  of  food,  we  shall  contend 
that  the  flesh  of  an  animal  that  has  worked  liis  way  up  to  a  mature  age,  and 
is  then  fattened  ready  for  slaughter,  Avill  make  more  healthy  food  than  tlie 
oily  fatness  of  one  always  kept  in  a  state  of  obcsitj-  and  idleness  from  his 
birth  to  death.  It  is  this  great  physiological  fact  that  causes  the  flesh  of  the 
wild  hog  to  be  sought  after  and  eaten  with  gusto.  "We  fully  agree  with  the 
orthodoxy  of  E.  M.  Brewster,  a  model  farmer  of  Griswold,  Conn.,  who  says 
if  he  was  to  fatten  a  half-dozen  liogs  upon  a  flat  rock,  he  would  be  sure  to 
have  two  rings  in  each  nose.  The  latitude  that  we  desire  our  readei-s  to 
give  to  our  suggestions  is  just  this  :  to  make  a  distinction  between  working 
and  fattening  animals,  and  make  tlie  pig  a  useful  one. 

"  Keeping  pigs  eighteen  months  to  fatten  tlieni  the  last  tliroc  is  not  a 
paying  business.  Feed  a  decent  pig  loell  from  weaning  until  eight  months 
old,  and  you  M'ill  get  250  lbs.  to  300  lbs.  of  pork,  and  you  do  not  usually  get 
50  lbs.  more  for  those  ten  months  older.  There  can  be  no  question  but  an 
animal  can  consume  much  more  to  produce  in  eighteen  months  about  the 
same  quantity  of  meat  which  is  made  by  another  in  half  that  length  of 
feeding.     If  the  object  of  raising  a  hog  is  to  malce  pork,  that  end  should  be 


N.  C.  State  College 


Seo.  2.]  COOKING  FOOD  FOR  SWINE.  25 

kept  steadily  in  view — his  swiueship  should  see  it,  and  cat  for  it."  This  is 
our  view  exactly.  Winter  none  but  autumn  pigs,  keep  tliein  in  pens,  and 
always  growing.  "To  kesp  a  pig  growing,  one  must  keep  liiin  ealing,  and 
eating  about  all  the  lime.  To  do  this,  there  is  nothing,  like  '  change  and 
variety' —  now  a  little  corn,  then  a  little  milk,  a  few  boiled  potatoes,  a  few 
raw  a'pples — now  a  pudding,  then  a  dish  of  greens — anything  to  keep  them 
eating  and  stuffing  when  awake,  even  if  it  does  rer^uire  a  little  extra  atteu- 
tion." 

5.  Cooking  Food  for  Swinei — Circumstances  must  govern  the  feeder.  If 
corn  is  worth  but  twenty-live  cents  per  bushel,  it  is  plain  that  it  will  not  pay 
to  expend  much  money  either  for  cooking  or  crushing  it ;  bnt  where  food  is 
iiigh,  a  small  c[uantity  saved  pays  for  considerable  labor,  etc.  It  will  hardly 
pay  to  expend  dear  labor  upon  cooking  cheap  roots  to  make  low-priced  poik. 
It  has  been  proved  that  crushed  barley,  soaked  in  cold  water  4G  hours,  gave 
more  increase  of  weight  to  sheep  than  when  not  soaked  ;  but  crushed  malt 
did  not.  The  figures  are:  Four  sheep  in  10  weeks  ate  2S01bs.  of  crushed 
barley  not  steeped^  and  3,867  lbs.  of  mangel-wurzel,  and  increased  in  live 
weight  SI  lbs.;  while  four  sheep,  with  barley  crushed  and  steeped,  ate  280 
lbs.  and  5,321  lbs.  mangel-wurzel,  increasing  lOlJ-  lbs.  Four  sheep,  with 
crushed  malt,  not  steeped,  ate  in  10  M-eeks  22X5  lbs.,  ^"^  3,755  lbs.  mangel- 
wurzel,  and  increased  8i  lbs.  ;  wdiile  lour  sheep,  with  malt  crushed  and 
steeped,  ate  226ilbs.  malt  and  4,458  lbs.  mangel-wurzel,  and  gained  only 
78  lbs.  In  the  above  experiment,  the  question  is,  Did  the  additional  20ilbs. 
pay  the  extra  trouble  and  extra  feed  of  roots? 

An  experiment  in  Ii-eland,  lately  made,  proves  that  hogs  gained  more 
upon  raw  than  cooked  vegetables.  Eight  hogs  were  selected  and  divided 
into  two  lots,  as  evenly  as  could  be,  and  put  in  to  fatten,  on  the  27t!i  of 
November.  Each  lot  was  fed  regularly  three  times  a  day,  having  each  12 
lbs.  of  bran  and  barley  meal,  the  only  diiference  being  that  one  lot  had 
steamed  )-utabagas,  and  ihe  other  pulped  or  rasped  ruta  bagas.  The  experi- 
ment was  continued  39  days ;  the  lot  having  cooked  food  ate  408  lbs.  bran, 
etc.,  and  10,920  lbs.  ruta  bagas,  and  increased  103  lbs.  ;  while  the  lot  having 
u7icooJced  food  ate  468  lbs.  bran,  etc.,  and  only  5,460  lbs.  ruta  bagas,  and 
gained  110  lbs. 

Sanniel  II  Clay,  of  Bourbon,  Ky.,  has  been  experimenting  in  feeding  several 
lots  of  hogs,  changing  them  from  raw  to  cooked,  and  from  ground  to 
unground  foo  J,  with  the  following  results :  One  bushel  of  dry  corn  made 
5  lbs.  10  oz.  of  live  pork  ;  one  bushel  of  boiled  corn  made  14  lbs.  7oz.  of 
pork;  one  bushel  of  ground  corn,  boiled,  made  in  one  instance  16  lbs.  7oz., 
in  another  nearly  18  lbs.  of  pork.  To  get  the  value  of  corn,  estimate  the 
])ork  at  8  cents  a  pound  ;  we  have  as  the  result  of  one  bushel  of  dry  corn, 
45  cents'  worth  of  pork  ;  of  one  bushel  of  boiled  corn,  115  cents'  worth  of 
pork ;  and  of  one  bushel  of  ground  corn,  136  cents'  worth  of  pork. 

6.  Pig  Feed— Roiled  Weeds. — A  widow,  who  was  short  of  feed  for  her  pig, 
said,  in  presence  of  her  little  boys,  that  she  thought  she  would  have  to  sell 


2G  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

it,  for  she  had  so  little  to  feed  it  with,  and  could  not  afford  to  buy  feed 
One  of  tlie  little  fellows  promptly  answered  tliat  he  knew  what  would  be 
good  to  feed  piggy  with,  and  of  which  they  had  plenty. 

"  What  is  it,  my  son  ?" 

"  Greens,  mother — boiled  greens.  Tiiey  are  good  for  us,  why  not  for 
pigs?  And  we  can  gather  tlieui,  and  pick  up  wood  and  boil  them  in  llie 
big  kettle  out  doors,  and  it  will  be  real  fun." 

So  it  was  settled  that  pig  should  cat  greens — all  sorts  of  weeds  boiled  ; 
and  cat  them  he  did,  and  liked  them,  and  fatted  on  them,  with  the  small 
addition  that  could  be  made  of  bran  and  house-slops,  mixing  the  slops  and 
greens  together. 

This  is  a  hint  worth  remembering  and  acting  upon.  Tlie  weeds  were 
destroyed,  the  boys  employed,  the  pig  kept  growing,  and  the  boys  had  the 
satisfaction  of  feeling  tliat  they  had  been  usefully  employed. 

7.  Hog  PastMffSi — It  being  generally  understood  that  hogs  live  by  "  special 
providences"  until  it  is  time  to  fat  them,  there  is  little  attention  }Kiid  to 
tl'.e  most  economical  way  of  growing  them  up.  Certain  it  is  that  a  good, 
casv-keeping  variety  will  make  commendable  ]irogro3S  on  grasx. 

It  may  be  safe  to  calculate  that  a  good-sized,  thrifty  pig  will  gain  in  six 
months,  on  grass,  100  lbs.  or  more.  If  an  acre  of  grass  would  keep  three 
hogs  and  add  100  lbs.  to  the  weight  of  each,  that  would  be  $12  for  the  acre 
of  pasture,  reckoning  the  300  lbs.  gain  at  four  cents  a  pound,  live  weight. 
Instead  of  being  forced  to  bite  twice  at  a  short,  dirty,  dried,  and  battered 
spear  of  June  grass  by  the  roadside  before  getiing  any  off,  imagine  a  clean 
and  comely  Suffolk  in  a  fresh,  green  pasture  of  clover,  four  inches  high,  filling 
himself  with  evident  relish. 

8.  The  Pig-Pen  aud  its  VaiUf< — As  a  manure-maker,  there  is  no  animal 
ecpial  to  the  hog,  provided  he  is  furnished  with  sui  able  facilities.  The 
caiing  and  sleeping  apartments  of  Mr.  Pig  shoulil  always  be  a  good  frame 
building,  with  a  ])lank  floor  and  shingle  roof,  and  it  will  in  many  places  be 
found  economical  to  give  him  an  iron  eating  trough.  His  house  should 
be  cleaned  out  every  day,  and  washed  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  it  clean. 
All  the  washings  and  cleanings  should  go  into  an  adjoining  ])en,  which  may 
as  well  be  made  of  fence  rails,  on  account  of  cheapness  and  convenience  of 
removal,  into  which  the  tenants  of  the  hog-house  nnist  be  invited  by  a  little 
corn,  scattered  in  every  da}',  to  induce  them  to  mix  up  a  compost  of  tlieir 
own  oil'al  with  sods,  mold,  leaves,  weeds,  and  all  sorts  of  trasli.  This  pen 
should  be  equal  to  ten  feet  square  for  every  two  hogs,  and  so  long  as  it  is 
worked  every  daj^  it  will  not  much  injure  by  exposure  to  the  weather;  but 
it  should  afterward  be  covered,  and  it  should  always  have  stuff  enough  i)ut 
in  it  to  keep  the  hogs  from  getting  into  a  very  muddy  condition.  If  you 
have  not  mold  enough  to  entirely  absorb  the  ammonia,  you  must  use  plaster 
or  charcoal  dust.  It  must  be  kept  sweet,  or  you  will  lose  much  of  its  value ; 
and  whore  manure  is  valnalile.  if  yon  neglect  to  use  your  swine  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  it,  you  will  lose  about  all  the  profit  of  making  your 


Sko.  2.]  SWIKE— FEEDING   TIIE^   UONEY.  27 

own  pork.  There  is  another  Avay  in  which  you  can  make  the  pig-pen 
valuable.  If  you  have  a  spot  of  ground  that  you  want  to  euricli  and  work 
deeply  and  thoroughly  for  fruit-trees  or  for  garden  vegetables,  plant  it  with 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  and  tlieu  ya:-d  your  hogs  upon  ir,  taking  care  to  give 
them  room  enougli,  so  as  not  to  necessitate  tliem  to  make  a  quagmire. 
Ao-ain,  you  may  use  these  animals  to  advantage  if  you  have  a  piece  of  grass 
laud  infested  with  grubs.  Fence  off  a  piece,  and  shut  your  swine  in  upon 
it  for  a  few  days  without  feed,  and  if  they  leave  a  sod  unturned  or  grub 
uneaten  it  will  be  a  wonder.  It  is  the  best  preparation  of  such  a  spot  for  a 
hoed  crop,  or  for  sowing  again  in  grass,  that  can  be  given.  There  is  no  good 
reason  why  the  pig  should  be  always  kept  in  idleness  or  miscliief.  Let  him 
be  trained  to  be  useful  in  his  life  as  well  as  at  his  death. 

9.  Ilay  Seed  for  HogSi — \con-esY>ondijntoi  the  Coimf/'t/  Genile?nan  vfvltas: 
In  addition  to  the  grain  and  meal  given  to  growing  hogs  in  the  sty,  they 
should  have  a  daily  allowance  of  green  clover,  or  in  winter,  when  this  is  not 
available,  a  liberal  allowance  of  hay-seed  from  the  barn,  mixed  with  their 
slop,  which  they  will  eat  with  avidity.  He  knows  of  no  mode  by  which  so 
great  an  amount  of  growth  and  weight  can  be  induced,  with  equal  cost  of 
food,  in  the  winter  season,  as  by  this  liaying  system. 

10.  Cinders  for  Pigs.— J.  J.  Meelii,  of  Tiptreo  Hall,  England,  says,  in 
publishing  his  experience  in  fattening  swine,  that  among  other  things,  he 
has  learned  the  fact  "  that  pigs  are  very  fond  of  coal-aslies  or  cinders,  and 
that  you  can  hardly  fat  pigs  properly  on  boarded  floors  witliout  giving  tliem 
a  moderate  supply  daily,  or  occasionally."  lie  says  :  "  In  the  absence  of 
coal-ashes,  burned  clay  or  brick-dust  is  a  good  substitute.  If  you  do  not 
supply  ashes,  they  will  gnaw  or  eat  the  brick  walls  of  their  sheds.  I  leave 
to  science  to  explain  the  cause  of  this  want.  It  is  notorious  that  coal- 
dealers,  whose  pigs  have  access  to  the  coals,  are  generally  successful  pig 
feeders.  Those  who  find  that  their  pigs,  when  shut  up,  do  not  progress 
favorably,  will  do  well  to  try  this  plan.  A  neighbor  of  mine  found  that  a 
score  of  fat  pigs  consume  quite  a  basket  of  burned  clay  ashes  daily.  We 
know  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  alkali  in  ashes." 

11.  Parched  f  orn  and  Honey  for  Hogs. — A  correspondent  of  the  IlujJiland 
Democrat,  published  at  Peekskili,  N.  Y.,  furnishes  that  paper  with  the  fol- 
lowing communication : 

A  few  years  ago  I  chanced  in  Albany  to  meet  a  farmer  who  is  noted  for 
raising  unusually  heavy  hogs.  The  year  before  he  had  brought  to  market 
one  tliat  weighed  over  700  lbs.,  and  said  that  year  that  he  should  have  one 
of  900  lbs.,  or  near  that  mark.  As  tliere  always  ceems  to  be  a  cause  for  every 
effect,  I  was  anxious  to  know  the  course  lie  pursued. 

''Well,"  said  he,  ''you  must  first  select  the  riglit  kind  of  a  critter.  Get 
the  right  breed,  and  then  pick  out  the  good-natured  ones  from  the  litter  ;  I 
can't  afford  to  feed  a  cross  critter  ;  I  sell  them  when  they  are  pigs."  "  How 
can  yoii  judge  ?"  said  I.  "Well,  if  you  watch  them  when  they  are  feeding, 
you  will  find  tliat  some  pigs  are  allers  fighting  about  their  victuals,  and 


28  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

souse  go  in  for  eating.     Tliere  is  as  mucli  difference  in  pigs  as  there  is  in 
folks." 

"  "Well,  when  you  have  selected  the  right  kind  of  a  pig,  what  next  is 
important  ?" 

"  Well,  then  you  must  have  a  nice  place  for  the  critters  to  live  iu,  and 
feed  thcin  on  the  right  kind  of  victuals." 

"  What  kind  of  food  ?" 

"  Well,  the  best  and  cheapest  kind  of  food  I  have  found,  when  it  comes 
time  to  put  on  the  fat,  is  j>arc/u'd  corn.  I  generally  manage  to  buy  a  barrel 
ov  two  of  Southern  honey,  if  it  is  cheap,  which  I  mix  with  the  parched  corn, 
f..r  my  fatting  h.)gs." 

12.  Feeding  Standing  foru  to  Hots— iu  the  Field— or  Gathered,  Ground, 
a;!d  Cooked— Comparative  Advantages  of  these  Methods. — The  method  often 
[iriicticed  by  large  farmers  of  turning  fattening  hogs  into  the  fields  of 
s'aiiding  corn,  if  properly  conducted,  has  its  advantages  over  that  of 
gathering  the  corn  and  feeding  it  dry  to  the  hogs  in  the  jien. 

The  earlier  in  the  season  the  process  of  fattening  swine  is  begun  the 
better,  after  the  grain  has  reached  a  certain  period  of  maturity,  whether  it 
be  rye,  oats,  or  corn,  because  all  farm  animals,  and  hogs  in  particular,  will 
fa'.ten  much  faster  in  warm  than  in  cold  weather.  And  the  grain  between 
the  periods  of  its  doughy  state  and  full  maturity,  or  rather,  before  it  becomes 
dry,  is  more  easily  digested,  and  assimilated,  and  converted  into  flesh  and 
fat  than  when  it  has  passed  into  its  dry  state.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the 
sooner  the  hogs  are  turned  into  the  field  after  the  grains  of  corn  are  fully 
formed,  and  while  yet  in  the  milk,  the  more  speedily  they  will  fatten  ;  for 
if  the  weather  be  dry,  the  coi-n  hardens  very  rapidlv. 

A  very  interesting  experiment  in  feeding  hogs  is  detailed  by  Mr.  James 
Buckingham  in  the  Prairie  Farmer.  On  the  Ctli  day  of  September  (in 
ordinary  seasons  corn,  at  this  date,  is  too  far  advanced  to  commence  feeding 
to  the  best  advantage),  the  hogs,  1S9  in  number,  were  weighed,  and  footed 
up  in  the  aggregate  19,600  lbs.  A  movable  fence  "was  used,  confining  the 
hogs  to  an  area  sufficient  to  aflbrd  feed  for  two  or  three  days.  The  entire 
field,  thus  fed,  contained  40  acres,  with  an  estimated  average  of  40  bushels 
])er  acre.  The  consumption  of  this  corn  gave- a  gain  of  10,740  lbs.  The 
hogs,  when  turned  into  the  corn,  cost  three  cents  per  pound,  equal  to  §588 ; 
worth,  when  fed,  four  cents  per  ])ound,  or  §1,213  CO — giving  a  return  for 
each  acre  of  corn  consumed  of  $15  G4.  Adding  to  this  $1  per  acre  for  the 
improvement  of  the  land  by  feeding  the  corn  on  the  field,  making  the 
actual  gain  per  acre  $16  6i,  equal  to  40  cents  per  bushel,  standing  in  the 
field.  The  whole  cost  of  corn  per  acre,  exclusive  of  interest  on  the  land,  is 
set  down  at  $3  65. 

By  way  of  comparing  the  advantages  of  ground  and  cooked  food  over 
that  which  was  merely  ground,  and  that  which  was  nnground,  Mr.  B.  put 
up  three  hogs  into  separate  pens.  To  one  he  fed  two  and  a  half  bushels  of 
corn  in  the  ear,  during  a  period  of  nine  days,  feeding  all  he  would  eat ;  this 


Sec.  2.]  SWINE— EXPERIMENTS   IN  FEEDING.  29 

gave  a  gain  of  19  lbs.  ;  anotlier  ate  in  the  same  time  one  and  three  qxiarter 
bushels  of  corn,  ground,  and  gained  also  19  lbs.  ;  and  to  the  third  he  fed 
one  bushel  of  cnm,  ground  and  hailed,  which  gave  a  gain  of  22  lbs.  Bj'  tliis 
it  will  be  s;'eii  tliat  one  and  three  quarter  bii^iliels  of  corn,  when  ground,  will 
give  a  gain  oi  Ik'sh  equal  to  two  and  a  half  busliels  of  iinground  corn,  and 
that  one  biishtd,  wlien  ground  and  cool-ed,  gave  a  gain  greater  tlian  either. 

Tlio  comparative  results  of  these  tliree  methods  of  feeding  may  thus  bo 
set  down  :  one  busliel  of  corn,  ground  and  cooked,  is  equal  to  nearly  tliree 
bushels  when  fed  dry  and  unground  ;  and  one  and  three  quarter  bushels 
when  ground  and  uncooked  is  equal  to  two  and  a  half  bushels  wlien  fed 
whole. 

Or  it  may  be  seated  thus :  one  bushel  of  dry  corn  in  the  ear  makes  Si 
lbs.  of  pork,  which  at  four  cents  per  pound  is  equal  to  33  cents  per  busliel 
for  the  corn ;  while  one  bushel  of  corn,  ground  and  boiled,  makes  22  lbs. 
of  pork  at  four  cents  per  pound,  and  is  equal  to  88  cents  per  bushel  for  tlie 
corn.  This  I'esult  about  sustains  our  calculations  made  upon  the  experiments 
by  Mr.  Samuel  II.  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  as  appears  in  ^  5. 

It  is  worth}'  of  remark  for  those  who  wish  to  feed  corn  in  the  field,  that 
had  the  hogs  been  turned  into  the  field  when  the  corn  was  in  the  milk, 
it  would  liave  given  a  result  more  nearly  like  that  of  the  hog  fed  ni)oa 
ground  and  cooked  food. 

The  obstacles  which  seem  to  be  in  t!ie  way  of  adopting  an  improved 
method  of  fattening  hogs  result  from  the  imperfect  apparatus  used  for 
])rcparing  the  food.  Sending  corn  a  long  distance  to  mill  to  be  ground,  and 
then  to  coo.k  .he  meal  in  an  ordinary  kettle,  even  if  it  holds  a  barrel,  will 
])rove  an  expensive  operation,  as  all  have  found  who  have  undertaken  it. 
But  to  realize  the  full  advantages  of  feeding  prepared  food,  a  complete 
grinding  and  steaming  apparatus  must  bo  erected  on  a  large  scale,  with  the 
view  to  perform  the  grinding,  cooking,  and  feeding  with  the  greatest  facility 
and  at  the  least  possible  cost.  This  may  be  done  to  advantage  by  employing 
steam  for  grinding,  using  the  same  boiler  to  furnish  steam  for  cooking  the 
meal. 

13.  Ori?ia  of  t!ic  Chester  foanty  Hogs,— It  is  stated  that  Captain  James 
Jefleris,  a  eea-ca])fain,  somewhere  about  1820,,  or  a  little  later,  in  one  of  his 
voyages  from  England,  brought  over  a  pair  of  ]iigs  of  the  Bedfordshire 
breed,  which  he  sent  to  his  fai'm  on  the  Brandywine,  whence  the  breed  has 
been  disseminated,  and  lost  its  original  name.  Some  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  Chester  County  liog  are,  large  size,  remarkably  symmetrical  form, 
easy  keeping,  comparatively  little  offal,  great  depth  and  length  of  carcass, 
and  producing  large  quantities  of  lard.  Spring  pigs  are  often  put  in  market 
at  nine  or  ten  mon'hs  old,  and  weighing  at  that  age  from  200  to  250  lbs. 
This  weight  is  of  course  produced  liy  good  feeding  and  proper  attention. 

14-.  To  frevcut  Sows  KiHing  their  PIgSi— A  correspondent  of  the  Muiuf. 
Farmer  speaks  of  several  cases  of  sow.-:  destroying  their  ju'gs — which,  indeed, 
is  not  unusual — and  conimcnds  as  an  c.isy  and  su''e  ])revention,  "  to  give 


30  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

tlie  sow  .nboiit  half  a  pint  of  good  ruiu  or  gin,  which  soon  produces  intoxica- 
liiin,  and  the  drunken  mother  becomes  entirely  harndess  toward  her  young, 
and  will  ever  accommodate  her  poiitiou  to  the  be^^t  advantage  of  the  pig-^, 
ntaining  this  disposition  ever  afterward."  The  editor  eonlirms  tliis  statement 
fiom  cases  witiiin  his  own  knowledge. 

15.  Pift-Brcfdiu,!^". — Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  more  people  are  iiHerested 
in  the  breeding  tif  pigs  than  of  any  otlier  class  of  domestic  animals,  the  atten- 
tion paid  to  improvement  of  the  stock  is  very  small.  How  few  farmers  know 
that  the  sow  should  always  be  larger  than  tlie  male,  and  that  he  should 
always  be  of  the  most  perfettt  form;  of  good  color,  and  perfectly  sound  and 
liealtliy,  because  almost  invariably  the  pigs  take  the  qualities  of  the  sire  in- 
stead of  the  mother ;  that  is,  his  good  or  bad  points  will  preponderate  largely 
over  those  of  the  sow.     Farmers,  please  think  of  this  fact,  and  profit  by  it. 

16.  Large  UogSi — Isaac  Harrison,  of  Burlington  County,  N.  J.,  fatted,  ki 
1858,  32  hogs  that  averaged  5G9  lbs.  each;  and  William  Taylor,  of  Ocean 
County,  fatted  30  that  averaged  537  lbs.  each.  Tliomas  Hood,  of  Ocean 
County,  fatted  41  that  averaged  533  lbs.  each.  So  says  C.  W.  Hartsliorn, 
iif  Burlington  County,  who  sends  us  a  list  of  weights,  among  which  are  very 
few  under  500  lbs. ;  the  lightest  that  we  notice  weighs  428  lbs. 

17.  Gross  and  Net  Weight  of  Swiue. — The  rule  of  ascertaining  the  net 
weight  of  fat  hogs  is  to  deduct  one  fifth  of  the  gross  weight.  It  is  an  easy 
way  to  make  the  calculation,  or  reduction  of  gross  to  net  weight,  by  using 
tiie  decimal  8-10  as  a  multiplier,  cutting  off  one  right-hand  figure  of  the 
l)roduct,  to  show  the  net  sum.  Thus:  10  hogs  Aveigh  2,729 lbs. ;  multiply 
by.  8,  which  will  make  net  2,183.2  lbs. 

K  you  have  the  gross  weight  of  a  drove  of  hogs  at  home,  which  you  may 
liave  taken  to  market  and  sold  at  net  weight,  and  wish  to  ascertain  how  the 
net  and  gross  compare,  take  your  sum  of  the  net  weight,  say  2,183.2.  Divide 
by  8-10,  and  j'ou  will  find  the  quotient  2,729. 

This  will  be  found  a  very  convenient  and  useful  rule.  Sometimes  a  person 
may  be  offered  one  sum  as  a  gross  price,  and  another  as  a  net  price  of  the 
same  lot,  and  would  like  to  know  at  once  which  otler  is  the  best.  This  is 
(juickly  done.  You  have  simply  to  apply  the  same  rule  of  division  by  eight 
tentlis  to  the  price,  instead  of  weight.  For  instance  suppose  the  offer  is — 
as  it  sometimes  is  in  New  York — $5  25  per  cwt.  gross,  or  $G  50  net.  Divide 
§5  25  by  8-10,  the  quotient  will  be  $6  56.2,  showing  that  it  will  be  six  cents 
and  two  mills  per  cwt.  gross  to  the  owner's  advantage  to  sell  at  $5  25  gross. 

18.  Salting  Meat  Marm. — C.  Eovie,  of  Gnllprairie,  Michigan,  asks :  "  "Will 
pork  cin-e,  if  packed  before  tlie  animal  heat  is  all  out  of  it  ?"  He  then 
answers  :  "  Last  year  I  killed  my  hogs  and  packed  them  while  warm.  I 
have  some  of  the  pork  now,  and  I  never  ate  any  sweeter  pork  than  this  is. 
Tlie  most  of  farmers  think  pork  salted,  while  warm,  will  not  keej)." 

We  have  tried  the  experiment  repeatedly  of  salting  pork  as  soon  as  we 
could  cut  it  up  after  dressing,  and  certainly  prefer  it,  as  it  will,  when  dry- 
salted,  cure  much  quicker. 


PLATE    III. 

(Page  31.) 

This  plate  is  intended  to  answer  the  question  :  ' '  What  is  a  good 
cow  ?"  It  shows  a  model  cow,  without  regard  to  breed,  as  described 
in  ^  45,  and  a  portrait  of  the  "  Oaks  Cow,"  which  was  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  early  age  of  stock  improvement  as  a  great 
butter  producer.  She  gave  467  pounds  from  May  15  to  December 
20,  181G.  Another  portrait  gives  the  side  view  of  what  is  taken 
as  a  model  of  a  good  dairy  cow.  The  Dutch  dairy  cow  is  also  con- 
sidered a  model,  not  only  of  that  breed,  but  of  a  form  that  shows 
a  good  cow  for  milk.  The  Hereford  cow  and  bull,  and  Devon  cow 
and  bull,  also  give  good  studies,  and  make  up  a  picture  no  where 
else  to  be  found  in  such  compact  form  and  such  beauty  of  execu- 
tion. 


in 


A  Good  Diity  Cawr  A  Good  Milrii    r<rw 

1»1KKKHK>T    llUKKDS  •.r  l'ATTI.K.rT»«1'XlTKl>   STATKS  . 


Seo.  3.} 


COWS. 


31 


19.  Species  of  Auimals. — ^Tlie  Bevue  Horticole,  of  Paris,  gives  a  very  inter- 
esting iiccount  of  a  discussion  in  the  Academie  upon  the  species  of  animals. 
The  primitive  source  of  animals  is  lost ;  tlie  fossil  bones  of  the  horse  are 
identical  with  those  of  the  present  day.  There  is  no  account  of  anything 
new  in  animal  life  since  the  Mosaic  account  of  creation. 

20.  Animal  Strncture. — "  Tiie  bony  frame-work  of  the  animal  owes  its  so- 
lidity to  phoiiphate  of  lime,  and  this  substance  must  be  furnished  by  the 
food.  A  perfect  food  must  supply  the  animal  with  these  three  classes  of 
bodies,  and  in  proper  proportions.  What  proportions  are  the  proper  ones 
we  have  at  present  no  means  of  knowing  with  accuracy.  Tlie  ordinary 
kinds  of  food  for  cattle  contain  a  large  quantity  of  vegetable  fiber  or  woody 
matter,  which  is  more  or  less  indigestible,  but  which  is  indispensable  to  the 
welfare  of  herbaceous  animals,  as  their  digestive  organs  are  adapted  to  a 
bulky  and  rough  food.  The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  feed  rich  in  oil 
and  albuminous  substances  to  the  ordinary  kinds  of  food,  has  been  found 
highly  advantageous  in  practice.  Neither  hay  alone,  nor  concentrated  food 
alone,  gives  the  best  result.  A  certain  combination  of  the  two  presents  the 
most  advantages." 

The  above  is  the  view  of  an  eminent  professor  of  agi-icultural  chemistry' 
(S.  "W.  Johnson),  and  it  contains  a  great  fact  that  should  be  adopted  into  the 
every-day  practice  of  every  farmer,  and  not  only  for  his  stock,  but  his  own 
iionsehold.  Every  animal  of  a  higher  organization  than  a  worm  needs  a 
diversity  of  food  to  make  up  a  healthy  animal  structure. 


SECTION  III.-COWS. 

\  HAT  is  a  Good  Cow  ? — This  is  a  question  that  many 
owners  of  cows  can  not  answer,  because  there  is  no 
standard.  Every  one  has  his  own,  and  one  person 
may  recommend  a  cow  on  sale  as  positively  good, 
that  is  not  half  as  valuable  as  one  that  comes  only 
up  to  the  standard  of  another  person's  idea  of  good- 
ness. Besides,  one  cow  may  be  good  for  producing 
milk  for  sale  by  the  quart ;  another  good  for  making 
butter,  where  that  alone  is  the  object ;  a  third  one 
may  be  good  for  a  cheese  dairy  and  very  poor  for 
butter;  and  a  fourth  not  good  for  either  purpose, 
and  should  at  once  be  turned  out  for  beef.  Farmers 
do  not  experiment  enough  with  their  cows  to  ascer- 
Jp  tain  these  facts.     We  have  known  one  cow  discarded 

from  a  butter  dairy  because  she  gave  less  milk  than  another,  when  one  was 
to  be  sold,  without  any  other  proof  that  the  rejected  one  was  not  equally 


32  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  Chap.  J. 

good.  For  butter-making,  vre  think  a  cow  which  gives  14  quarts  of  milk  a 
day,  when  fresh,  and  14  lbs.  of  butter  a  week,  a  good  cow,  and  that  tliat 
might  be  adopted  into  use  as  tiie  meaning  of  a  good  butter-dairy  cow.  A 
good  many  cows,  it  is  true,  go  above  tlmt,  but  they  should  be  ranked  as 
extra  good.  A  cow  that  gives  12  or  14  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  10  lbs.  of 
butter  a  week,  might  be  called  a  fair  medium  cow  ;  and  one  tliat  gives  8  to 
12  quarts  a  day  and  6  or  7  lbs.  of  butter  a  week,  should  be  called  com- 
mon, and  all  below  that  inferior,  as  in  fact  they  are ;  and  so  is  a  cow 
that  gives  15  or  16  quarts  of  milk  a  day  that  yields  only  a  pound  of  butter, 
and  there  are  many  of  this  description.  Tlie  lowest  rate  we  ever  lieard  was 
3  (piarts  of  milk  for  1  lb.  of  butter  ;  but  that  is  very  rare,  the  average  being 
over  12  quarts. 

It  would  be  an  excellent  ]ilan  for  some  leading  agricultural  society  to 
establish  a  standard  for  a  good  cow.  We  think  a  cow  that  comes  up  to  the 
standard  of  that  owned  by  Otis  Hunt,  of  Eaton  Village,  N.  Y.,  will  pass  for 
a  good  one.  He  gives  the  following  statement  of  the  amount  of  butter 
made  from  her:  "Amount  made  from  April  8  to  July  8,  191  lbs. ;  amount 
made  during  the  month  of  June,  74  lbs. ;  amount  made  during  the  year, 
516  lbs.,  besides  furnishing  all  the  milk  and  cream  used  in  a  family  of  four 
persons  (and  occasional  visitors)  all  the  time." 

The  breed  of  this  good  cow  is  given  as  "  native,"  and  the  quality  of  milk 
and  butter  excellent. 

22.  Garget  in  fOMS. — A  letter  from  Fort  Independence,  Castle  IslaVid, 
Boston  Harbor,  Mass.,  says: 

"Within  the  last  two  years  I  have  pureha-^ed  at  dliFerent  times  three 
cows,  say  about  one  every  six  months.  After  they  are  on  the  island  a  few 
months  they  becou'ie  '  gargety  ;'  therefore  I  should  think  the  complaint  is 
brought  on  from  eating  some  weed  peculiar  to  this  island,  which  is  limited 
in  extent,  say  about  thirty  acres." 

No,  sir  ;  it  is  because  they  have  not  eaten  some  weed — a  weed  called  poke 
or  scoke,  producing  the  "  scoke-berries"  that  robins  and  school-children  are 
both  fond  of  gathering  in  the  fall.  This  scoke  is  the  natural  cure  for  garget. 
It  is  said  that  the  diseastc  never  atiocts  cows  th;it  run  in  ])astures  where  it 
grows.  We  have  known  the  dried  roots  sell  for  $2  a  lb  in  Vermont  to  feed 
cows,  and  to  make  little  plugs  to  insert  in  the  teats  to  cure  the  garget.  It  is 
there  known  by  the  name  of  gaPL'ct  root.  {jiJnjtolacci  dtcan<lra). 

23.  How  to  Increase  the  Value  of  a  Cow.— Every  one  who  owns  a  cow 
can  see  at  a  glance  that  it  would  be  profitable  to  increase  the  value  of  her, 
but  every  one  can  not  see  how  to  do  it.  We  can,  and  we  think  that  wc  can 
make  it  equally  palpable  to  our  readers.  If  a  cow  is  kejU  for  butter,  it  cer- 
tainly would  add  to  her  value  if  the  butter-making  projwrtios  of  her  milk 
should  be  improved.  In  summer  or  winter  this  can  be  done,  just  as  the  yield 
of  a  cultivated  crop  can  be  impr  ned  by  wh;>.t  is  fed  to  each,  and  it  is  simply 
a  question  of,  will  it  pay,  in  manni  ing  one  or  feeding  the  other.  Indian  corn 
will  add  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  butter  to  a  very  sensible  degree. 


Sec.  3.]  COWS,   AKD  THEIR  FOOD.  33 

and  it  is  simply  a  question  of  easy  solution,  by  experiment,  whether  it  will 
add  to  the  profit  of  the  Luttcr-maker  to  buy  corn  at  one  or  two  cents  a  pound, 
and  convert  a  portion  of  it  into  butter  at  25  cents  a  pound,  or  whatever  llie 
market  price  of  corn  and  butter  may  be,  and  another  portion  of  it  into  fat, 
and  another  portion  of  it  into  manure,  for  that  is  the  natural  result  of  the 
chemical  change  produced  in  the  laboratory  of  the  cow's  stomach.  The  same 
result  will  follow  any  otiicr  kind  of  feeding.  Good  jjasture  will  produce  an 
abundance  of  milk,  often  as  much  as  the  cow  can  carry  ;  but  does  it  follow 
that  even  then  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  feed  her  Avitli  some  more  oleagi- 
nous food  to  increase  the  quantity  of  butter,  just  as  it  sometimes  ^^roves 
profitable  to  feed  bees,  to  enable  them  to  store  more  honey  ?  It  certainly 
does  appear  to  us  that  the  value  of  a  cow  feeding  xipon  ordinary  winter 
food  may  be  almost  doubled  by  making  that  food  suitable  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  quantity  of  milk,  if  that  is  the  object,  or  the  quantity  of 
butter,  if  that  is  the  purpose  for  which  the  cow  is  kept.  Farmers  generally 
understand  that  they  can  convert  corn  into  beef,  pork,  and  lard,  and  some 
of  them  know  exactly  at  what  price  per  bushel  it  will  pay  to  convert  it  into 
these  substances ;  but  does  any  one  know  at  what  rate  it  will  pay  to  convert 
corn  or  any  other  grain  into  butter,  or  any  other  kind  of  feed  into  any  of  the 
dairy  products  ?  Is  the  whole  business  a  hap-hazard  one  ?  We  fear  so. 
Some  persons  know  that  they  can  increase  the  salable  value  of  butter  by 
adding  the  coloring  matter  of  carrots  to  it.  Does  any  person  know  the 
value  of  a  bushel  of  carrots  fed  to  a  cow  to  increase  her  value  as  a  butter-  / 
producing  laboratory?  Experimental  proof  upon  this  point  would  be  far' 
more  worthy  of  agricultural  prizes  than  it  is  to  see  who  can  show  the  largest- 
sized  roots ;  for  by  a  few  carefully-conducted  experiments  we  should  be  able 
to  increase  the  value  of  a  cow  almost  at  pleasure. 

21.  Pasture — How  many  t'ows  to  aa  Acre. — In  Cheshire,  England,  which 
is  a  great  grazing  county,  the  land  that  has  been  under-drained  and  top- 
dressed  with  ground  bones,  will  carry  one  cow  to  each  acre  througli  the 
summer,  but  the  land  not  thus  treated  will  only  carry  one  cow  to  two  acres. 
The  dressing  of  bones  upon  pasture  land  is  12  to  15  cwt.  per  acre  once  in 
seven  years.  But  even  if  not  repeated  at  that  time,  it  still  continues  better 
than  it  was  before  the  bones  were  applied. 

Now,  how  many  acres  of  pasture,  on  the  average,  does  it  require  in  this 
country  to  the  cow?  "Would  it  not  be  economy  to  improve  our  pasture 
lands  up  to  the  Cheshire  standard  ? 

25.  Food  Consumed  by  a  Cow. — It  is  generally  estimated  that  a  cow  needs 
each  day  three  per  cent,  of  her  M'cight  in  hay.  Tliat  is,  if  she  weighs  8  cwt., 
which  a  fair-sized  cow  will  do,  in  working  order,  she  will  require  24  lbs.,  or 
its  equivalent,  of  hay.  For  five  months'  feeding — 150  days — you  will  require 
3, GOO  lbs.  In  the  New  England  States  the  feeding  period  averages  nearer 
six  than  five  months,  and  therefore  two  tuns  of  liay  should  be  allowed  for 
each  cow. 

26.  Feed,  Exercise,  and  Shelter  have  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  health 


34  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

and  comfort  of  all  doincstic  animals,  and  upon  none  is  it  more  marked  tlian 
upon  the  most  valualjle  of  all,  the  cow.  Every  judicious  farmer,  who  has 
an  eye  only  to  his  purse,  will  see  that  his  cows  are  bountifully  supplied  with 
proper  food  to  produce  the  largest  flow  of  milk,  and  rich  in  cream,  and  that 
his  meadows  and  jiastui-es  are  free  from  noxious  weeds,  that  will  impart  a 
disagreeable  taste  to  the  milk  and  butter.  A  mixture  of  timothy  and  white 
clover  is  the  most  desirable  pasture  for  the  dairy  ;  and  the  best  and  sweetest 
butter  is  generally  produced  in  May  and  June ;  for  then  kind  Kature  sends 
up  a  spontaneous  supply  of  rich,  juicy  food,  and  the  air  is  cool  and  pure, 
and  all  things  combine  to  render  the  dairyman's  task  easy  and  delightful. 
But  when  the  sun  has  scorclied  the  vegetation  and  imi)aired  its  nutritive 
properties,  and  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  like  an  oven,  then  there 
is  need  of  skill  to  counteract  the  opposing  influences  of  nature;  and  the  task, 
though  diflicult,  can  be  accomplished,  and  a  cool  atmosphere  created  in  the 
milk-room,  and  proper  food  supplied,  as  the  reward  of  well-directed  labor. 

Every  farmer  should  jiractice,  at  least  on  a  small  scale,  growing  extra  feed 
for  his  cows,  when  pasture  fails.  One  of  the  easiest  things  grown  for  fall 
feed  is  cabbage.     It  gives  an  immense  amount  of  food  per  acre. 

27.  Feedillg  Cows  for  Butter-iflakiag. — A  writer  in  the  Farmer  and  Gar- 
dener (Phila.)  says:  "The  use  of  corn  and  cob-meal  in  my  practice  has 
produced  more  fat  tlian  butter.  The  best  feed  I  have  tried  is  two  bushels  of 
ship-stuiF  to  one  bushel  of  ground  corn.  In  the  use  of  corn  fodder,  I  have 
foimd  great  advantage  in  not  only  cutting,  but  steaming  it.  Many  cows 
will  not  eat  it  witiiout  its  being  steamed.  '  Turnips  are  good  enough,  if  the 
taste  they  impart  to  the  butter  is  not  objectionable.  Pumpkins  add  largely 
to  the  quantity  of  milk,  but  the  cream,  in  churning,  is  always  frothy,  and 
requires  a  longer  time  to  be  converted  into  butter. 

"  My  plan  of  feeding  is  as  follows :  I  always  let  my  cows  go  dry  about 
the  first  of  the  new  year,  giving  them,  by  this  plan,  a  rest  of  some  two 
months.  During  this  period  of  rest  I  feed  them  on  hay,  corn  fodder,  and 
straw.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to  spring,  I  add  four  quarts  of  meal  to  eacli 
cow,  which,  after  being  mixed  with  the  long  straw  and  fodder,  is  steamed, 
and  fed  a  litde  ivarn^.  Until  tlie  calves  are  separated  from  the  cows,  this 
amount  of  food  is  given  once  a  day,  after  which  time  I  feed  them  three  times 
a  day." 

28.  Health  of  Cows. — A  sickly  cow  not  only  yields  a  diminished  profit, 
but  she  yields  sickly  milk,  and  sickly  in  a  higher  degree  than  her  flesh. 

If  a  cow  eats  anything  that  has  a  strong  or  disagreeable  odor,  it  appears 
in  her  milk. 

If  she  eats  anythijig  medicinal,  it  comes  out  in  her  milk. 

If  she  is  feverish,  her  milk  shows  it. 

If  she  lias  sores  about  her,  pus  may  be  found  in  her  milk. 

If  she  is  fed  upon  decayed  or  diseased  food,  her  milk,  since  it  is  derived 
from  her  food,  will  be  unhealthy.  It  is  as  impossible  to  make  good  milk 
from  bad  food,  as  to  make  a  good  building  from  rotten  timber. 


Seo.  3.]  COWS— DIRECTIONS  FOR  SPAYING.  35 

If  there  is  anything  wrong  about  her,  it  will  appear  in  the  milk,  as  that  is 
an  effective  source  of  casting  it  froni  her  organism. 

These  facts  should  at  all  times  be  well  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  dairy- 
men, but  more  especially  in  the  cold  season  of  the  year.  Closely  confined  in 
tlieir  narrow  stalls  tlirough  the  long  winter,  where  tlie  air  is  not  always 
fresh  and  pure,  nor  water  and  exercise  always  had  when  desired,  nor  their 
food  always  free  from  foul  medicinal  weeds,  as  thistles,  daisies,  white  top, 
etc.,  cows  are  very  likely  to  vary  from  a  perfectly  healthy  condition  ;  spring 
cheese  will  be  faulty  enough,  do  the  best  we  can — that  every  dairyman 
knows.  The  health  of  the  cows  should  not,  at  any  rate,  be  allowed  to 
become  a  cause  of  deterioration.  Green  food  should  now,  if  it  has  not  been 
before,  alternated  as  often  as  possible  with  the  dry ;  for  this  purpose,  beets, 
carrots,  turnips,  potatoes,  cabbages,  parsneps,  and  apples  are  valuable. 

Ventilation  and  Avatering  should  be  promptly  attended  to,  and  salt  and 
meal,  made  by  pulverizing  burned  bones,  should  be  kept  where  daily  access 
can  be  had  to  them,  if  desired,  nor  should  their  strength  and  flesh  be  allowed 
to  fail  for  the  want  of  a  sufKciently  nutritious  diet.  The  best  flavored  butter 
and  cheese  can  not  be  made  from  cows  that  are  badly  fed,  or  ailing,  or  poor. 

As  bad  health  in  parents  transmits  a  tendency  to  disease  in  the  offspring, 
it  is  important  that  every  kind  of  animal  we  desire  to  continue  on  our  farms 
should  be  kept  vigorous  and  healthy. 

As  an  unhealthy  animal  can  not  consume  food  to  as  good  advantage  as  a 
well  one,  it  is  again  economical  to  avoid  disease. 

29.  The  Amount  of  Hay  required  for  Cows— The  Cost  of  Milk.— Otis  Brig- 
ham,  of  "Westborough,  Mass.,  after  seventy  years'  experience  in  farming, 
says,  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  that  good  cows  will  eat,  on  an  average, 
20  lbs.  of  hay  per  day  when  giving  milk,  and  15  lbs.  when  dry — not  by 
guess-work,  but  tested  by  actual  weighing,  for  months  at  a  time.  Then  it 
is  easy  to  calculate  the  cost  of  milk.  In  the  neigliborhood  of  New  York, 
the  average  value  of  hay  is  one  cent  a  pound,  and  the  quantity  of  milk  hot 
over  six  quarts.  At  three  and  a  half  cents  a  quart,  it  will  pay  the  hay  bill, 
and  one  cent  a  day  over.  If  other  feed  is  given,  the  increase  of  milk  must 
pay  for  that.  The  manure  will  be  worth  at  least  the  cost  of  attendance  and 
milking.  If  the  milk  is  worth  more  than  three  and  a  half  cents,  it  gives  a 
profit;  and  if  less,  a  loss. 

30.  For  Ktckitig  Cows. — ^Take  a  short  strap,  and  fasten  the  ends  together. 
Next  prepare  a  pin  of  some  soft  wood,  about  six  or  eight  inclies  long,  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter.  Take  the  cow  by  the  off  fore-leg,  and  double 
it  at  the  knee-joint  close ;  pass  the  strap  or  loop  over  the  knee,  pressing  it 
back  until  you  can  insert  the  pin  between  that  and  the  knee-joint,  and  she 
can  not  kick. 

31.  Directions  for  Spaying  Cows. — Dr.  Dadd,  veterinary  surgeon,  in  the 
American  Stock  Joiti'nal,  says  that  the  milk  of  spayed  cows  gives  more  cream 
than  ordinary  milk,  and  that  tlie  butter  made  from  it  is  more  delicious  in 
taste.     The  milk  is  also  invaluable  for  nursing  infants.     He  thinks  there  is 


36 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


[Chap.  I. 


no  danger  in  performing  tlio  operation,  if  slcillfully  clone,  and  the  animal 
init  tukIlt  the  inflnencc  of  sulphuric  ether. 

Dr.  Riggs,  a  veterinary  surgeon,  does  not  approve  of  giving  chloroform  to 
cows.  He  says:  "It  is  no  easy  task  to  give  ether  or  chloroform  to  animals 
generally,  and  it  is  usually  quite  as  distressing  to  them  as  so  slightly  painful 
an  operation  as  spaying.  Tlie  operation  of  casting  is  a  very  awkward  one, 
and  needless,  and  interferes  with  tlie  case,  if  not  the  certainty,  of  the  opera- 
tion. The  ovaries  are  attached  near  the  back-bone ;  hence,  -when  a  cow 
stands  up,  the  pauncli  and  intestines  fall  away  from  them,  and  leave  clear 
working  space ;  but  when  she  is  thrown  upon  her  side,  the  case  is  different, 
and  wlien  the  cow  is  in  good  flesh,  there  is  none  too  jnucli  space  anj'  way." 

Dr.  liiggs  allows  the  cow  to  stand  up,  her  head  tied  short,  and  an  assistant 
hold.s  her  by  the  nose  with  clasps;  a  rope  is  tied  loosely  about  her  hind  legs, 
to  keep  her  from  kicking ;  an  assistant  pushes  her  uj)  against  a  partition  or 
wall,  and  another  aids  in  the  first  part  of  the  operation.  Thus,  the  cow  is 
not  at  all  alarmed  or  uncomfortable. 

The  skin  is  folded  so  that  the  hair  can  be  shaved  off  where  the  cut  is  to 
be,  and  thus  a  straight  line,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  wide  and  five  inches 
long,  is  laid  bare.  The  skin  is  then  drawn  up  in  a  fold,  at  right  angles,  to 
this  line  and  in  the  middle  of  it.  The  operator  grasps  this  fold  on  one  side 
of  the  shaved  line,  in  his  left  hand,  and  his  assistant  grasps  it  on  the  otlier 
side  ;  then,  with  a  single,  well-directed  stroke,  with  a  sharp  knife,  he  severs 
the  two  thicknesses  of  hide  exactly  in  the  shaved  line,  letting  go  at  the 
same  time ;  a  straight,  clean  cut  through  the  skin  is  seen,  and  the  cow  suffers 
almost  no  pain  at  all — not  so  much  as  that  produced  by  the  blow  from  a 
whip.  If  the  cut  is  made  slowly,  it  is  the  most  painful  part  of  the  operation. 
There  is  little  feeling  in  the  tissues  forming  the  walls  of  the  cavity  of  the 
abdomen,  and  when  these  are  cut  tlirough,  the  hand  may  be  easily  introduced. 
The  cow  winces  a  little  when  the  edges  of  the  skin  are  rubbed,  but  shows  no 
signs  of  pain. 

The  removal  of  the  ovaries  appears  very  casj',  but  it  is  not.  If  the  opera- 
tor has  a  strong,  sharp  thumb-nail,  he  can  work  or  cut  them  loose;  but  if 
not,  or  if  the  ovary  is  strongly  attached,  the  operator  is  obliged  to  do  as  the 
books  say — "in  short, ^m//  them  away" — and  in  this  is  the  great  danger  to 
the  cow ;  internal  hemorrhage  or  inflammation  is  apt  to  ensue.  Dr.  Riggs 
avoids  all  this  by  the  use  of  the  "  steel  thumb-nail."  This  is  simply  a  sharp 
knife,  shaped  like  and  bound  upon  the  thumb-nail  of  the  right  hand.  Tliere 
is  no  danger  of  cutting  in  the  wrong  place.  A  clean  cut  does  not  produce 
bleeding,  as  was  feared  at  first,  and  it  greatly  simplifies  and  shortens  the 
operation.  Dr.  Riggs  has  never  operated  upon  a  cow  with  this  instrument 
when  she  struggled  or  attempted  to  get  down,  but  once,  and  then  she  was  a 
little  nervous,  and  came  down  upon  her  knees,  but  soon  got  up  again. 
Usually  there  is  no  struggling  throughout  the  operation. 

32.  Calomel  for  Cows. — A  correspondent  of  the  yl7H('/vV««  J^armcr  writes : 
"I  wish  you  wo\ild  say  to  your  readers  that  calomel,  in  one  ounce  doses,  Avill 


Sec.  3.]  COWS— DAIRY   STOCK.  37 

cure  a  cow  of  almost  any  disease.  At  least,  let  me  give  my  experience.  I 
have  two  fine,  valuable  cows ;  they  have  had,  it  seems  to  me,  some  of  the 
worst  diseases  tliat  prevail — hlack-tongue,  murrain,  dry  murrain,  c;c. — and 
when  I  saw  they  were  dying,  I  mixed  one  ounce  of  calomel  in  dry  corn-nieal, 
which  they  would  lick  up,  and  it  has  never  failed  to  cure." 

33.  Keep  fows  GentlCi— If  you  milk  out  doors,  with  the  cow  loose,  provide 
good  stools  for  each  milker.  See  that  they  are  never  used  to  pound  the  cow 
with ;  and  never  allow  man  or  woman  to  kick  or  pound  a  cow  in  the  stable 
or  milking  yard.  If  gentle  means  will  not  make  a  cow  gentle,  harsh  means 
never  will.  It  may  be  necessary  to  reduce  a  cow  to  obedience  by  a  little 
punishment — to  teach  her,  as  you  would  a  horse  or  ox,  that  you  are  master; 
but  to  accomplish  this,  never  use  anything  but  a  light  lash  or  smart  switch, 
and  never  use  that  in  anger.  An  angry  man  is  a  fool,  compared  with  a 
sensible  cow. 

34.  Ayrshire  Cows. — In  Massachusetts,  the  improvement  of  dairy  stock  by 
the  introduction  of  Ayrshire  blood  has  become  so  apparent,  that  no  argu- 
ment could  induce  those  acquainted  with  their  value  to  return  to  the  hazards 
(vf  native  breeding.  We  could  point  to  farmers  in  Essex,  Middlesex,  and 
Vcircester  counties,  who,  under  the  most  prudent  management,  avail  tliem- 
sclv^es  of  every  opportunity  to  introduce  Ayrshire  blood  into  their  herds,  and 
our  own  observation  teaches  us  that  the  importations  of  the  Massachusetts 
Society  for  Promoting  Agriculture,  of  Capt.  Randall,  of  New  Bedford,  and 
(ithers,  have  been  vastly  beneficial  to  our  dairy  stock.  The  bulls  of  this 
broed  can  be  traced  wherever  they  have  been,  by  the  good  stock  they  have 
left  behind  them.  One  of  them  was  kept  upon  a  secluded  farm  in  Essex 
County,  and  rendered  it  famous  for  its  fine  dairy  cows.  Another  gave 
superior  character  to  the  herd  of  one  of  our  well-known  farmers,  and  to  all 
the  dairies  in  his  ncighboi-hood.  An  imported  Ayrshire  cov/,  not  far  from 
us,  has  produced,  through  a  variety  of  mixtures  and  pure  breeding,  a  little 
herd  of  cows  and  heifers  of  tiie  highest  uniformity  of  excellence. 

35.  Poor  Butter  Cows. — Tlie  Ft'i!</'/?irt7'/rt«  gives  a  remedy  for  this  difficulty 
with  cows  that  arc  well  kept,  and  whose  milk  has  been  previously  rich  in 
butter.  It  is  to  tlicse  that  the  remedy  is  principally  directed.  The  remedy 
consists  in  giving  the  animal  two  ounces  of  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  with 
three  ounces  of  coriander  seeds,  powdered  and  well  mixed.  This  is  to  be 
given  as  a  soft  bolus,  and  followed  bj'  a  draught  composed  of  half  a  pint  of 
vinegar,  a  pint  of  water,  and  a  handful  of  common  salt,  for  three  successive 
mornings,  on  an  empty  stomach. 

This  remedy,  according  to  the  author,  rarely  fails,  and  the  milk  produced 
some  days  after  its  exhibition  is  found  to  be  richer  in  cream.  The  first 
churning  yields  a  larger  quantity  of  butter,  but  the  second  and  third  are 
still  more  satisfactory  in  their  results. 

A  letter  from  a  farmer  states  that  he  had  fourteen  cows  in  full  milk,  from 
which  he  obtained  very  little  butter,  and  that  of  a  bad  quality.  Guided  by 
the  statements  of  M.  Deiieubourg,  which  had  apjieared  in  the  An'nalesVet- 


38  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

en'jiauvs,  he  had  separately  tested  the  milk  of  his  cows,  and  found  that  tlie 
bad  quality  of  it  was  owing  to  one  cow  only,  and  that  the  milk  of  the  others 
yielded  good  and  abundant  butter.  It  was,  therefore,  clearly  established  that 
the  loss  he  liad  so  long  sustained  was  to  be  attributed  to  this  cow  only.  lie 
at  once  administered  the  remedy  recommended  by  M.  Deneubourg,  which 
effected  a  cure. 

36.  W'iiiter  Feed  of  Oraage  County  Dairy  Cows. — Mr.  C.  Edward  Brooks, 
one  of  the  best  dairymen  in  tlie  county,  claims  that  rye  makes  more  milk 
than  corn  or  oats,  or  other  meal.  Brewei-s'  grains  were  formerly  bo\ight  so 
as  to  cost  6  cents  delivered  at  the  farm,  but  now,  at  12  cents,  they  are 
not  so  profitable  as  rye  feed  at  75  cents  per  bushel.  Oats  he  esteems 
the  i:)00rest  kind  of  grain  for  ujilk.  lie  thinks  that  by  currying  a  cow,  and 
keeping  her  and  her  stable  scrupulously  clean,  she  will  give  lier  full  quantity 
of  milk  on  half  the  feed  required  if  she  is  neglected.  Ilis  daily  allowance 
to  each  cow  is  five  pounds  of  meal,  either  corn,  corn  and  oats,  or  buckwheat 
or  wheat  bran,  changing  the  kind  frequently — for  practice  approves  what 
theory  teaches,  that  animals  thrive  best  on  a  frequent  change  of  diet.  The 
animals  are  fed  and  milked  at  regular  hours — generally  at  four  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  and  six  in  the  morning;  in  winter,  somewhat  earlier  in  the 
afternoon  and  later  in  the  morning.  Care  is  taken  to  observe  great  punctu- 
ality as  to  time  of  milking,  for  the  animals  give  much  less  trouble  and  thrive 
better.  Mr.  Brooks  chati's  his  hay,  steeps  it  in  warm  Avater  to  soften  it,  and 
sprinkles  the  meal  over  it,  mixing  it  thoroughly.  Throughout  the  day  as 
much  long  hay  is  fed  as  the  cows  will  eat.  The  feed  is  mixed  in  a  long  box, 
shaped  like  an  ordinary  bath-tub,  which"  runs  on  small  iron  truck-wheels, 
one  at  either  end,  and  two  at  the  sides,  half  way  between.  This  is  a  very 
convenient  method  for  carrying  the  whole  mess  along  the  passage  between 
the  stalls,  and  with  a  wooden  scoop  giving  to  each  cow  her  share  as  her  stall 
is  passed.  The  water  to  steep  the  hay  is  heated  in  a  caldron,  in  a  small 
outbuilding,  and  conducted  to  the  cow-stable  through  a  small  tin  pipe. 

Mr.  Seeley  C.  Roe,  near  Chester,  a  large  dairyman  and  an  intelligent 
farmer,  thinks  that  half-clover  hay,  Avell  made,  and  half  grain,  is  better  for 
milk  production  than  twice  as  much  timothy  with  grain.  He  does  not  cut 
and  steep  his  hay,  but  dampens  it  with  cold  water,  and  adds  meal,  as  usual. 
He  finds  it  an  excellent  plan  to  feed  buckwheat  whole,  and  prepares  it  by 
boiling  the  grain  with  the  hulls  on,  and  M-hcn  it  lias  become  lliorouglily 
soaked,  puts  it  into  the  feed-box  at  the  rate  of  two  quarts  to  cacli  cow.  He 
adds  to  this  two  quarts  of  dry  meal,  and  the  heat  and  steam  of  the  cooked 
buckwheat  cooks  the  meal.  Four  quarts  of  this  mixture  are  allowed  to 
each  cow — two  in  the  morning  and  two  at  night — and  the  animals  arc  kept 
on  this  feed  until  turned  out  to  grass. 

Mr.  Gregory  has  an  eight-horse  power  engine  for  cutting  hay,  threshing, 
grinding,  etc.,  and  uses  the  waste  steam  for  steaming  his  hay.  He  lias 
constructed  a  large  chamber,  capable  of  holding  one  himdred  bushels  of 
cut  hay,  which,  before  being  steamed,  is  dampened.     The  steam-pipe  from 


Seo.  3.]  COWS— FEEDING  ROOia  39 

the  engine  empties  into  the  chamber,  and  the  hay  is  steamed  for  about  <i 
quarter  of  an  hour,  and  then  fud  to  the  stock  unmixed  with  meal — that  is, 
given  in  the  form  of  a  warm  mash. 

37.  SHgar-Caue  for  Cows. — If  the  Chinese  sngar-cane  does  not  prove  to 
be  a  profitable  sugar-making  plant,  we  think  it  will  be  a  profitable  one  for 
forage.  The  Homestead  says  that  Deacon  Edward  Ilayden,  of  East  Hartford, 
Conn.,  has  raised  the  Chinese  sugar-cane  for  two  years,  and  has  used  it  for 
feeding  milch  cows  with  great  success.  The  first  year  the  stalks  were  left 
in  the  field,  scattered  about,  we  believe,  and  occasionally  in  dry  weather 
brought  to  the  barn  to  the  cows,  which  ate  them  up  clean,  stalks  and  all.  This 
was  merely  a  sort  of  accidental  experiment,  as  no  especial  value  was  set  upon 
the  canes.  The  past  year  he  raised  more,  shocked  in  the  field,  and  left  it 
there.  It  cured  well,  and  the  cows  ate  it  with  great  avidity,  and  Mr.  Hay- 
den  esteems  it  as  a  great  milk-producing  diet. 

38.  FceJliag  Hoots. — I  have  a  word  to  say  on  winter  feed  for  stock.  It  is 
more  by  way  of  query,  and  for  feeders  to  think  of,  than  by  way  of  instruc- 
tion. My  experience  in  feeding  domestic  animals  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
nie  in  giving  instruction.  I  have  served  my  time  in  too  rough  a  school  for 
that.  I  have  fed  a  good  deal  of  hay,  worth  from  $1  50  to  $5  a  tun ;  and 
corn  from  10  to  25  cents  a  bushel,  and  other  grain  in  proportion,  and 
straw  absolutely  valueless.  While  living  in  such  a  district,  I  have  often 
been  asked  the  question,  "Why  I  did  not  raise  more  roots  for  my  cattle?  I 
answered :  Simply  because  it  would  not  jiiay.  I  did  buy  a  lot  of  ruta  bagas 
one  autumn,  delivered  at  my  house  at  six  cents  a  bushel,  and  the  use  of  them 
taught  me  that  they  were  dear  food.  I  would  now,  if  living  in  such  a  dis- 
trict, feed  roots  to  stock  just  so  far  as  I  thought  necessary  to  keep  the  animals 
in  good  health,  and  no  more  ;  not  if  I  could  buy  at  the  same  price,  which 
was  one  fourth  the  price  of  sound  corn ;  and  I  question  the  economy  of  feed- 
ing any  kind  of  roots  at  the  same  rate  of  value  to  any  greater  extent  than  is 
required  for  health.  Tiiat  roots,  particularly  white  turnijis,  are  too  largely 
fed  in  cold  weather  to  young  cattle,  I  have  no  doubt.  They  are  so  full  of 
water  that  too  much  of  it  is  taken  into  the  stomach  with  the  food.  If  roots, 
or  any  other  watery  food,  are  too  largely  fed  to  milch  cows  before  and  after 
calving,  you  will  be  sure  to  have  a  mean  calf.  If  we  will  think,  and  take 
reason  for  a  guide,  as  to  what  man  requires  for  healthy  food,  we  shall  not  go 
far  wrong  with  domestic  animals.  Man  likes  roots  occasionally,  and  so  ho 
does  soup,  or  other  sloppy  food  ;  but  what  wotild  he  be  good  for  if  fed  week 
after  week  upon  such  watery  stuff  as  turnips,  or  such  porridge  as  some  people 
compel  their  cattle  to  eat  ?  After  all,  this  question  of  winter  feeding  is  a 
question  of  values  ;  and  it  is  not  alone  the  value,  counted  by  first  cost,  but 
the  value  of  results.  Now,  what  is  the  use  of  giving  my  opinion  that  this  or 
that  kind  of  food  is  the  best,  or  most  economical,  when  I  can  not  say  of  a 
single  thing, •!  know.  I  don't  know,  and  don't  know  anybody  who  does. 
It  is  all  guess-work,  and  at  the  present  price  of  cattle-food,  it  is  e.xpensive 
guessing. 


40  DOMESTIC  ANIM^VLS.  [Chap.  I. 

39.  Wintering  Cows. — The  method  of  feeding  cows  in  winter  is  not  so  im- 
portant as  it  is  to  make  the  change  from  grass  to  hay  and  from  hay  ta  grass 
witliout  producing  any  deterioration  in  their  condition.  It  is  liigldy  import- 
ant, if  yonr  cows  are  giving  milk  ii{)on  autumn  pasture,  that  you  do  not 
allow  them  to  fall  ofl'  in  milk  or  flesh  for  want  of  a  little  extra  feed.  I  have 
never  found  anything  quite  equal  to  corn-meal  for  cow-feed,  particularly 
when  you  are  making  butter.  It  may  not  be  necessary  nor  economical  to 
feed  cows  meal  in  autumn,  even  if  pasture  does  fail,  if  you  have  green  corn- 
stalks, pumpkins,  turnips,  cabbage,  etc.,  which  must  be  consumed,  because 
not  good  to  keep  through  winter.  But  in  spring,  when  cows  are  flrst  turned 
to  grass,  they  are  very  apt  to  fall  away,  and  then  it  will  be  found  to  be  good 
economy  to  feed  meal  every  night  in  the  yard,  and  so  it  will  before  the  cows 
are  turned  out,  if  not  in  first-rate  condition. 

I  see  the  calculation  of  one  writer  that  corn-meal,  thus  fed,  Avas  worth  $3 
a  bushel,  fed  at  the  rate  of  one  quart  a  day  to  a  cow,  for  twenty  or  thirty 
days.     He  says : 

"  I  have  also  found,  by  other  experiments,  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
in  the  manner  of  getting  animals  to  grass.  When  turned  out  early,  with 
little  or  no  other  feed,  tliej'  fall  away  greatly;  on  the  coqirary,  if  fed  all  the 
good  hay  they  will  eat,  night  and  morning,  with  a  judicious  feeding  of  meal 
of  some  kind  (and  I  prefer  mixed  feed — that  is,  mixing  the  difl'erent  grains 
together  before  tliey  are  ground— to  any  one  variety),  they  will  soon  begin 
to  gain  finely  by  such  a  course,  and  carry  their  extra  weights  through  the 
season.  In  an  experiment  now  being  conducted,  I  have  a  cow  that  has,  since 
the  first  of  December  last,  been  quietly  laying  on  her  two  pounds  per  day 
(or  nearly  so),  and  her  feed  has  been  only  moderate,  as  I  am  no  advocate  for 
forcing,  but  simply  good  fair  keeping  and  care  ;  then,  with  good  animals,  we 
are  sure  of  a  fair  remuneration  for  care  and  feeding. 

"I  would  that  what  I  have  already  written  could  reach  the  eye  of  every 
farmer  in  these  United  States,  and  that  each  one  would  set  liimself  about 
making  at  least  one  experiment  in  the  care  of  farm-stock." 

40.  Cows  Badly  Wintered  arc  ruprofltable.— A  farmer  can  not  afford  to 
winter  any  stock  poorly,  and  least  of  all,  milch  cows,  or  those  which  are  to 
produce  calves  in  the  spring.  Look  at  the  following  statement,  and  see  if  the 
Western  Reserve  farmers  can  aft'ord  thus  to  winter  cows. 

A  letter  from  Warren,  Trumbull  County,  Ohio,  written  in  April,  ISCO, 
says  :  "The  present  times  are  the  worst  we  have  ever  known  in  this  country. 
Cows  and  cattle  are  dying  by  the  hundred  ;  six  hundred  liead  have  died 
within  the  three  adjoining  counties  this  winter  for  want  of  food.  Tlie 
weather  is  still  dry  and  cold." 

This  is  only  one,  among  many  illustrations,  of  the  folly  and  wrong  com- 
mitted by  Western  farmers  in  keeping  more  stock  than  can  be  housed  and 
fed.  This  is  the  case  all  through  the  Western  country.  Travel  over  any 
portion  of  it,  and  you  will  see  scores  of  cattle  shivering  in  the  cold  storms 
of  winter,  without  shelter,  and  so  poorly  fed  that  if  they  live  through  the 


Seo.  3.]  CO^VS— HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  GOOD  OWR.  41 

severe  season  it  is  more  by  cliance  thaii  for  any  care  whicli  they  receive.  On 
the  prairies,  cattle  can  be  kept  so  easily  in  summer  that  every  one  is  tempted 
to  overstock  himself  to  such  a  degree,  while  the  grass  is  green,  that  a  portion 
must  die  in  winter.  Now  we  would  say  to  the  fanners,  you  can  not  afford 
this.  Every  one  of  these  six  hundred  cattle  which  perished  in  Ohio  could 
have  been  sold  at  a  low  price  by  the  owners,  who  were  short  of  feed,  to 
others  who  would  have  carried  them  through  the  winter.  And  how  infinitely 
better  this  would  have  been  than  to  allow  such  an  amount  of  stock  to  die 
of  starvation ! 

It  is  not  only  in  Trumbull  County  that  cattle  have  perished  in  winter ; 
the  entire  West  has  suffered  equally  in  this  respect  with  Ohio.  On  the 
Illinois  prairies,  where  there  is  no  limit  to  the  amount  of  hay  that  might  be 
cut,  cattle  have  died  in  large  numbers  for  the  want  of  a  quarter  more  hay 
'than  they  had  eaten  during  the  winter.  And  yet  the  farmers  of  those  dis- 
tricts persevere  in  their  criminal  folly,  although  the  result  of  each  year's 
experience  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  open  their  eyes  to  a  proper  realization 
of  the  truth.  No  farmer  can  afford  to  keep  more  cows  or  horned  cattle  than 
he  can  provide  hay  for  at  the  rate  of  two  tuns  per  head  ;  he  should  never 
attempt  to  keep  moi'e  cattle  than  he  can  house  warmly,  unless  lie  has  hay  to 
waste,  and  is  willing  to  sacrifice  at  least  one  fourth  of  the  stock. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  painful  sights  to  be  met  with  in  traveling  through  the 
West,  while  passing  the  little  cabins  of  the  new  settlers,  to  see  cows  and 
calves,  oxen  and  young  stock,  all  huddling  together,  without  any  shelter  from 
the  cold  winter  storm.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  one  half  of  these  liimished, 
neglected  things  should  perish  before  spring?  Farmers,  you  must  learn 
wisdom  from  the  calamities  of  severe  winters.  Keep  fewer  cattle,  and 
keep  them  better,  and  you  will  make  more  mone3-.  We  might  give  hundreds 
of  extracts  from  country  papers  to  convince  you  that  feed  is  scarce  every 
year,  but  it  would  be  superfluous.  The  richest  corn  country  of  Indiana 
has  suffered  quite  as  much  as  its  sister  States  during  many  hard  winters  • 
and  this  is  because  it  is  a  rich  corn  country,  and  rich  in  nothing  else.  Large 
farms  without  grass ;  cattle  without  food,  dying  by  thousands  ;  farmers 
losing  all  their  stock,  "  because  it  is  a  late  spring,"  or,  rather,  because  they 
undertook  to  winter  an  unreasonable  number.  Will  the  fiirmers  of  our 
country  never  take  advantage  of  the  experience  of  the  past,  and  learn  that 
they  can  not  afford  these  wasteful  and  ruinous  sacrifices  ? 

il.  To  €hoosc  a  Good  MiEch  Cow, — Select  from  a  good  breed.  We  ]irefcr 
the  Devons^bright  bay  red.  The  Durhams  are  roan,  red,  M-hite,  and  mix- 
tures of  these  colors.  Ayrshire  cows  arc  generally  red  and  M-hite  spotted. 
Ilerefords,  red  or  darker  colored,  with  white  faces.  Alderncys,  pale  red  and 
mixed  with  white.  These  are  the  principal  colors  of  the  several  breeds  of 
whicli  the  Durhams  are  the  largest  and  Alderneys  the  smallest.  Different 
individuals  will  contend  for  eacli  breed  being  the  best  and  only  one  that 
should  be  selected  for  their  milking  qualities.  But  animals  of  each  breed 
and  of  crosses  of  them,  often  prove  remarkable  milkers,  and  so  do  some  of  the 


42  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


native  stock  of  the  country.  Two  families  of  cows — one  owned  by  Colonel 
Jaques,  of  Ten  Hills  Fann,  near  Charlcstown,  Mass.,  and  one  owned  liy 
Major  John  Jones,  of  Wheatland  Farm,  near  Middletown,  Del. — were  called 
native  breed,  yet  were  the  most  remarkable  butter-makers  we  have  overseen. 
We  have  seen  Col.  Jaques  produce  good  butter  in  throe  minutes,  by  simply 
stirring  the  cream  in  a  bowl.  If  we  were  about  selecting  a  milch  cow,  we 
would  endeavor  to  get  one  out  of  such  a  herd  of  good  milkers ;  one  with  a 
soft,  velvety-feeling  skin,  slim  neck,  fine  legs,  broad  stern,  with  what  is 
called  a  large  escutcheon — that  is,  the  hair  of  the  stern  pointing  inward ;  a 
large  udder,  slim  teats,  and  large  veins,  commonly  called  milk  veins,  on  the 
belly.  Above  all  things,  select  your  cow  of  a  gentle,  pleasant  countenance, 
because  a  lirst-rate  milker  may  be  so  vicious  as  to  be  worthless.  Do  not  look 
for  flesh,  as  the  best  cows  are  seldom  fat ;  their  hip-bones  are  often  vcr}- 
prominent,  and  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  low  in  flesh.  A  beefy 
cow  is  seldom  a  good  milker. 

The  next  thing  is,  what  is  a  good  milker?  That  is,  how  mucli  milk  must 
she  yield  per  day  ?  A  cow  that  will  average  5  quarts  of  milk  a  day  through 
the  year,  making  1,825  quarts,  is  an  extraordinary  good  cow.  One  that  will 
yield  5  quarts  a  day  for  10  months  is  a  good  cow,  and  one  that  will  average 
4  quarts  during  that  time  is  more  than  an  average  qualitj'.  That  woultl 
make  1,200  quarts  a  year,  which,  at  three  cents  a  quart,  is  $36.  We  believe 
the  Orange  County  milk  dairies  average  about  $40  per  cow,  and  the  quality 
of  the  cows  is  considerably  above  the  average  of  the  country. 

It  is  as  important  to  keep  a  cow  good  as  it  is  to  get  her  good.  This  can 
never  be  done  by  a  careless,  lazy  milker.  Always  milk  yoiir  cow  quick  and 
perfectly  clean,  and  never  try  to  counteract  nature  by  taking  away  her  calf. 
Let  it  suck,  and  don't  be  afraid  "it  will  butt  her  to  death."  It  will  distend 
the  udder,  and  make  room  for  the  secretion  of  milk.  Ee  ge-ntle  with  your 
cow,  and  you  will  have  a  gentle  cow.  Select  well,  feed  M'ell,  house  M'ell, 
milk  well,  and  your  cow  will  yield  well. 

42.  The  Different  Breeds  of  fowsi — We  advise  you  to  examine,  in  this 
connection,  the  diflereiit  breeds  of  cows,  so  that  the  general  appearance,  so 
far  as  outline  of  form  is  concerned,  may  be  very  well  understood.  Good 
and  full  descriptions  may  be  found  in  a  standard  work  upon  "  Jlilcli  Cows 
and  Dairy  Farming,"  edited  by  Charlcj  L.  Flint,  secretary  of  the  Massaclui- 
setts  State  Board  of  Agri.?nlture,  and  we  give  a  few  short  extracts  from  that 
work,  upon  each  breed,  as  follows : 

43.  Ayrshire  Cows  Described!  — "  The  Ayrshires  are  justly  celebrated 
throughout  Great  Britain  and  this  country  for  their  excellent  dairy  qualities. 
Though  the  most  recent  in  their  origin,  they  are  pretty  distinct  from  the 
other  Scotch  and  English  races.  In  color,  the  pure  Ayrshires  are  generally 
red  and  white,  spotted  or  mottled — not  roan,  like  many  of  the  short-horns, 
but  often  presenting  a  bright  contrast  of  colors.  They  are  sometimes, 
thougli  rarely,  nearly  or  quite  all  red,  and  sometimes  black  and  white  ;  but 
the  favorite  color  is  red  and  white  brightly  contrasted,  and  by  some,  straw- 


Seo.  3.]  COWS— BREEDS  COMPARED.  43 

berry  color  is  preferred.  The  head  is  small,  fine,  and  clean  ;  the  face  long, 
and  narrow  at  the  muzzle,  with  a  sprightly,  j'et  generally  mild,  expression  ; 
eye  small,  smart,  and  lively ;  the  horns  short,  fine,  and  slightly  twisted 
upward,  set  wide  apart  at  the  roots ;  the  neck  thin  ;  body  enlarging  from 
fore  to  hind  quarters ;  the  back  straight  and  narrow,  but  broad  across  the 
loin;  joints  rather -loose  and  open;  ribs  rather  flat;  hind  quarters  rather 
thin ;  bone  fine ;  tail  long,  fine,  and  bushy  at  the  end ;  hair  generally  thin 
and  soft ;  udder  light  color  and  capacious,  extending  well  forward  under  the 
belly ;  teals  of  the  cow  of  medium  size,  generally  set  regularly  and  wide 
apart ;  milk-veins  prominent  and  well  developed.  The  carcass  of  the  pure- 
bred Ayrshire  is  light,  particularly  the  fore  quarters,  which  is  considered  by 
good  judges  as  an  index  of  great  milking  qualities;  but  the  pelvis  is  capa- 
cious and  wide  over  the  hips. 

"  On  tlie  whole,  the  Ayrshire  is  good-looking,  but  wants  some  of  the  sym- 
metry and  aptitude  to  fatten  which  characterize  the  short-horn,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  contributed  to  build  up  this  valuable  breed  on  the  basis 
of  the  original  stock  of  the  county  of  Ayr." 

44.  Yield  of  Miik  of  Ayrshire  Cowso — "  Youatt  estimates  the  daily  yield  of 
an  Ayrshire  cow,  for  the  first  two  or  three  months  after  calving,  at  five 
gallons  a  day,  on  an  average ;  for  the  next  three  months,  at  three  gallons ; 
and  for  the  next  four  months,  at  one  gallon  and  a  half.  This  would  be  850 
gallons  as  the  annual  average  of  a  cow;  but,  allowing  for  some  unproductive 
cows,  he  estimates  the  average  of  a  dairy  at  600  gallons  per  annum  for  each 
cow.  Three  gallons  and  a  half  of  tlie  Ayrshire  cow's  milk  Avill  yield  one 
and  a  half  pounds  of  butter.  lie  therefore  reckons  257  lbs.  of  butter,  or 
514  lbs.  of  cheese,  at  the  rate  of  24  lbs.  to  28  gallons  of  milk,  as  the  yield 
of  every  cow,  at  a  fair  and  perhaps  rather  low  average,  in  an  Ayrshire 
dairy,  during  the  year.  Alton  sets  the  yield  much  higher,  saying  that 
"  thousands  of  the  best  Ayrshire  dairy-cows,  when  in  prime  condition  and 
well  fed,  produce  1,000  gallons  of  milk  per  annum;  that  in  general  three 
and  three-quarters  to  four  gallons  of  their  milk  will  yield  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  butter ;  and  that  27  j  gallons  of  their  milk  will  make  21  lbs.  of  full- 
milk  cheese."  Mr.  Eankin  puts  it  lower — at  about  650  to  700  gallons  to 
each  cow ;  on  his  own  farm  of  inferior  soil,  his  dairy  produced  an  average 
of  550  gallons  only." 

45.  ¥ie!d  of  Milk  of  Breeds  Compared. — "  In  a  series  of  experiments  on  the 
Earl  of  Chesterfield's  dairy  farm,  at  Bradley  Hall,  interesting  as  giving 
positive  data  on  which  to  form  a  judgment  as  to  the  yield,  it  was  found  that, 
in  the  height  of  the  season,  the  Holderness  cows  gave  seven  gallons  and  one 
quart  per  diem ;  the  long-horns  and  Alderneys,  four  gallons  and  three 
quarts;  the  Devons,  four  gallons  and  one  quart;  and  that,  when  made  into 
butter,  the  above  quantities  gave,  res2:)ectively,  3Si  ounces,  28  ounces,  and 
25  ounces. 

"  The  Ayrshire,  a  cow  fiir  smaller  than  the  Holderness,  at  five  gallons  of 
milk  and  34  ounces  of  butter  per  day,  gives  a  fair  average  as  to  yield  of 


44  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

milk,  and  an  enormous  production  of  butter,  giving  witiiin  four  and  a  half 
ounces  as  much  from  her  five  gallons  ns  the  Holderness  from  her  seven  gal- 
lons and  one  quart ;  her  rate  being  nearly  seven  ounces  to  the  gallon,  while 
tliat  of  the  Holderness  is  considerably  under  six  ounces. 

"  According  to  Mr.  Ilarley,  the  most  approved  shape  and  marks  of  a  good 
dairy  cow  are  as  follows:  Head  small,  long,  and  narrowtoward  the  muzzle; 
horns  small,  clear,  bent,  and  placed  at  considerable  distance  from  each  other ; 
eyes  not  large,  but  brisk  and  lively  ;  neck  slender  and  long,  tapering  toward 
the  head,  with  a  little  loose  skin  below;  shoulders  and  fore  quartei-s  light 
and  thin ;  hind  quarters  large  and  broad ;  back  straight,  and  joints  slack 
and  open ;  carcass  deep  in  the  rib ;  tail  small  and  long,  reaching  to  the  heels ; 
legs  small  and  short,  with  firm  joints ;  udder  square,  but  a  little  oblong, . 
stretching  forward,  thin-skinned,  and  capacious,  but  not  low  hung;  teats  or 
paps  small,  pointing  outwai-d,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each  other ; 
milk-veins  capacious  and  prominent ;  skin  loose,  thin,  and  s<ift,  like  a  glove ; 
hair  short,  soft,  and  woolly;  general  figure,  when  in  flesh,  handsome  and 
well  proportioned." 

46.  The  Ayrshires  for  the  Dairy  — Their  Value  Considered.— Upon  this 
point  Mr.  Flint  quotes  and  indorses  the  following  opinion  : 

"For  purely  dairy  purposes,  the  Ayrshire  cow  deserves  the  first  place. 
In  consequence  of  her  small,  symmetrical,  and  compact  body,  combined  with 
a  well-formed  chest  and  a  capacious  s'omach,  there  is  little  waste,  compara- 
tivel}'^  speaking,  through  the  respirator}'  system;  while,  at  the  same  time, 
tiiere  is  very  complete  assimilation  of  the  food,  and  thus  she  converts  a  large 
proportion  of  her  food  into  milk.  So  remarkable  is  this  fact,  that  all  dairy 
farmei-s  who  have  any  experience  on  the  point,  agree  in  stating  that  an 
Ayrshire  cow  generally  gives  a  larger  return  of  milk  for  the  food  consumed 
than  a  cow  of  any  other  hreed.  Tlie  absolute  quantity  may  not  be  so  great, 
but  it  is  obtained  at  a  less  cost ;  and  this  is  the  point  upon  which  the  question 
of  profit  depends." 

47.  The  Jersey  or  Alderaey  fow. — Tliere  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion 
about  the  value  of  this  breed  of  cows.  It  is  our  opinion  that  they  are  the 
most  Valuable  of  all,  where  only  one  or  two  are  to  be  kept,  and  when  butter 
is  the  main  object.  The  milk  of  an  Alderney  cow  is  the  richest  of  all  for 
household  consumption,  and  makes  the  most  and  best  butter;  and  the  cow 
is  generally  very  docile,  and  in  her  native  country  is  frequently  kept  upon 
very  much  such  food  as  we  keep  a  pig  upon  in  this  country.  Tlie  greatest 
olijection  that  we  have  heard  urged  upon  them  is  their  small  size  and  lack 
of  beauty,  as  compared  with  the  symmetrical  forms  of  Durhams,  Devons, 
Ayrshires,  and  some  of  our  natives.  It  is  objected,  too,  that  butter  and 
cheese  made  from  Alderney  cows'  milk  will  not  keep,  because  it  is  "  too  rich." 
If  it  is  mixed  with  other  milk,  it  improves  both,  for  then  the  butter  and 
cheese  are  rich,  and  have  no  hu-k  of  keeping  qualities. 

48.  Ori.Tin  and  Description  of  Jersey  Cows. — "  The  Jersey  race  is  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  originally  from  Kormandy,  in  the  northern  part  of 


IV 


ImportGtL  Datcii    Cow  luiported    DiLtch     BiilL 


PLATE    IV. 

(Page  44.) 

This  picture  is  a  stud}-  of  four  of  the  improved  breeds  of  cattle 
which  are  briefly  described  in  Chapter  I.,  pages  31  to  51  ;  and  with 
the  other  two  upon  Plate  III.,  the  reader  has,  as  it  were,  at  one 
view,  representatives  of  the  Durham,  Devon,  Hereford,  Ayrshire, 
Jersey  or  Alderney,  and  the  improved  Dutch — six  of  the  most  im- 
portant breeds  of  imported  cattle.  These  beautiful  pictures,  with 
what  we  have  said  of  the  animals,  will  give  those  who  have  no  op- 
portunity of  studying  them  alive,  a  very  good  insight  of  their  varied 
form  and  character.  For  this  they  should  be  highly  valued,  as  they 
are  true  representations  from  life. 


Seo.  3.]  COWS— BREEDS  COMPAKED.  45 

France.  The  cows  have  been  long  celebrated  for  the  production  of  very 
rich  milk  and  cream,  but  till  within  a  quarter  of  a  century  they  were  com- 
paratively coarse,  ugly,  and  ill-shaped.  Improvements  have  been  very 
marked,  but  the  form  of  the  animal  is  still  far  from  satisfying  the  eye.  The 
head  of  the  pure  Jersey  is  fine  and  tapering,  the  cheek  small,  the  throat 
clean,  the  muzzle  fine  and  encircled  with  a  light  stripe,  the  nostril  high  and 
open  ;  the  horns  smooth,  crumpled,  not  very  thick  at  the  base,  tapering,  and 
tipped  with  black ;  ears  small  and  thin,  deep  orange  color  inside ;  eyes  full 
and  placid ;  neck  straight  and  fine ;  chest  broad  and  deep ;  barrel  hooped, 
broad  and  deep,  well  ribbed  up ;  back  straight  from  the  withers  to  the  hip, 
and  from  the  top  of  the  hip  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail ;  tail  fine,  at  right 
angles  with  the  back,  and  hanging  down  to  the  hocks  ;  skin  thin,  light  color, 
and  mellow,  covered  with  fine,  soft  hair;  fore  legs  short,  straight,  and  fine 
below  the  knee;  arm  swelling  and  full  above  ;  hind  quarters  long  and  well 
filled;  hind  legs  short  and  straight  below  the  hocks,  with  bones  rather  fine, 
squarely  placed,  and  not  too  close  together;  hoofs  small;  udder  full  in  size, 
in  line  with  the  belly,  extending  Avell  np  behind ;  teats  of  medium  size, 
squarely  placed,  and  wide  apart,  and  milk-veins  very  prominent.  The  color 
is  generally  cream,  dun,  or  yellow,  with  more  or  less  white,  and  the  fine 
head  and  neck  give  the  cows  and  heifers  a  fawn-like  appearance,  and  make 
them  objects  of  attraction  in  the  park ;  but  the  hind  quarters  are  often  too 
narrow  to  look  well,  particularly  to  those  who  judge  animals  from  the 
amount  of  fat  they  carry." 

49.  Fattening  Properties  of  a  Jtrsey  €ow. — "  It  is  asserted  by  Colonel  Le 
Couteur,  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  that,  contrary  to  the  general  opinion  here, 
the  Jersey  cow,  when  old  and  no  longer  wanted  as  a  milker,  will,  when  dry 
and  fed,  fatten  rapidly,  and  produce  a  good  quantity  and  excellent  quality 
of  butchers'  meat.  An  old  cow,  he  says,  was  put  up  to  fatten  in  October, 
1850,  weighing  1,125  lbs.,  and  when  killed,  the  6th  of  January,  1851,  she 
weighed  1,330  lbs.,  having  gained  205  lbs.  in  98  days,  on  20  lbs.  of  hay,  a 
little  wheat-straw,  and  30  lbs.  of  roots — consisting  of  carrots,  Swedes,  and 
mangel-wurzel — a  day." 

50.  The  Short-ljorn  Durham  €ow. — There  is  no  room  for  dispute  about  the 
Durhams  being  good  for  beet'.  For  butter  or  for  general  dairy  purposes,  I 
shoidd  not  choose  them.     Mr.  Flint  says: 

"In  sections  where  the  climate  is  moist  and  the  food  abundant  and  rich, 
some  fiimilies  of  the  short-horns  may  be  valuable  for  the  dairy ;  but  they 
are  most  frequently  bred  exclusively  for  beef  in  this  country,  and  in  sections 
where  they  have  attained  the  highest  perfection  of  form  and  beauty,  so  litle 
is  thought  of  their- milking  qualities,  that  they  are  often  not  milked  at  all, 
the  calf  being  allowed  to  run  with  the  dam." 

Crosses,  however,  of  this  breed  upon  other  breeds  have  produced  excellent 
milkers.  In  Westchester  County,  N.  Y.,  there  is  a  valuable  strain  of  daiiy 
stock  known  as  "  Dutch  and  Durham." 

51.  The  Dutch  Cow. — The    old   Holland    stock    shows    a    very    symmet- 


4G  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Ciiap.  I. 

rical,  handsome  form,  but  not  quite  as  much  so  as  the  Durham,  which  ■was 
made  uji,  it  is  generall}'  su])posed,  by  a  cross  of  the  Dutch  breed  upon  the 
Teeawater  stock.  The  Dutch  cow  is  not  as  heavy  an  animal  as  the  improved 
Durham,  but  she  is  more  highly  esteemed  for  dairy  purposes. 

52.  The  Hfreford  f ow. — '•  Tiie  Hereford  cattle  derive  their  name  from  a 
county  in  the  western  part  of  England.  Tiieir  general  characteristics  are  a 
white  face,  sometimes  mottled;  white  throat,  the  white  generally  extending 
back  on  the  neck,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  still  farther  along  on  the 
back.  The  color  of  the  rest  of  the  body  is  red,  generally  dark,  but  some- 
times light.  Eighty  years  ago  the  best  Hereford  cattle  were  mottled  or 
roan  all  over;  and  some  of  the  best  herds,  down  to  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  were  either  all  mottled,  or  had  the  mottled  or  speckled  face.  The 
exi)ression  of  the  face  is  mild  and  lively ;  tlie  forehead  open,  broad,  and 
large ;  the  eyes  bright  and  full  of  vivacity ;  the  horns  glossy,  slender,  and 
spreading ;  the  head  small,  though  larger  and  not  quite  so  clean  as  that  of 
the  Devons;  the  lower  jaw  iinc;  neck  long  and  slender;  chest  deep;  breast- 
bone large,  prominent,  and  very  muscular;  the  shoulder-blade  light ;  shoulder 
full  and  soft ;  brisket  and  loins  large ;  hips  well  developed,  and  on  a  level 
with  the  chine ;  hind  quarters  long  and  well  filled  in ;  buttocks  on  a  level 
with  the  back,  neither  falling  olf  nor  raised  above  the  hind  quarters;  tail 
slender,  well  set  on ;  hair  fine  and  soft ;  body  round  and  full ;  carcass  deep 
and  well  formed,  or  cylindrical ;  bone  small ;  thigh  short  and  well  made ; 
legs  short  and  straight,  and  slender  below  the  knee ;  as  handlers  very  excel- 
lent, especially  mellow  to  the  touch  on  the  back,  the  shoulder,  and  along  the 
sides,  the  skin  being  soft,  flexible,  of  medium  thickness,  rolling  on  the  neck 
and  the  hips ;  hair  bright ;  face  almost  bare,  whicii  is  characteristic  of  pure- 
bred Ilercfords.  They  belong  to  the  middle-horned  division  of  the  cattle 
of  Great  Britain,  to  which  tliey  are  indigenous." 

Tliere  are  individual  good  milkers  among  the  Ilerefords,  as  there  are 
among  the  Durhams,  but  like  them,  we  must  say  they  are  better  for  beef 
than  milk.  "We  certainly  never  should  select  the  Ilereford  breed  for  dairy 
purposes.  The  form  of  the  cow,  as  represented  among  the  specimens  we 
have  seen  of  the  best  herds  in  this  countiy,  is  that  of  a  beef-producing  ani- 
mal, or  a  breed  for  good  working  oxen,  for  which  it  is  noted. 

53.  The  Devon  Cow. — "This  beautiful  race  of  cattle  dates  farther  back 
than  any  well-established  breed  among  us.  It  goes  generally  under  the 
simple  name  of  Devon ;  but  the  cattle  of  the  southern  part  of  the  county, 
from  which  the  race  derives  its  name,  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the 
northern,  having  a  larger  and  coarser  frame,  and  far  less  tendency  to  fatten, 
though  their  dairy  qualities  are  superior. 

"  The  Korth  Devons  are  remarkable  for  hardihood,  symmetry,  and  beauty, 
and  are  generally  bred  for  work  and  for  beef  rather  than  for  the  dairy. 
The  head  is  fine  and  well  set  on ;  the  horns  of  medium  lengtli,  generally 
curved  ;  color  usually  bright  blood-red,  but  sometimes  inclining  to  yellow  ; 
skin  thin  and  orange-yellow ;  hair  of  medium  length,  soft,  and  silky,  making 


Seo.  3.]  COWS— BEEEDS  COMPARED.  47 

the  animals  remarkable  fine  handlers ;  muzzle  of  the  nose  white;  eyes  full 
and  mild ;  ears  yellowish,  or  orange-color  inside,  of  moderate  size ;  neck 
rather  long,  with  little  dewlap  ;  shoulders  oblique  ;  legs  small  and  straight, 
and  feet  in  proportion ;  chest  of  good  width ;  ribs  round  and  expanded ; 
loins  of  first-rate  quality,  long,  wide,  and  fleshy ;  hips  round,  of  medium 
width  ;  rumj)  level ;  tail  full  near  the  setting  on,  tapering  to  the  tip  ;  thighs 
of  the  bull  and  ox  muscular  and  full,  and  high  in  the  flank,  though  in  the 
cow  sometimes  thought  to  be  too'light;  the  size  medium,  generally  called 
small. 

"  As  milkers,  they  do  not  excel,  perhaps  they  may  be  said  not  to  equal, 
the  other  breeds,  and  they  have  a  reputation  of  being  decidedly  below  the 
average.  In  their  native  country  the  general  average  of  a  dairy  is  one 
pound  of  butter  per  day  during  the  summer. 

"  Tliey  are  bred  for  beef  and  for  work,  and  not  for  the  dairy,  and  their 
yield  of  milk  is  small,  though  of  a  rich  quality. 

"  On  the  whole,  whatever  may  be  our  judgment  of  this  breed,  the  faults 
of  the  North  Devon  cow  can  hardly  be  overlooked  from  our  present  point 
of  view.  The  rotundity  of  form  and  compactness  of  frame,  though  they 
contribute  to  her  remarkable  beauty,  constitute  an  objection  to  her  as  a  dairy 
cow,  since  it  is  generally  thought  that  the  peculiarity  of  form  which  disposes 
an  animal  to  take  on  fat  is  somewhat  incompatible  with  good  milking  quali- 
ties, and  hence  Youatt  says:  'For  the  dairy,  the  North  Devons  must  be 
acknowledged  to  be  inferior  to  several  other  breeds.  The  milk  is  good,  and 
yields  more  than  the  average  proportion  of  cream  and  butter;  but  it  is 
deficient  in  quantity.'  He  also  maintains  that  the  value  of  this  breed  for 
milk  could  not  be  improved  without  probable  or  certain  detriment  to  its 
grazing  qualities. 

"But  the  fairest  test  of  its  fitness  for  the  dairy  is  to  be  found  in  the 
estimation  in  which  distinguished  Devon  breeders  themselves  have  held  it 
in  this  respect.  A  scale  of  points  of  excellence  in  this  breed  was  established 
some  time  ago  by  the  best  judges  in  England  ;  and  it  has  since  been  adopted, 
with  but  slight  changes,  in  this  country.  These  judges,  naturally  prejudiced 
in  favor  of  the  breed,  if  prejudiced  at  all,  made  this  scale  to  embrace  one 
hundred  points,  no  animal  to  be  regarded  as  perfect  unless  it  excelled  in  all 
of  them.  Each  part  of  the  body  was  assigned  its  real  value  in  the  scale:  a 
faultless  head,  for  instance,  was  estimated  at  four ;  a  deep,  round  chest  at 
fifteen,  etc.  If  the  animal  was  defective  in  any  part,  the  number  of  i)oints 
which  represented  the  value  of  that  part  in  the  scale  was  to  be  deducted  ^ro 
rata  from  the  hundred,  in  determining  its  merits.  But  in  this  scale  the  cow 
is  so  lightly  esteemed  for  the  dairy,  that  the  udder,  the  size  and  shape  of 
which  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  in  determining  the  capacity  of  the  milch 
cow,  is  set  down  as  worth  only  one  point,  while,  in  the  same  scale,  the  horns 
and  ears  are  valued  at  two  points  each,  and  the  color  of  the  nose  and  the 
expression  of  the  eye  are  valued  at  four  points  each.  Supposing,  therefore, 
that  each  of  these  points  was  valued  at  one  dollar,  and  a  perfect  North 


48  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

Devon  co^v  was  valued  at  one  luindred  dollars;  then  anotlier  cow  of  the 
same  blood,  and  equal  to  the  first  in  every  respect,  except  in  her  udder, 
which  is  such  as  to  make  it  certain  that  she  can  never  be  capable  of  giving 
milk  enough  to  nourish  her  calf,  must  be  worth,  according  to  tiie  estimation 
of  the  best  Devon  breeders,  jiinet\--nine  dollars !  It  is  safe,  therefore,  to  say 
that  an  animal  whose  udder  and  lacteal  glands  are  regarded,  by  those  who 
best  know  her  capacities  and  her  merits,  as  of  only  one  quarter  part  as  much 
consequence  as  the  color  of  her  nose,  or  half  as  much  as  the  shape  and  size 
of  her  horns,  can  not  be  recommended  for  the  dairy.  The  improved  Xor.h 
Devon  cow  may  be  classed,  in  this  respect,  with  the  Hereford,  neither  of 
which  have  well-developed  milk-vessels — a  point  of  the  utmost  consequence 
to  the  practical  dairyman." 

5i.  The  3Iilk-5Iirrori — Tliis  is  a  term  given  in  the  Guenon  method  of 
selecting  good  cows,  to  the  escutcheon  formed  by  the  change  of  direction  in 
the  hair  on  the  rear  part  of  the  udder  and  parts  adjacent.  If  this  n'.irror  is 
large,  it  is  supposed  to  indicate  a  good  milker.  For  the  better  understanding 
of  it,  we  recommend  a  careful  study  of  the  "  milk-mirror,"  and  see  how  it 
is  generally  developed  upon  all  real  good  milkers — that  is,  good  for  quantity 
rather  than  quality. 

"Milk-mirrors  vary  in  position,  extent,  and  the  figure  they  represent. 
They  may  be  divided,  according  to  their  position,  into  mirroi-s  or  escutcheons, 
jiroperly  so  called,  or  into  lower  and  upper  tufts,  or  escutcheons.  The  latter 
are  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  former,  and  are  situated  in  close 
]>roximity  to  the  vulva,  as  seen  in  difierent  breeds  of  cows.  They  are  very 
common  on  cows  of  bad  milking  races,  but  are  verj-  rarely  seen  on  the  best 
milch  cows.  They  consist  of  one  or  two  ovals,  or  small  bands  of  up-growing 
hair,  and  serve  to  indicate  the  continuance  of  the  flow  of  milk.  The  period 
is  short  in  proportion  as  the  tufts  are  large.  They  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  escutcheon  proper,  which  is  often  extended  up  to  the  vulva.  They 
arc  separated  from  it  by  bands  of  hair,  more  or  less  large,  as  you  will  find 
from  careful  examination." 

It  requires  some  skill  to  determine  the  exact  size  of  a  milk-mirror,  since  it 
is  not  equally  m'cII  defined  in  all  cows,  being  at  first  sight  apparently  large 
in  some,  which,  upon  close  examination,  will  show  faults — that  is,  that  tlie 
escutcheon  of  out-growing  hairs  is  broken  by  tufts  of  down-growing  hairs. 
Mr.  Flint  says: 

"  We  often  find  cows  whose  milk-mirror  at  first  sight  appears  very  large, 
but  which  arc  only  medium  milkers ;  and  it  will  usually  be  found  that  lateral 
indentations  greatly  diminish  the  surface  of  up-growing  hair.     Many  errors  ■ 
are  committed  in  estimating  the  value  of  such  cows,  from  a  want  of  attention 
to  the  real  extent  of  the  milk-mirror. 

"  All  the  interruptions  in  the  surface  of  the  mirror  indicate  a  diminution 
of  the  quantity  of  milk,  with  the  exception,  however,  of  small  oval  or 
elliptical  plates,  which  are  found  in  the  mirror,  on  the  back  part  of  the 
udders  of  the  best  cows. 


PLATE    V. 

(Page  48.) 

Tins  is  a  very  instructive  picture  to  every  young  farmer,  and  there 
are  a  good  many  old  ones  who  may  make  of  it  a  vahiable  study. 
Many  persons  are  not  aware  that  the  age  of  a  suckling  calf,  week  by 
week,  can  be  told  by  examining  the  teeth.  Look  at  these  drawings 
and  see  how  easy  it  is  to  learn  the  art — an  art  which  every  farmer's 
boy  should  undei'stand.  So  the  age  of  a  cow,  as  well  as  a  horse, 
can  be  told  from  year  to  year,  by  looking  at  the  teeth,  more  cer- 
tainly than  by  the  horns.  For  this  purpose  this  plate  possesses 
great  value ;  but  it  has  a  greater  one  in  the  illustration  of  what  is 
now  well  known  as  the  "milk  mirror,"  which  is  described  at  ^  54, 
and  much  more  fully  in  Guenon's  work,  from  which  the  theory  is 
derived.  In  this  plate  the  mirror  is  represented  by  coloring  the  pic- 
ture so  as  to  show  the  field  of  upturned  hair  around  the  udder  in  its 
most  fully  developed  form  upon  No.  1,  and  quite  defective  in  No.  4. 
By  studying  these,  and  comparing  them  with  living  cows,  something 
of  the  theory  may  be  learned.  It  is  very  fully  illustrated  in  Flint's 
work  upon  milch  cows  and  dairy  farming.  It  is  .a  subject  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  all  farmers. 


Sko.  8.]  COWS— THE   MILK-MIRROR.  49 

In  a  fat  cow,  with  an  inflated  udder,  the  mirror  would  appear  larger 
than  it  really  is ;  while  in  a  lean  cow,  with  a  loose  and  wrinkled  udder,  it 
.appears  smaller.  Fat  will  cover  faults ;  this  is  a  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  in 
selecting  a  cow ;  because  good  fatting  qualities  are  not  the  qualities  which 
the  purchaser  is  desirous  of  obtaining. 

"  These  marks,  though  often  seen  on  many  good  cows,  should  be  considered 
as  certain  only  when  the  veins  of  the  perineum  form,  under  the  skin,  a  kind 
of  net-work,  which,  without  being  very  apparent,  may  be  felt  by  a  pressure 
on  them,  when  the  milk-veins  on  the  belly  are  well  developed,  though  less 
knotted  and  less  prominent  than  in  cows  of  the  first  class  ;  in  fine,  when  tlie 
udder  is  well  developed,  and  presents  veins  which  are  sufficiently  numerous, 
though  not  very  large. 

"  There  are  cases  where  a  knowledge  and  careful  examination  of  the  form 
and  size  of  the  mirror  becomes  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  is  well  known 
that  certain  signs  or  marks  of  great  milkers  are  developed  only  as  the 
capacities  of  tlie  animal  herself  are  fully  and  completely  developed  by  age. 
The  milk-veins,  for  instance,  are  never  so  large  and  prominent  in  heifers  and 
young  cows  as  in  old  ones,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  udder,  and  the 
veins  of  the  udder  and  perineum,  all  of  which  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
observe  in  the  selection  of  milch  cows.  Those  signs,  then,  which  in  cows 
arrived  at  maturity  are  almost  sufiicient  in  themselves  to  warrant  a  conclu- 
sion as  to  their  merits  as  milkers,  are,  to  a  great  extent,  wanting  in  younger 
animals,  and  altogether  in  calves,  of  which  there  is  often  doubt  whether  they 
shall  be  raised ;  and  here  a  knowledge  of  the  form  of  the  mirror  is'^f 
immense  advantage,  since  it  gives,  at  the  outset,  and  before  any  expense  is 
incurred,  a  somewhat  reliable  means  of  judging  of  the  future  milking 
capacities  of  the  animal,  or,  if  a  male,  of  the  probability  of  his  transmitting 
milking  qualities  to  his  oflFspring." 

55.  What  Kind  of  Cows  to  Buy.-^'  In  buying  dairy  stock,  tlie  farmer  gen- 
erally finds  it  for  his  interest  to  select  young  heifers.  Tliey  give  the  promise 
of  longer  usefulness.  But  it  is  often  the  case  that  older  cows  are  selected, 
with  the  design  of  using  them  for  the  dairy  for  a  limited  period,  and  then 
feeding  them  for  the  butcher.  In  either  case,  it  is  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to 
choose  animals  in  low  or  medium  condition.  The  farmer  can  not  ordinarily 
afibrd  to  buy  fat;  it  is  more  properly  his  business  to  make  it  and  to  have  it 
to  sell.  Good  and  well-marked  cows,  in  poor  condition,  will  rapidly  gain  in 
all  flesli  products  when  removed  to  better  pastures  and  higher  keeping,  and 
they  cost  less  in  the  original  purchase." 

56.  General  Conclusions. — We  have  now  devoted  all  the  space  that  we  can 
afibrd  to  the  subject  of  cows.  We  have  given  them  a  large  share  of  our 
attention,  because  we  consider  them  of  more  importance  than  any  other 
single  branch  of  our  domestic  animals.-  They  not  only  furnish  a  great 
amount  of  food,  in  milk,  cream,  butter,  cheese,  and  meat,  when  done  fur- 
nishing milk,  but  they  are  the  foundation  of  prosperity  in  American  farming. 
"  A  good  cow  may  produce  a  bad  calf,"  but  it  is  only  a  may-be — it  does  not 


50  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

hold  as  a  rule.     It  is  therefore  very  important  to  select  good  cows,  and  keep 
none  but  good  cows — certainly  never  breed  from  a  poor  one. 

We  shall  now  give  some  important  facts  relative  to  other  branches  of  neat 
stock.  And  first  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  following  facts  concerning  bulls 
of  various  breeds. 

57.  The  Ayrshire  Bull. — In  comparing  this  with  those  of  other  breeds,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Ayrshircs  are  not  bred  for  beef,  in  their 
own  country,  as  much  as  they  are  for  dairy  purposes.  For  working  oxen, 
they  are  of  fair  quality,  but  not  the  best.  For  feeding  purposes,  they  should 
be  crossed  with  Durhams. 

"  It  is  the  opinion  of  good  breeders,  that  a  high-bred  short-horn  bull  and 
a  large-sized  Ayrshire  cow  will  produce  a  calf  which  will  come  to  maturity 
earlier,  and  attain  greater  weight,  and  sell  for  more  money,  than  a  pure-bred 
Ayrshire.  This  cross,  with  feeding  from  tlie  start,  may  be  sold  fat  at  two  or 
three  years  old,  the  improvement  being  especially  seen  in  the  earlier  matu- 
rity and  the  size." 

58.  The  Jersey  Bull. — So  far  as  beauty  is  concerned  in  the  sexes,  the 
males  of  the  Jersey  or  Alderney  stock  have  the  largest  share.  It  is  a 
somewhat  curious  physiological  fact,  that  the  Alderney  cows  in  this  country 
produce  two  or  three  times  as  many  bulls  as  heifers,  so  that  bulls  can  gener- 
ally be  purchased  at  lower  prices  than  cows. 

"The  bulls  are  usually  very  different  iu  character  and  disposition  from 
the  cows,  and  are  much  inclined  to  become  restive  and  cross  at  the  age  of 
tmee  or  four  years,  unless  their  treatment  is  uniformly  gentle  and  firm.  In 
all  portraits  of  Jersey  bulls,  they  are  represented  as  handsomer  animals 
than  they  are  generally  considered  by  American  farmers. 

59.  Short-horn  or  Durham  Bull. — Tliis  breed  has  been  more  largely 
imported  and  bred  from  in  the  United  States  than  any,  in  fact  all,  othere. 
It  is  the  great  beef-producing  breed  o^  the  West,  particularly  in  Ohio  and 
Kentucky. 

"  The  desirable  characteristics  of  the  short-horn  bull  may  be  summed  up, 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  best  breeders,  as  follows:  He  should  have 
a  short  but  fine  head,  very  broad  across  the  eyes,  tapering  to  the  nose,  with 
a  nostril  full  and  prominent;  the  nose  itself  should  be  of  a  rich  flesh-color; 
eyes  bright  and  mild  ;  ears  somewhat  large  and  thin  ;  horns  slightly  curved 
and  rather  flat,  well  set  on  a  long,  broad,  muscular  neck ;  chest  wide,  deep, 
and  projecting;  shoulders  fine,  oblique,  well  formed  into  the  chine;  fore 
legs  short,  with  upper  arm  large  and  powerful ;  barrel  round,  deep,  well 
ribbed  liome ;  hips  wide  and  level ;  back  straight  from  the  withers  to  the 
setting  on  of  the  tail,  but  short  from  hip  to  chine ;  skin  soft  and  velvety  to 
the  touch  ;  moderately  thick  hair,  plentiful,  soft,  and  mossy." 

This  picture  gives  only  a  fair  impression  of  the  fine  form  of  the  best 
animals  of  this  breed. 

CO.  The  Dutch  Bull. — The  form  of  Dutch  and  Durham  bulls  is  not  unlike. 
W.  W.  Chenery,  of  Watertown,  Mass.,  whose  name  has  since  become  famous 


Seo.  4.] 


BEEVES. 


51 


as  being  identified  with  the  alarming  cattle  disease  prevailing  iu  Massachu- 
setts in  the  summer  of  1860,  is  one  of  the  largest  importers  of  the  valuable 
stock  known  as  the  Dutch  breed. 

61,  The  Hereford  Bull.— This  always  fairly  represents  this  good  breed  of 
cattle.  Good,  at  least,  for  beef,  and  excellent  for  working  oxen.  Their 
beef  rates  highest  of  all  in  the  London  market,  and  the  few  grades  which 
have  been  brought  to  New  York  have  been  higlily  esteemed.  The  objection 
to  them  is,  that  they  do  not  come  so  early  to  maturity,  or,  rather,  to  a  salable 
condition,  as  the  Durhams.  The  breeders  of  Herefords  contend  that  the 
keeping  that  will  starve  Durhams  will  keep  the  Herefords  in  a  thriving 
condition. 

62.  The  Devon  Bull. — In  color  and  form  a  Devon  bull  is  perfect ;  always 
of  a  pure  bay-red  color,  of  medium  size,  and  progenitor  of  the  handsomest 
working  oxen  in  America.  The  deficiency  in  size  of  the  pure  Devons,  for 
working  oxen,  is  made  up  by  crossing  upon  larger  animals.  These  grade 
oxen  make  as  fine  beef  as  any  brought  to  the  New  York  market. 


SECTION  IV.-BEEVES.      \ 

ross  and  Net  Weight  of  Beef  Cattle. — ^The  ordinary 
rule  of  ascertaining  the  net  weight  of  beef  cattle 
from  the  live  weight  on  the  scales  varies,  accord- 
ing to  quality,  size,  and  age,  and  after  all,  is  no  rule 
at  all,  because  it  is  entirely  a  matter  of  agreement 
between  the  parties  at  the  time. 

It  also  depends  upon  the  locality.  In  New  York, 
the  net  weight  of  the  beef  in  the  quartere  only  is 
wanted.  In  Boston,  the  hide  and  fat  are  included, 
counting  those  products  equal  to  one  quarter  of  the 
beef,  or,  rather,  calling  the  whole  five  quarters.  Tliere 
the  net  weight  of  a  fat  bullock  is  estimated  at  60  to 
68  lbs.  of  each  100  of  live  weight.  In  extra  fine 
animals  the  per-centage  is  higher. 
In  New  York,  where  the  hide  and  fat  are  left  out  of  the  calculation,  the 
bullocks  are  estimated  at  55  to  60 lbs.  net  to  each  100 lbs.  gross;  and  if  the 
animal  is  very  fine,  the  estimate  runs  from  61  to  61  lbs.  net  to  each  100  lbs. 
gross.  Extraordinary  animals  sometimes  dress  65  or  66  lbs.,  and  even  higher, 
and  ordinary  and  lean  stock  run  from  55  down  to  47  lbs.,  though  not  often 
below  50  lbs.,  or  one  half  the  live  weight  at  home.  The  common  practice 
at  the  "West  is,  to  weigh  fatted  cattle  some  hours  after  feeding  and  a  little 
exercise,  and  calculate  the  net  weight  at  55  lbs.  per  100  of  the  live  weight. 


52  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


64.  The  Lai^est  Bollock— The  Great  Massachnsetts  Steer.— The  question 
of  "  what  is  the  greatest  weiglit  of  any  bullock  ?"  we  definitely  answer  and 
place  on  record  in  the  following  notices.  The  heaviest  alive  and  dead  was 
sold  by  John  Sanderson,  of  Bernardstown,  Mass.,  in  February,  1S62,  to 
Bryan  Lawrence,  butcher,  Centre  Market,  New  York,  by  whom  he  was 
publicly  exhibited,  killed,  and  weighed.  His  live  weight  "at  home  was  36 
cwt.  Here,  when  very  empty,  33  cwt.  His  dead  weight  was,  fore  quarters, 
743,  732—1,475  lbs.  Hind  quarters,  496,  502—993  lbs.  Total,  2,473 
lbs.,  after  shrinking  a  week.  This  is  within  2  lbs.  of  75  per  cent,  of  live 
weight.  This  steer  liad  been  kept  in  a  small  yard  and  stable,  eating  meal 
and  hay  two  years ;  was  eight  years  old ;  a  cross  of  Durham  and  native 
Vermont  stock.  He  girted  back  of  shoulders,  10  ft.  8  in. ;  forward  of  liips, 
11  ft.  8  in. ;  hight,  6  ft.  3  in. ;  length  from  horns  to  tail,  9  ft.  8  in. ;  breadth 
across  hips,  3  ft.  6  in.  Tliis  is  the  largest  bullock  of  which  we  have  any 
certain  record.  TVe  also  place  upon  record  the  weights  of  several  other 
remarkable  large  bullocks.     All  stories  of  bullocks  of  40  cwt.  we  disbelieve. 

65.  The  Washington  Ox. — Tlie  ox  George  "Washington  was  5  years,  9 
months,  and  14  days  old  when  slaughtered,  in  the  year  1840. 

His  live  weight  was 3,204  lbs. 

Weight  of  one  fore  quarter 612    " 

Weight  of  the  other  fore  quarter 698    " 

Weight  of  one  hind  quarter 487    " 

Weight  of  the  other  hind  quarter 477    " 

2,174  lbs.  of  beef — 70  llis.  per  cwt.  of  lire  weight. 

Measurement  from  button  to  root  of  tail 9  fl.  7  in. 

Girth 10  "   4  " 

Hight 5  "  9  " 

From  hip  to  hip 2  '•  9  " 

The  ox  Red  Jacket,  killed  March  5,  1851, 

Weighed  alive 3,080  lbs. 

Weight  of  meat '. 2,114   " 

Lota,  31  per  cent. 

The  OX  John  Hancock,  killed  the  same  time, 

Weighed  alive 2,910n«. 

Weight  of  meat 1,946J  " 

Loss,  33  per  cent. 

Robert  L.  Pell's  two-year-old  heifer,  fatted  at  Pellham  Farm,  30  miles  up 

the  Hudson, 

Weighed  alive 2,000  lbs. 

Weight  of  beef 1,380    " 

Loss,  31  per  cent. 

66.  A  Big  Ox  in  Olden  Time. — "We  print,  as  we  find  it,  the  following 
extract  from  "  Thacher's  Military  Journal  of  the  Revolution,"  under  date  of 
June  24,  1779: 

"  I  have  just  had  the  satisfaction,  with  a  number  of  gentlemen,  of  viewing 
a  remarkably  large  /"at  ox,  which  has  been  presented  by  some  gentlemen  in 
Connecticut  to  his  Excellenc_v,  Gen.  "Washington.  He  is  6  ff.  7  in.  high,  and 
weighs  on  tlie  hoof  3,500  lbs.,  the  largest  animal  T  ever  beheld." 

67.  The  Ox  Leopard. — ^An  ox  called  "Leopard,"  raised  and  fed  by  Dr. 


1   ! 


Sbo.  4.]  BEEVES  OF  GREAT  WEIGHT.  53 


"Win.  Elmer,  of  Bridgton,  N.  J.,  was  slaughtered,  Feb.  24,  1832,  at  the  age 

of  6  years  and  8  months.     His  live  weight  was  3,360  lbs.     Size — length  from 

nose  to  rump,  10  ft.  6  in. ;  from  nose  to  end  of  tail,  15  ft. ;  girth  behind  fore 

shoulders,  9  ft.  8  in. ;  around  the  body,  10  ft.  9  in. ;  around  the  brisket,  10  ft. 

3  in. ;  length  from  shoulder  to  rump,  7  ft. ;  along  the  back  from  liorns,  9  ft. ; 

width  across  the  hip,  2  ft.  lOi  in. ;  hight  of  fore  shoulder,  5  ft.  6  in. ;  behind, 

5  ft.  8  in. ;  circumference  of  leg  below  the  knee,  1  foot. 

68.  Two  Big  Oxen  in  Pennsylvania. — We  have  a  letter  from  James  Stewart, 

Pennsylvania,  and  another  from  Andrew  M.  Frantz,  giving  the  weight  of 

two  bullocks  heavier  than  the  Washington.     One  known  as  the  "  Lancaster 

County  Ox,"  Mr.  Stewart  writes,  "  was  owned  and  fed  by  Emanuel  Landis, 

near  this  city ;  was  a  lialf-bred  Durham,  deep  red,  large  fore  quarters,  long, 

fine  horns,  and  was  over  seven  years  old.     Wm.  F.  Miller,  of  Lancaster, 

purdiased  him  for  $800,  and  slaughtered  him  on  the  22d  of  February,  1858. 

This  ox  weighed : 

Live  weight 3,387  lbs. 

Net  weight 2,409    " 

Weight  of  one  fore  quarter 747  lbs. 

Weight  of  the  other  fore  quarter 760    " 

Weight  of  one  hind  quarter 469    " 

Weight  of  the  other  hind  quarter 442    " 

2,418  lbs. 

Deduct  weight  of  hooks  for  weighing 9 

Total  net  weight 2,409  lbs. 

"  The  Berks  Ckiunty  ox,  that  was  butchered  some  years  ago  in  Philadelpliia, 

weighed  as  follows : 

live  weight. 3,350  lbs. 

Net  weight ,...  2,388   " 

Weight  of  one  fore  quarter 7321bB. 

Weight  of  the  other  fore  quarter 728    " 

Weight  of  one  hind  quarter 464    " 

Weight  of  the  other  hind  quurter 464    "       

Total  net  weight 2,338 lbs. 

"There  has  long  been  a  generous  rivalry  between  the  farmers  of  Berks 
and  Lancaster  counties  in  regard  to  which  could  grow  the  fattest  and  largest 
oxen.  As  it  now  stands,  Lancaster  is  ahead,  but  we  may  look  out  for  some- 
thing ere  long  greater  still  from  Old  JSerJcs,  for  the  resources  of  that  county 
are  astonishing,  as  even  politicians  can  testify. 

"There  was  another  steer  butchered  in  this  city,  in  February,  1856,  by 
David  Killinger,  owned  and  fed  by  Abram  Landis,  of  Manheim  township, 
that  netted  2,108  lbs.,  but  that  weight,  and  greater,  has  been  frequently 
attained  in  this  State,  and  even  in  this  county.  The  first  two  (whose  weights 
I  liave  given)  I  will  not  say  are  the  largest  cattle  ever  slaughtered,  even  in 
Pennsylvania,  but  they  are  the  largest  that  have  ever  come  under  my  obser- 
vation, and  in  regard  to  whose  weight  there  was  no  dispute.  I,  however, 
entirely  concur  with  the  writer  in  the  Tribune,  that  there  never  was  an  ox 
fed  to  the  weight  of  4,000  lbs.  gross.  An  animal  that  will  weigh  613  lbs. 
more  than  the  one  butchered  in  this  city  in  February  last,  has  certainly  never 
been  yet  produced." 


54  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

Mr.  Frantz  sajs  the  Berks  County  ox  was  fed  by  a  man  named  Soetz, 
and  was  slaughtered,  he  thinks,  in  18i6.  If  so,  his  weight  should  have  been 
known  here  and  remembered,  but  it  was  not  by  one  of  the  butchers  and 
others  that  we  thought  likely  to  know,  of  the  many  of  whom  we  sought 
information.  We  liavo  often  heard  of  heavier  bullocks,  but  lack  the  proof, 
as  in  the  case  below.  The  above  figures  are  now  matters  of  record,  where 
they  can  be  referred  to  in  future. 

69.  The  Saratoi^a  Bis  Bullock» — Since  writing  the  above,  we  see  the  fol- 
lowing in  the  Country  Gentlcvian  of  May  27,  1860 : 

"  The  Saratoga  County  Fres&  says  that  J.  M.  Cole,  of  Saratoga  Springs, 
slaughtered  an  ox,  in  1817,  whose  live  weight  was  3,520  lbs. ;  dressed, 
2,567  lbs." 

Let  Mr.  Cole  give  us  the  vouchers.  If  he  has  made  an  ox  of  that 
weight,  he  has  probably  beaten  the  world,  and  shoidd  give  the  world  the 
proof.     It  wants  to  know  certaiidy  the  weight  of  tlie  heaviest  bullock. 

70.  Weights  of  the  Crystal  Palace  Show  Cattle.— The  following  are  the  net 
weights  of  the  nine  head  of  fat  bullocks,  exhibited  as  a  show  at  the  Crystal 
Palace.  Some  of  them  were  full-blood  Kontuck}'  and  Ohio  Durhams,  and 
others,  grades  of  that  bloofl.  They  were  bought  by  Jim  Irving,  of  Washing- 
ton Market,  and  fairly  weiglied  as  follows: 

Tlie  best  pair  weighed — one,  2,178  lbs. — and  his  quarters,  60-1  and  612  lbs. 
for  the  fore  quarters,  and  480  and  482  lbs.  for  the  hind  quarters.  Tlie  other 
weighed  2,066  lbs.— the  fore  quarters  570  and  568  lbs.,  and  the  hind  ones 
470  and  458  lbs. 

Another  pair  weighed  together  3,680  lbs.  The  old  cow,  which  was 
excessively  fat,  weighed  1,460  lbs.,  dressing,  it  is  said,  73  lbs.  per  cwt.  Tlie 
best  steer  dressed  72ilb6.  per  cwt.  The  other  four  head  weighed  2,024, 
2,003,  1,930,  and  1,860  lbs. 

Forty  head  of  Illinois  grade  Durhams,  five  and  six  years  old,  sold  in  1858, 
in  the  New  York  market,  averaged  22  cwt.  each  alive,  and  one  hundred 
head  averaged  over  20  cwt.  each. 

71.  The  liaxtun  Steei". — The  Ilaxtun  steer  was  raised  by  E.  Ilaxtun,  in 
Beekman  Township,  Dntcliess  Co.,  N.  Y.  lie  was  out  of  a  cow  bought  from 
a  drove  that  came  from  near  Cleveland,  Oliio,  which  was  probably  three 
fourths  Durham,  and  a  full-bred  short-horn  bull,  of  Mr.  Sheaf's  (Dutchess 
County)  importation.  The  steer  was  called  jfths  Durham,  part  of  the  blood 
appearing  to  indicate  a  descent  from  the  long-horn  of  the  old  Kentucky 
importation.  Ilis  color  was  nearly  all  red,  having  some  whitish  roan  spots, 
and  he  was,  notwithstanding  his  great  size  and  fatness,  one  of  the  liaud- 
somest-formed  fat  bullocks  we  have  ever  seen,  and  as  firm  on  his  legs  almost 
as  he  ever  was,  and  was  in  appearance  as  fresh  and  healthy  as  ever,  taking  his 
rations  regularly.  His  feed  was  14  quarts  a  day  of  meal,  made  of  two  parts 
Indian  corn  and  one  part  oats,  and  as  much  hay  as  he  would  eat.  His  feeding 
commenced  in  the  fall,  after  he  was  four  yeai-s  old,  and  he  was  seven  years 
old  the  spring  before  he  was  killed.     Ilis  weight  at  home,  Dec.  1,  1859,  was 


Seo.  4.]  BEEVES  OF  GREAT  WEIGHT.  55 

3,472  lbs.  He  was  probably  weighed  full  at  that  time  ;  bnt  after  a  railroad 
passage  of  75  miles,  he  was  weighed  here,  Jan.  9, 1860,  before  he  was  filled  up 
with  food  and  water,  and  his  fair,  honest  weight,  as  given  by  David  Allerton, 
who  weigiicd  him,  was  3,452  lbs.  Three  days  afterward,  weighed  upon  the 
same  scales,  by  the  same  man,  with  scales  carefully  balanced,  he  weighed 
3.418  lbs.  Afterward,  upon  two  other  scales,  his  weight  was  3,419.  He  was 
sold  Jan.  10,  1860,  to  Wm.  Lalor,  of  Centre  Market,  for  $850 ;  and  was 
slaughtered  and  dressed  at  Pattei'son's  slaughter-house,  Jan.  19,  by  the  same 
man  who  dressed  the  Washington,  and  hung  until  Jan.  26,  when  the  quarters 
were  weighed,  under  the  careful  supervision  of  Barney  Bartram,  John  Harris, 
John  M.  Seaman,  and  James  L.  Stewart,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  large 
company  of  lookers-on,  many  of  whom  were  considerably  interested,  having 
invested  largely  in  the  way  of  bets  upon  the  net  weight. 

The  following  was  the  result:  fore  quarters,  700  and  668 lbs. — 1, 368 lbs. ; 
the  hind  quarters,  482  and  469  lbs.— 951  lbs. ;  total,  2,319  lbs.  This  was  2| 
lbs.  over  67j  lbs.  per  cwt.  of  the  last  live  weight.  The  shrinkage  was  esti- 
mated at  50  lbs. ;  but  he  was  hung  just  the  same  length  of  time  as  the 
Washington,  and,  like  him,  has  had  his  hide  stuffed  and  form  preserved, 
being,  up  to  that  time,  the  largest  bullock  ever  brought  to  New  York.  The 
fatting  of  this  steer  has  been  one  of  the  most  perfectly  successful  experiments 
to  produce  a  monstrous  animal,  so  evenly  formed  and  faultlessly  shaped, 
that  no  one  could  say  where  he  could  be  improved. 

72.  Other  Large  Bullocks.— A  pair  of  oxen,  called  the  "  Cayuga  Prize 
Oxen,"  was  also  sold  in  the  New  York  market,  the  same  week,  for  $700,  wliicli 
was  considered  remarkable ;  their  live  weight,  however,  was  2,865  lbs.  each ; 
they  were  six  years  old. 

The  Michigan  Farmer  of  Jan.  20, 1860,  says :  "  We  lately  gave  an  account 
of  several  fat  cattle  which  were  killed  in  tliis  city  on  the  week  before  the 
New  Year.  The  pair  weiglied  6,437  lbs.,  or  3,218  lbs.  each.  The  net  weiglit 
was  estimated  at  68 lbs.  per  cwt."  Of  some  others  the  Farmer  said:  "The 
actual  yield  of  the  cattle  killed  by  William  Smith,  in  this  market,  was  &Q  lbs. 
to  the  100  lbs.  of  live  weight,  or  2,150  lbs.  from  3,218  lbs.  It  will  be  seen 
by  this,  therefore,  how  those  great  oxen  killed  in  the  Detroit  market 
approximated  to  what  is  considered  the  largest  and  fattest  animal  ever  killed 
in  the  United  States." 

We  have  a  letter  before  us  from  Isaac  Hubbard,  of  Claremont,  N.  H., 
who  is  ninety  years  old,  but  not  too  old  to  read  with  interest  the  accounts 
of  these  fat  bullocks.  He  says  that,  seeing  an  account  of  the  Haxtun 
steer,  which  interested  him  very  much,  induced  him  to  give  the  history  of 
a  fat  bullock  fed  by  him  twenty  odd  years  ago. 

The  calf  was  dropped  Jan.  4,  1833,  and  was  then  estimated  to  weigh  100 
lbs.;  Jan.  4,  1833,  he  weighed  874  lbs. ;  Dec.  3,  1833,  1,280  lbs. ;  Jan.  5, 
1835,  1,800 lbs. ;  Dec.  26,  1835,  2,350 lbs.;  Feb.  15,  1837,  2,910 lbs. 

In  Oct.,  1838,  Mr.  H.  sold  him,  and  he  was  conveyed  to  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  weighed  3,370  lbs.     This  steer  was  bought  by  Paran  Stevens,  since  of 


56 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


[Chap.  I. 


great  hotel  notoriety,  and  was  extensively  exhibited  in  this  country  ae  "  the 
largest  ox  ever  seen."  Perhaps  some  persons  in  this  State  may  remember 
the  exhibition  of  this  mammoth  ox. 

In  1840,  this  great  show  animal  was  sent  to  England  for  exhibition  there, 
and,  it  is  said,  attracted  much  attention.  From  there  he  was  taken  to 
France  and  Belgium,  and  exhibited  as  the  great  bullock  of  the  world.  He 
was  brought  back  to  England  and  slaughtered,  but  his  weight  at  the  time, 
either  alive  or  dead,  was  not  published,  but  it  was  less  in  this  country  than 
tiiat  of  several  whose  \reights  we  have  published.  This  is  one  of  the  great 
6liow  bullocks  which  have  been  exhibited  and  advertised  as  weighing  over 
4,000  lbs.,  a  weight  that  never  has,  so  far  as  we  have  any  satisfactory  records, 
yet  been  attained ;  and  although  we  believe  that  4,000  lbs.  is  above  the 
limit  that  can  be  attained  by  one  of  the  bovine  race,  we  would  not  discourage 
the  efforts  of  those  who  have  made  noble  attempts  to  improve  this  class  of 
livestock,  both  in  form  and  quality,  and  who  will  not  be  content  until  the 
utmost  possible  limit  of  weight  is  accomplished. 

The  name  of  Mr.  Hubbard's  steer  was  "  Olympus,"  in  this  country,  but  in 
Europe  he  was  exhibited  imder  the  name  of  "  Brother  Jonathan."  He  was 
of  the  "  native  stock,"  common  in  New  Hampshire ;  his  color  a  dapple-bay 
or  red,  a  little  changeable  in  the  sun,  with  white  spots  on  the  face  and  legs. 

It  is  not,  however,  generally  profitable  to  feed  such  great  bullqcks  as  we 
liave  noticed  ;  but,  to  see  what  has  been  done,  it  will  always  be  an  interest- 
ing matter  of  reference.  So  will  be  the  matter  we  shall  give  in  the  next 
section. 


SECTION  V-STATISTICS  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  CATTLE  JilARKET, 


umbers  of  Bntchers'  Animals  Annually  Sold  in  New 
Torkt  —  Farmers  are  very  justly  accused  of  a 
neglect  of  statistical  information  in  relation  to  the 
business  upon  which  all  their  prosperity  depends. 
In  the  very  important  matter  of  furnishing  the 
cities  with  bullocks,  the  producers  had  no  means 
of  forming  estimates  of  the  needed  supply,  until  we 
instituted  reports  of  the  cattle  markets  of  all  the  prin- 
cipal cities,  and  particularly  the  city  of  New  York, 
wliich  is  an  enormous  consumer  of  fresh  beef.  To  this 
market  we  have  devoted  many  years,  attending  almost 
every  weekly  market,  and  have  given  tiie  farmers  statis- 
tical tables  of  immense  value  to  tliem.  We  now 
embody  some  of  this  useful  statistical  information, 
can  stand  as  a  table  of  permanent  reference;  and  we  earnestly 
it  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 


where  it 
commend 


Seo.  5.]  STATISTICS  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  CATTLE  MARKET.  57 

ANNUAL    RECEIPTS   FOR  TEN    TEARS  — 1854-1863. 

Tears.  Beeves.  tows.  Calves.  Sheep.  Bwine.  Ann.  Totals. 

18.54  169  864....  13,131....  68,584....  555,479....  252,328....  1,059,386 

1855 185564....  12,110...  47,969....  588,741....  318,107....  1,152,491 

1856 187  057       .  12,857....  43,081....  462,739....  345,911....  1,051,645 

1857 162,243  ...  12,840....  34,218....  444,036....  288,984....  942,321 

1858  .  191874....  10,128....  37,675....  447,445....  551,479....  1,238,601 

1859  .  205,272....      9,492....     48,769....     404,894....     399,665....     1,068,092 
1860 226,933....       7,144....     39,436....     518,750....     323,918....     l,llli,181 

1861     222,835....   5,749...  32,868....  512,366....  559,421....  1,333,239 

1862   239,486....   5,378...  30,465....  484,342. ...  1,148,209. .. .  1,907,880 

1863 264,091....   6,470....  35,709....  519,316. ...  1,101,617. .. .  1,927,203 

Total 2,055,219. . . .     95,299. . . .  418,774. . . .  4,938,108. . . .  5,289,639. . . .   12,797,039 

Av.  pr.  year . . .     205,522....       9,530....     41,877....     493,811....     528,964....     1,279,704 

WEEKLY    AVERAGE    OF   ALL   ANIMALS   FOR  TE.N  TEARS — 1854-1863. 

Tears.                               Beeves.  Cows.               Calves.  Sheep.  Swine.  Totai. 

1854  3,257 253 1,315 10,682 4,852 20,369 

1855 3,565 233 922 11,322 6,117 22,069 

1856 3,597 247 828 8,898 6,650 20,224 

1857 3,120 245 658 8,539 6,557 18,119 

1858 3,680 195 724 8,604 10,605 28,809 

1859 3,947 182 841 9,709 7,686 22,365 

1860 4,364 139 758 9,976 7,229 21,465 

1861 4,285 no 632 9,853 10,758 25,637 

1862 4,518 101 574 9,138 21,664 36,000 

1863 5,079 125 687 9,987 21,185 37,062 

The  increase  of  bullocks  in  this  decade  is  55  per  cent.  Cows  have 
fallen  off  more  than  half,  and  calves  nearly  the  same.  The  supply  of  sheep 
remains  nearly  stationary,  but  swine  have  increased  enormously.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  estimated  number  of  pounds  of  meat,  derived  from  slaughtered 
animals  in  1863,  and  the  wholesale  value.  In  the  estimate,  cows  are  added 
to  the  bullocks,  because  tlie  most  of  them,  eventually,  go  to  the  butcher. 

Beeves— 270,561,  av.  700  lbs.  uet 189,392,700  lbs.  at  9jc.  per  lb.  net S17,513,821  75 

Veal— 35,709  calves  at  75  lbs 2,678,176    "    at  10c.  per  lb.  net 267,817  50 

Sheep  and  lambs— 519,316,  at  42  lbs....   21,811,272    "    atlOc.perlb.net 2,181,127  20 

Swine— 1,101,617,  at  150  lbs 105,242,550    "    at  6^c.  per  lb.  net 10,740,765  75 

Total 379,124,697  lbs $30,708,535  20 

It  is  also  very  important  for  farmers  to  know  where  the  supply  comes 
from.  Of  210,384  bullocks  sold  in  1803,  the  si.x  following  States  furnished 
the  respective  numbers,  viz. :  Illinois,  118,692 ;  New  York,  28,985  ;  Ohio, 
19,269;  Indiana,  1-1,232;  Michigan,  9,074;  Kentucky,  0,782.  As  the  same 
proportion  holds  good  for  all  the  cattle  received  in  New  York,  it  will  be  soen 
that  Illinois  furnishes  56i  per  cent.  True,  a  good  many  credited  to  that 
State  come  from  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  other  States. 

The  proportion  of  hogs  from  Illinois  is  probably  greater  than  upon  beef 
cattle.  The  great  bulk  of  pork  from  the  hogs  slaughtered  here  is  packed 
and  sent  to  other  places  for  consumi:)iion ;  large  quantities  of  it  to  Eurojic. 
A  small  portion  of  the  beef  is  packed  and  sent  abroad.  The  great  bulk  of 
it,  and  all  the  veal  and  nearly  all  of  the  sheep,  and  a  vast  quantity  besides 
that  comes  in  ready  dressed  from  the  country,  goes  to  furnish  fresh  meat  to 
the  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  three  small  cities  in  New  Jersey,  and 
several  towns  within  fifty  miles,  ships  in  port,  and  most  of  our  armed  ships 
and  forts  and  soldiers  on  the  coast  between  Hampton  Roads  and  Key  West. 


58  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

Estimated  average  price  of  beef  cattle  per  net  pound  each  year,  185-1—63  : 
1854,  0  cents  full;  1855,  10  cents;  1S56,  9i  cents  nearly;  1857,  lOi  cents 
nearly;  1858,  Si  cents  nearly;  1859,  9  cents;  1860,  8  cents  full ;  1861,  7  J 
cents;  1862, 7§  cents ;  1863,  9i  cents.  Up  to  March,  186-1,  prices  liave  ranged 
troiii  9  to  16  cents  a  pound  net,  which  was  higher  than  before  since  1857. 

During  1863,  the  live-weight  price  of  corn-fed  hogs  ranged  from  -1  to  7 
cents  per  pound.  In  February,  1864,  it  reached  8^  and  9  cents  per  pound, 
which  was  tlie  highest  price  for  "Western  stock  ever  attained. 

That  all  who  read  this  page  may  see  what  an  immense  interest  is  involved 
in  the  live-stock  trade  of  the  country  with  New  York  city,  we  add  the  fol- 
lowing calculation  of  number  of  pounds  of  meat  and  estimated  value: 

cossrjm-iox  or  ten  teah-s — 1854-1863, 
Beeves— 2,160.518  hc.^  av.  700  lbs.  net.  ..1,505.302,600 lbs.  at    9  cents  per  lb.  net. .  $135,482,034 

Calves— 418,7(4  head  av.  75  lbs.  net 3I,40K,050    "    atlOcentspcrlb.net..         3.140,8(15 

SbeepandlanibB-^,938,108hea(lav.421bs.    207,390,530    '■    atlOcentspcrlb.net..       20,73y,li:):i 
Swine— 5,289,0.39  head  av.  125  lbs 001,204,800   "   at   Ccentsperlb.net..       39,672,2«8 

Total 2,400,305,980 lbs $199,034,7|;0 

Average  per  annum  for  the  ten  years 240,530,598  "   19,903, 173 

Farmers,  look  at  these  figures.  They  teach  you  an  important  lesson  ;  one 
well  worthy  of  being  placed  upon  this  permanent  record,  to  remind  you  and 
your  children  of  the  great  importance  of  the  live-stock  interest  of  the  country. 
You  sec  by  the  tables  the  rapid  increase  of  the  trade,  and  the  enormous  sum 
that  it  amounts  to  in  ten  years.  Lest  you  should  be  confused  by  the  sum  in 
numerical  figures,  let  us  repeat  it  in  words.  Two  billions  four  hundred  and 
five  millions  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
eighty-six  pounds  of  meat,  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
millions  thirty-four  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty  dollars.  This  is 
the  sum  that  New  York  city  has  disbursed  to  the  farming  interest  for  fen 
years'  supply  of  meat,  derived  frojn  the  slaughter  of  twelve  millions  seven 
hundred  and  ninety-seven  thousand  and  thirty-nine  animals. 

These  statistics  enable  us  to  realize  the  vast  resources  of  America.  T!ie 
country  is  now  feeding  a  million  of  men  in  the  army,  fighting  for  freedom, 
full  rations  of  meat,  and  sending  nearly  two  millions  a  year  of  animals  to 
the  city  shambles  of  New  York,  for  which  the  city  is  sending  back  to  the 
country  twentj^  millions  of  dollars. 

This  is  the  greatest  meat-eating  country  in  the  world ;  it  produces  all  that 
it  consumes  and  a  great  surplus  to  send  abroad. 

74.  Cattle  Transportation.— Nearly  all  the  stock  sold  in  the  New  York 
market  is  transported  upon  railway  cars.  "We  assume  that  the  beeves  for 
ten  years'  supply  have  paid  a  tariff  of  $10  a  head  average  to  railroads, 
making  the  sum  of  $21,505,180;  calves  at  fifty  cents  a  head,  $209,387; 
sheep  at  seventy-five  cents,  $3,703,681 ;  hogs  at  $1  25  each,  $6,612,048. 
Total  $32,030,296,  as  the  estimated  amount  paid  for  the  transportation  of 
animals  butchered  in  New  York  for  ten  years. 

Improvement  is  needed  in  transportation.  Animals  arc  forced  to  stand 
without  food  or  water  two  or  three  days,  or  as  long  as  their  tired  legs  will 


Seo.  5.] 


STATISTICS   OF  THE  WEW  YORK   CATTLE  MARKET. 


59 


sustain  them,  and  when  they  fail,  as  sometimes  they  do,  the  fainting  creature 
falls  and  is  trampled  to  death. 

We  must  have  an  improvement  in  cattle-cars.  It  certainly  would  not  be 
difficult  to  construct  them  so  that  cattle  should  stand  with  heads  to  one  side, 
where  water  could  be  given  them  in  a  trough  by  means  of  hose  ;  and  if  this 
can  not  be  done,  it  must  be  made  a  criminal  oifense  to  keep  the  animals  on 
a  car  more  than  30  hours  without  water.  In  fact,  it  would  be  better  for  all 
parties  if  the  number  were  limited  that  a  car  should  contain,  and  that  in  no 
case  should  the  stock  remain  on  the  cars  over  30  hours,  without  being 
unloaded,  rested,  fed,  and  watered.  Tlie  present  practice  is  a  loss  to  owners 
and  an  injury  to  consumers,  by  making  the  beasts  feverish  and  unhealthy, 
besides  being  an  outrageous  act  of  cruelty  to  animals.  The  whole  commu- 
nity is  interested,  and  should  cry  out  against  the  wicked  practice,  which  is 
enough  to  make  humanity  shudder. 

75.  Comparative  Measurements  of  CattlCi — Inquiries  are  often  made  in 
regard  to  the  relative  size  of  diiferent  breeds  of  cattle.  It  is  not  easy  to  give 
a  very  definite  answer  to  questions  of  this  kind  ;  but  as  several  of  the  leading 
breeds  of  this  country  were  derived  from  England,  where  they  are  bred  in 
greater  numbers  than  they  are  here,  an  idea  of  their  comparative  size  may 
be  had  from  certain  measurements  taken  of  prize  animals  at  the  English 
shows.  We  give  the  following  tables  in  reference  to  Short-horns,  Herefords, 
and  Devons,  which  toolj  prizes  at  the  shows  ,of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  in  1858  and  1859.  The  first  was  prepared  for  the  Society  by  Mr. 
Robert  Smith. 


CLASS.  Avel 

Short  HORKa.      j  rs 

Aged  bulls 4 

Yearling  bulls 1 

Bull  calves 

Cows   3 

Two-year-old  heifeiB.2 
Yearlings 1 

Heretobds. 

Aged  bulls 4 

Yearling  bulls 1 

Bull  calves 


10 

^ 

5i 


CLASS.  Averi 

Hehefoeds.       yra- 

Cows 7 

Two-year-old  heifers. 2 
Yearlings 1 


Average  Girth. 


Devons. 

Aged  bulls 3  6  7  5 

YearUng  bulls 1  -6^ 6  2 

Bull  calves 8| 5  2 

5  8        3      Cows 6  2i 6  Dj 

104 7        0}    Two-year-old  heifers. 2  6  €  10 

lOJ 5      ll|    Yearlings 1  7} 6  1 

The  next  table  was  furnished  by  Mr.  Thos.  Duckhara,  the  editor  of  the 
"Herd-Book  of  Hereford  Cattle."  As  far  as  it  goes,  it  comprises  measure- 
ments of  Short-horns  and  Herefords,  which  received  prizes  at  the  Warwick 
show  that  year,  the  rank  of  the  awards  having  been  according  to  the  order 
observed  in  the  table. 


CLASS.  Averi 

Shoet-hokss.      ys- 

Aged  bulls 4 

4 


Yearling  bulls. 


Bull  calves 

Cows 4 


Average  Girth. 


CLASS.  Averag 

Herefof.ds.        }■"• 

AgedbuUs 2 

"         4« 


4 

9i 
lOJ 
0' 


Yearling  buUs  . 
Bull  calves  . . . , 


Cows. 


Average  Girth. 


60 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


[Chap.  I. 


76.  The  Improvement  in  Breeds  and  Weig^hts  or  Cattle. — What  has  raised 
the  average  weight  of  beef  cattle  from  500  to  800  lbs.,  and  some  individuals 
up  to  3,600lbs.  ?  "What  has  raised  the  crops  of  corn  to  double  their  former 
yield,  and  in  several  instances  produced  over  190  bushels  of  corn  to>the  acre 
— that  was  in  Kentucky ;  but  in  the  State  of  !New  York  whole  lields  have 
averaged  100  bushels.  In  Connecticut,  13i  bushels  of  ears  of  corn  have  been 
I)roduced  upon  half  an  acre,  at  an  expense  for  culture  and  harvest  of  less 
than  $3.  What  lias  induced  men  to  root  up  old  orchards  of  natural  fruit, 
"  five  to  the  pint,"  and  plant  pippins,  bald  wins,  greenings,  russets,  etc.,  some 
of  which  have  been  sold  from  $8  to  $20  a  barrel,  and  retailed  at  a  guinea 
a  dozen?  What  has  induced  ingenious  men  to  devote  the  best  energies  of 
their  minds  to  inventing  plows,  harrows,  drills,  reaping-machines,  and  every 
other  implement  of  husbandry,  while  every  class  of  domestic  animals  has 
also  been  improved — neat  cattle  probably  the  most  of  all? 

The  answer  is,  the  publication  of  just  such  facts  as  we  are  now  giving, 
which  tend  to  show  what  has  been  done  by  some  men,  and  may  be  done  by 
others.     This  encourasres  us  to  continue  our  labor. 


SECTION  VI.-FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK. 

electing   Calves   for   Rearing.  —  Use  judgment  in 
selecting  such  heifer  calves  as  are  to  be  reared. 
Select  only  those  whose  mothers  are  good  milkers, 
and  whose  sires  have  come   from  good   milking 
stock ;  at  the  same  time,  the  calf  itself  should  have 
characteristics  that  indicate  an  aptitude  to  develop 
good  milking  qualities,  viz. :  small,  fine  head,  ratlier  long 
in  the  muzzle;  bright  eyes;  tliin,  tapering  neck;  small, 
well-shaped  legs ;  long  body  ;  large  hind  quarters,  set  wide 
behind ;  soft  skin  ;  tine  hair — the  color  of  which  is  immate- 
rial ;  and,  above  all,  the  milk-mirror  or  udder  veins  should 
be  large  and  well  developed. 

The  raising  of  bull  calves  for  breeders  had  better  be  left 
to  those  who  have  time  and  means  to  devote  their  attention 
to  it,  who  procure  the  best  animals  to  begin  with.  It  would  be  no  loss  to 
the  country,  were  the  numerous  specimens  of  scrub  bulls,  too  often  seen, 
condemned  to  perpetual  exile. 

But  there  is  no  reason  why  a  portion  of  the  male  calves,  at  least,  should 
not  be  reared  as  bullocks,  either  for  the  team  or  the  butcher;  and  it  is 
important  that  such  as  are  reserved  for  this  purpose  should  possess  certain 
points  indicative  of  future  excellence,  viz.:  well-shaped  head;  small  cars; 
short,  thick  neck;  deep  brisket;  broad  chest  and  shoulders;  fine  bone;  long 


Sec.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  61 

body,  well  rounded  behind  the  shoulders ;  straight  back ;  wide  loins ;  full 
quarters ;  tail  thin  and  tapering ;  skin  soft,  and  not  too  thin. 

It  is  too  often  the  case  that  animals  are  selected  for  rearing  from  being  of 
pretty  color — that  takes  the  fancy  of  some  member  of  the  family — or  the 
calf  of  some  pet  cow  of  the  dairy-maid,  without  attention  being  paid  to  its 
promise  of  excellences.  Not  unfreqnently  valuable  calves  are  fattened  for 
veal,  simply  because  their  color  is  unpleasing  to  the  eye. 

This  is  about  the  most  important  branch  of  the  stock-raiser's  business. 
Too  many  persons  pursue  the  careless  mode  of  the  person  who  wrote  the 
following  item : 

"  In  the  spring  of  1858  my  two  cows  had  bull  calves,  which  I  determined 
to  raise  for  sale,  and  so  gave  them  a  good  chance  to  grow,  adding  an  extra 
in  the  shape  of  a  handful  of  barley  meal,  with  their  feeds  of  milk.  They 
grew  finely,  or  rather  Bobby  did,  for  Billy,  taking  a  sudden  dislike  to  sour 
milk,  had  rather  slim  rations  for  the  last  six  weeks  befoi-e  weaning.  I  told 
him  he  might  starve  if  he  liked,  and  took  no  special  pains  to  humor  his 
fancies.  In  September  I  had  an  offer  of  $6  for  Bobby,  and  concluded  to 
let  him  go,  but  the  buyer  was  behind  time  about  two  Aveeks,  and  thought 
the  additional  keeping  worth  nothing,  so  I  did  not  turn  him  off.  So,  of 
course,  Bobby  was  kept,  and  grew  up  to  propagate  the  race  of  Bob  calves." 

78.  Calves — Give  them  Sheltert — It  is  almost  impossible  to  winter  calves 
without  shelter ;  if  they  survive  the  winter,  they  are  mere  skeletons,  and 
have  to  be  lifted  up  before  spring,  and  never  make  anything  but  poor,  raw- 
boned,  unprofitable  stock.  Sheep  are  many  times  allowed  to  pick  up  what 
they  can  get  for  half  the  winter;  but  the  dead  lambs,  and  probably  dead 
sheep,  that  lie  scattered  over  the  fields,  tell  the  profit  of  such  a  course. 
When  protected,  all  food  not  required  to  maintain  the  natural  waste  of  the 
system  goes  toward  increasing  the  growth  of  the  animal.  To  obtain  perfect 
form,  animals  should  be  kept  continually  growing  until  they  arrive  at 
maturity.  They  are  often  turned  out  in  the  spring  so  poor  that  it  requires 
half  the  summer  to  make  them  as  good  as  they  were  the  fall  before — a  loss 
of  three  quarfeis  of  the  year  iii  the  growth  of  the  animal.  A  grazier  lately 
said  to  us,  in  speaking  of  such  a  lot  of  cattle  that  he  bought,  "It  took  the 
whole  summer  to  soak  their  hides  loose,  so  that  they  could  begin  to  grow. 
They  seemed  as  hard  and  dry  as  a  pair  of  old  boots,  and  in  some  spots  as 
destitute  of  hair." 

79.  Training  SteerSi — At  the  Maine  State  Fair,  a  boy  of  fifteen  years, 
from  the  town  of  Woodstock,  had  a  pair  of  three-year-old  steers,  whicli 
obeyed  him  as  an  obedient  boy  will  his  parents.  By  a  motion  of  his  hand 
they  would  go  forward,  halt,  and  return,  go  to  the  right  or  left,  kneel  down, 
and  perform  other  things,  much  to  the  surprise  of  some  older  farmers,  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  putting  the  brad  through  the  hide.  At  a  New  York 
State  Fair  there  was  a  perfect  Barey  of  an  ox-tanier,  wlio  practices  breaking 
steers  for  farmers,  and  as  he  never  treats  them  inhumanly,  he  soon  has  them 
under  perfect  control,  and  as  bidable  as  well- trained  children. 


62  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

80.  Unruly  AnimalSi — As  a  general  rule,  our  domestic  animals  arc  never 
unruly,  cxcej)!  wlicn  taught  to  be  so.  For  instance,  some  persons,  in  turning 
stock  from  one  Held  to  another,  only  let  down  a  few  of  tlie  top  rails  or  bars, 
and  force  the  animals  to  jump  over.  Too  lazy  to  put  up  as  well  as  to  let 
down,  they  leave  the  gap  lialf  closed,  as  a  temptation  to  the  stock  to  jump 
back  again.  A  few  practical  lessons  of  this  kind  make  stock  unruly.  Care- 
lessness in  regard  to  putting  up  fences  when  thrown  down,  or  in  repairing 
weak  spots,  confirms  the  habit.  A  writer  says  his  practice  has  always  been 
to  teach  his  cows,  calves,  sheep,  and  hogs  to  go  through  or  under,  rather 
tlian  over,  the  bars  or  fences,  always  leaving  a  rail  or  bar  up  at  the  top. 
Taught  this  way,  they  never  think  of  jumping,  and  he  has  never  been 
troubled  with  unruly  animals,  even  when  his  fences  were  low. 

81.  Kindness  to  Brutcsi — No  man  can  afford  to  be  unkind  to  his  domestic 
animals,  because  animals  which  are  treated  tlie  most  kindly  arc  the  most 
gentle  and  obedient,  and  also  thrive  the  best;  hence,  no  one  can  afford  to 
use  them  unkindly.  By  kindness,  mingled  with  firmness,  the  most  ferocious 
animals  are  subdued,  and  it  is  vain  to  suppose  that  the  same  means  would 
not  be  eflectnal  in  training  domestic  animals.  Surel}',  no  one  should  degrade 
himself  by  continuing  a  practice  wliich  is  both  unprofitable  and  inhuman — 
a  practice  that  makes  man  the  brute  instead  of  the  quadruped.  There  is  no 
economy  in  half  starving  any  stock  through  the  winter,  and  causing  them  to 
take  all  the  storms  without  any  shelter ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  clear 
waste  and  loss  to  the  owner. 

82.  Shelter  for  Cattlet — Next  to  the  necessity  of  an  adequate  supply  of 
food  for  stock,  comes  the  iinjwrtance  of  shelter.  It  needs  no  argument  to 
prove  the  truism  that  animals  can  not  live  without  food;  and  it  is  just  as 
certain  that  our  domestic  stock,  artificially  susceptible  to  the  storms  and 
changes  of  our  Northern  climate,  can  not  thrive  without  proper  shelter.  It 
seems  now  to  be  well  settled,  that  a  due  degree  of  warmth  is  equivalent,  in 
a  measure,  to  food ;  and  Ave  all  know  that  an  entire  abandoii  to  ease  and 
comfort,  while  in  a  state  of  rest — a  perfect  freedom  from  apprehension  of 
any  kind,  which  may  arise  from  a  lack  of  food,  or  from  exposure,  or  any 
other  cause — is  neccssarj'  to  the  maximum  of  thrift  or  usefulness. 

On  old,  improved,  rich  lands,  it  would  be  policy  in  the  farmer  to  stable  or 
yard  his  cattle  and  horses  during  the  whole  year ;  but  I  should  prefer  yarding 
in  the  summer  season,  as  more  air  and  room  for  exercise  would  be  allowed, 
both  of  which  would  be  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  animals. 

One  acre  of  land,  in  good  condition,  sown  to  corn,  and  cut  and  fed  from 
the  time  it  begins  to  tassel  iintil  it  begins  to  glaze,  will  keep  six  head  of 
cattle  during  the  time,  and  perhaps  more — say  two  montiis — while  it  would 
have  taken  six  acres  of  pasture  to  keep  them  the  same  length  of  time. 

On  farms  where  the  pasture  is  generally  the  roughest,  poorest  part  of  the 
farm,  and  that  whicii  could  not  be  applied  as  profitably  to  other  purposes — 
on  such  lands  the  cattle  must  be  allowed  to  get  their  own  living  in  summer. 

Tlic  above  are  excerpta  from   several    excellent   essays  in  the   Genesee 


Sec.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  63 

Fanner,  and  might  have  been  much  more  extended,  only  that  we  have  a 
great  many  other  good  things  to  glean  from  other  sources. 

83.  Straw  for  Cattlei — Mr.  Johnson  says,  in  a  letter  to  the  Genesee 
Farmer  :  "  You  say  that  I  put  straw  in  my  boxes  for  my  cows.  This  is  not  so. 
No  man  ever  saw  me  feed  straw  to  cattle,  at  least  for  the  last  twenty -five  years. 
K  they  choose,  they  can  eat  the  straw  spread  out  for  litter,  but  I  never 
compel  them  to  eat  straw.  I  know  cattle  can  be  fatted  on  grain  and  straw, 
but  I  don't  think  so  profitably  as  part  grain  and  part  hay,  or  part  oil-cake 
and  part  hay.  Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  sheep  and  cattle ;  and  hay  made 
from  grass,  if  properly  made,  puts  on  fat,  even  if  very  little  else  is  fed.  I 
am  satisfied  that  either  cows  or  fatting  cattle  do  much  better  in  yards,  with 
auijile  sheds  and  plenty  of  straw  for  clean,  dry  beds.  I  can  not  feed  any 
kind  of  stock  profitably  unless  they  have  such  beds." 

84.  Wintering  Cattle. — There  is  yet  a  good  deal  of  wisdom  to  be  learned 
upon  this  subject,  even  by  those  whose  talk  is  of  bullocks,  and  particularly 
in  wintering  calves.  The  one  great  error  is  in  neglecting  them  in  autumn, 
after  the  frost  has  destroyed  the  'sweetness  of  the  grass,  and  allowing  them 
to  commence  getting  poor  before  winter  feeding  is  commenced.  Tliere  is  no 
error  more  fatal  to  success  than  such  neglect.  It  is  often  the  foundation  of 
disease  that  the  animal  never  recovers  from.  Tliere  is  no  condition  so  good 
for  an  animal  going  into  winter  quarters  as  a  thriving  fatness;  and  if  that 
can  be  kept  up  till  mid-winter,  the  danger  of  starvation  upon  very  light 
feed  in  the  spring  is  greath'  diminished.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  things  in  all 
farm  economy  to  neglect  feeding  stock  in  the  fall,  because  it  is  not  yet  time 
to  begin  to  fodder.  You  had  better  begin  in  July,  if  your  pasture  fails, 
so  that  your  animals  begin  to  lose  flesh.  All  that  is  saved  of  fodder  in  the 
fall,  iipon  the  plea  that  "caltle  can  shift  a  wliile  longer,"  exactly  verifies  the 
old  saw  about  "  saving  at  the  spigot  and  wasting  at  the  bung." 

85.  Feeding  Pumpkinst — A  subscriber  sends  a  long  communication  against 
feeding  pumpkins  to  cows.  The  writer's  reasoning  is  not  entirely  sound,  and 
does  not  agree  with  our  own  experience  and  observation.  As  a  general  rule, 
we  are  quite  sure  that  pumpkins  increase  rather  than  diminish  the  quantity 
of  milk ;  and  instead  of  making  neat  stock  grow  poor,  we  have  fattened 
large  numbers  of  cattle  on  pumpkins  alone.  There  is  one  suggestion  in  our 
correspondent's  letter,  however,  which  may  be  worthy  of  attention.  He 
refers  to  the  fact  that  the  seeds  of  pumpkins  have  a  decided  diuretic  (urine- 
producing)  eflect  upon  the  human  organs,  and  that  if  they  have  the  same 
eflect  upon  cows,  the  excessive  flow  of  urine  must  necessarily  reduce  the 
flow  of  the  milky  fluid.  He  advises  that  when  pumpkins  are  fed,  the  seeds 
should  be  taken  out.     The  idea  is  plausible,  and  worth  being  acted  on. 

86.  Keeping  Stocli  Warm,  and  Variety  of  Food. — Man  craves  a  variety  of 
food  ;  that  is,  a  variety  of  substances,  either  one  of  which  would  sustain  life, 
but  would  not  be  satisfactory.  Nature  demands  the  variation,  and  the  mix- 
ing together  tlie  several  substafices.  Why  ?  Simply  because  no  one  will 
give  all  the  elements  that  go  to  make  up  the  animal  economy.     One  article 


64  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

furnishes  phosphate  for  bones,  which  another  article  is  destitute  of,  yet  it 
may  contain  matter  tliat  will  clothe  the  bones  with  muscle.  Food  that  con- 
tains neither  fat  nor  sugar  will  be  found  sufficient  to  keep  up  the  animal 
heat.  Food  that  contained  all  the  elements  of  bone,  muscle,  fiber,  fat,  and 
heat-producing  qualities,  might  be  so  concentrated  as  to  be  unhealthy. 

A  man  fed  upon  pemmican,  would  have  a  disposition  to  eat  straw,  husks, 
and  twigs,  or  gnaw  the  bark  from  trees,  to  get  something  to  distend  the 
stomach  and  enable  it  to  perform  its  functions  healthily.  Let  this  be  thought 
of  in  feeding  domestic  animals.  It  will  furnish  an  easy  rule  for  your 
guidance.  Judge  them  by  yourself,  and  act  accordingly ;  you  will  find  it 
an  easy  and  sure  road  to  success.  We  do  not  for  animals,  quadruped  or 
biped,  recommend  a  variety  of  food  at  the  same  meal — only  a  change  from 
time  to  time,  so  as  to  give  variety,  and  consequently  all  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  produce  growth. 

Never  neglect  to  give  your  cattle  water  until  you  learn  to  do  without  it 
yourself,  and  never  ofier  them  drink  where  you  would  vomit  if  compelled 
to  slake  your  own  tliiret. 

Never  leave  a  horse,  a  cow,  a  sheep,  out  in  a  cold  winter  storm,  until  you 
arrive  at  that  condition  of  unfeelingness  that  you  could  endure  it  yourcelf. 
When  you  think  3-ou  could  find  comfortable  shelter  under  a  common  rail 
fence,  you  may  leave  your  cattle  there.  No  domestic  animal  can  ever  reach 
the  highest  state  of  perfection  its  nature  is  capable  of  unless  always  kept  in 
a  healthy,  growing  condition,  in  an  equable  climate,  or  in  warm  shelter  if 
the  inhabitant  of  a  cold  one. 

Farmers  do  not  i)ay  sufficient  attention  to  the  warmth  of  their  stock,  but 
Buflor  them  to  roam  about  in  the  open  air,  exposed  to  the  inclement  weather. 
The  amount  of  exercise  is  another  most  important  point  to  attend  to.  The 
more  an  animal  moves  about,  the  quicker  it  will  breathe,  and  the  more 
starch,  gum,  sugar,  fat,  and  other  respiratory  elements  it  must  have  in  its 
food ;  and  if  au  additional  quantity  of  these  substances  be  not  given  to 
supplj'  the  increased  demand,  the  fat  and  other  parts  of  the  bodv  will  be 
drawn  upon,  and  the  animal  will  become  thiimer ;  also,  as  before  observed, 
every  motion  of  the  body  produces  a  corre-sponding  destruction  of  the  mus- 
cles which  produce  that  motion.  It  is  therefore  quite  evident  that  the  more 
the  animal  moves  about,  the  more  of  the  heat-producing  and  flesh-forming 
principle  it  must  receive  in  its  food.  Ilence  we  sec  the  propriety  of  keepino' 
our  cattle  in  sheds  and  yards,  and  not  suffering  those  (particularly  which 
wc  intend  to  fatten)  to  rove  about,  consuming  more  food,  and  wasting  away 
more  rapidly  the  various  tissues  of  the  body  already  formed,  and  making  it 
more  expensive  and  difficult  to  fatten  them. 

87.  Fattrnin;;  Cattle  upon  Hay. — Speaking  upon  this  subject,  a  committee 
of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Agriculture,  of  which  John  Brooks  and  Paoli 
Lathrop  are  members,  remark  : 

"  Fattening  cattle  in  winter  upon  hay  alone  is  a  resort  of  many  farmer?, 
and  where  hay  is  plenty  and  distant  from  market,  the  practice  is  not  iucon- 


Seo.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FABM-STOCK.  65 

sistent  with  economy.  If  well  attended,  good  animals  consuming  four  per 
cent,  of  their  live  weight  of  good  hay  daily,  will  gain  daily  two  pounds  of 
flesh.  Suppose  the  flesh  gained  to  be  worth  16  cents,  it  will  be  equal  to  $8 
a  ton  for  the  haJ^  The  better  practice,  however,  is  to  give  only  three  per 
cent,  of  the  live  weight  of  the  animal  in  hay  daily,  and  an  equivalent  for 
the  other  one  per  cent,  in  Indian  meal  or  roots.  The  gam  would  be  greater 
for  the  same  cost  of  food." 

Another  remark  worth  quoting  is  the  following : 

"The  best  age  for  feeding  cattle  for  beef  is  from  four  to  eight  years. 
Young  growing  cattle  may  be  fattened,  but  it  will  require  more  food  in  pro- 
portion, and  longer  time." 

88.  How  to  Feed  Roots. — There  seems  to  be  much  diversity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  value  of  turnips,  carrots,  etc.,  for  feeding.  One  man  feeds  his  hogs  a 
great  amount  of  them,  but  neglects  to  provide  a  bed  secure  from  the  intru- 
sion of  cold  winds  and  snow,  and  then  wonders  they  do  not  grow  ;  or  feeds 
a  cow  four  bushels  per  day,  and  wonders  she  does  not  fat.  How  could  she  ? 
She  is  almost  physicked  to  death,  and  her  urinary  organs  are  injured  by 
over-exertion  ;  and  although  she  is  thoroughly  littered  with  straw,  still  her 
feet  are  in  the  water ;  and  when  she  lies  down,  her  side  is  wet. 

After  many  trials  in  a  similar  way,  many  have  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  root  feeding  is  an  unprofitable  business  in  our  climate.  If  hogs  must 
sleep  in  snow-banks,  give  thetn  corn  by  all  means,  and  give  them  plenty  of 
it.  If  cattle  can  not  be  stabled,  or  kept  so  sheltered  that  they  may  be  dry, 
then  roots  will  not  give  one  half  the  return  they  would  under  a  judicious 
system  of  management. 

After  many  trials  of  fattening  sheep  and  horned  cattle,  and  feeding  store 
stock  of  all  kinds  with  roots,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  all  valu- 
able when  properly  fed  witli  liay  and  grain,  but  that  their  relative  value  to 
grain  is  often  overrated  in  tliis  country  of  cheap  corn.  Roots,  unless  cooked, 
aie  not  economical  food  for  swine. 

The  great  error  in  relation  to  feeding  roots  is,  that  they  are  too  much  fed 
to  the  exclusion  of  grain.  A  farmer  lias  shoats  to  winter,  or  horned  cattle 
to  fatten ;  he  first  feeds  his  turnips,  carrots,  beets,  small  potatoes ;  next  his 
corn  or  meal.  This  is  wrong.  The  corn  should  be  fed  from  the  first.  A 
dozen  shoats  of  100  lbs.  eacli  would  profitably  receive  a  bushel  per  day  of 
roots,  if  cooked  with  corn.  A  fattening  ox  should  have  one  busliel,  or  not 
over  two,  per  day,  with  six  or  eiglit  quarts  of  meal.  Cows  should  have  one 
half  bushel  per  day,  whether  being  milked  or  not.  That  amount  will  bring 
them  out,  iu  the  spring,  fat  and  ready  to  do  good  service  at  the  pail,  provided, 
of  course,  that  they  have  hay  and  stalks  in  due  proportion.  Calves  and 
yearlings  should  always  have  one  fourth  bushel  per  day,  with  a  very  small 
allowance  of  grain. 

The  above  is  partly  from  the  Stoeh  Joui'nal,  and  the  following  from  the 
Workijig  Farmer  j  both  of  wliich  are  good  authority. 

We  beg  again  to  remind  our  readers,  particularly  those  who  are  engaged 


66  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Ciiap.  I. 

in  dairy  and  etock  farming,  to  appropriate  a  full  aniouiit  of  land  to  root- 
growing.  Carrots,  beets,  turnips,  parsneps,  may  all  be  raised  witli  protit 
wherever  stock  is  to  he  fed.  For  horses,  carrots  arc  invaluable.  For  milch 
cows,  tliey  not  only  furnish  a  milk  of  superior  flavor,  butter  of  fine  color  and 
odor,  but,  when  used  as  a  portion  of  tlieir  food,  they  guarantee  a  healthful 
condition.  Tlie  power  of  the  pectic  acid  of  the  carrot  to  gelatinize  all  veg- 
etable matter  held  in  solution  in  the  stomach,  puts  its  contents  in  such  a 
condition  that  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines  can  manage  it.  Flat- 
ulence is  prevented,  and  thorough  digestion  secured.  The  dung  of  the 
horse  fed  partly  on  carrots,  never  contains  tlie  undecomposed  shell  of  the 
oat,  nor  large  amounts  of  starch  unappropriated  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
tliat  a  bushel  of  oats  and  a  bushel  of  carrots  will  do  more  for  the  horse  than 
two  bushels  of  oats ;  and  not  because  the  carrot  contains  as  much  flesh- 
making  material  as  the  oat,  but  because  it  causes  all  the  flesh-making  ma- 
terial of  the  oat  to  be  appropriated,  instead  of  being  voided  witii  the  excretia. 
For  cows  and  oxen,  otiier  roots  may  occasionally  be  substituted  with  profit, 
as  variety  to  all  animals  is  pleasing  in  tlieir  food  ;  and  no  one  root  should 
be  so  continuously  used.  Since  the  introduction  of  pulping  machines,  pulped 
roots  mixed  with  cut  hay,  cut  straw,  and  other  cheap  material,  add  much  to 
the  economy  of  the  f;irm  as  well  as  to  tlie  licalth  of  the  cattle. 

89.  Feeding  Linseed  and  fotton-seed  Oil-fake. — Never  having  had  per- 
sonal experience  enough  in  feeding  oil-cake,  having  always  preferred  corn- 
meal,  to  give  an  opinion  which  we  would  ask  others  to  rely  upon,  we  select 
the  following  from  a  lecture  by  Prof.  Yoelcker,  before  the  meeting  of  the 
council  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  in  June,  1S60.  It  is 
worthy  of  attention  from  all  cattle-feeders.     lie  says : 

"  It  is  not  my  object,  in  giving  a  practical  turn  to  the  lecture  to-day,  to 
record  any  experiments  of  my  own,  or  in  any  way  to  presume  to  teach  the 
feeder  of  stock  in  what  way  he  may  best  expend  his  money  in  the  puichase 
of  food,  but  I  shall  endeavor  simply  to  give  to  the  practical  man  some  indi- 
cations whereby  I  hope  he  will  be  enabled  to  form  for  himself  a  trustworthy 
opinion  respecting  the  relative  value  of  dilferent  cakes,  and  likewise  what  is 
perhaps  of  more  iin})ortance  to  him,  to  introduce  some  remarks  which  will 
enable  Iiim  to  distinguish  a  good  from  a  bad  cake ;  and  in  conclusion,  shall 
allude  briefly  to  the  various  substances  with  which  oil-cakes  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time  often  largely  adulterated. 

90.  Fat  iu  Food< — "Let  me  first  point  out  to  you  some  peculiarities  in 
the  composition  of  oil-cakes.  A  reference  to  their  composition  is  necessary 
to  the  understanding  tlie  remarks  which  will  follow.  I  would  then  observe, 
that  what  ciiaracterizes  oil-cakes,  distinguishing  them  from  all  other  articles 
of  food  ])re-eminently,  is  the  large  amount  of  oil  that  is  left  in  the  cakes, 
obtained  by  expression  of  the  oil-seeds.  If  you  glance  at  the  diagram  (see 
table  on  page  71),  you  Avill  find  that  they  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
oil — from  C  to  12  per  cent. ;  and  in  some  instances,  as  in  the  decorticated 
cotton-cake,  even  16  per  cent,  of  oil.     I  may  observe  at  once  that  the  value 


Sec.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  67 

of  oil-cake  in  a  very  great  measure  depends  upon  the  amount  of  oil  which  is 
left  in  the  cake.  And  I  may  further  say,  that  the  tendency  of  the  manufac- 
turer at  the  present  day  is  to  produce  an  inferior  description  of  cake,  inas 
much  as  improved  machinery  enables  him  to  sr^ueeze  out  more  oil  than 
formerly,  and  thus  to  render  the  refuse  less  fattening,  less  valuable  to  the 
feeder  of  stock.  I  am  very  much  inclined  to  believe  that  the  oil  is  by  far 
the  most  valuable  constituent  of  all  oil-cakes.  I  am  aware  that  it  was  the 
fashion,  not  many  years  ago,  to  measure  the  feeding  properties  and  even  the 
fattening  qualities  of  articles  of  food  by  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  or  flesh- 
forming  matters  ;  but  these  views  are  not  supported  by  any  practical 
experiments,  nor,  indeed,  by  the  every-day  experience  that  we  liavc  respect- 
ing not  only  human,  but  cattle  food.  We  pay  more  for  food  rich  in  starch, 
mucilage,  and  matters  capable  of  producing  fat,  than  we  pay  for  food  which, 
like  bean-meal,  is  extremely  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  but  which  does  not 
produce  so  much  butcliers'  meat.  It  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  the 
farmer  to  know  how  much  he  gets  back  for  the  money  he  expends  in  the 
purchase  of  food.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  more  money  is  made 
by  the  purchase  of  food  rich  in  oil,  starch,  or  sugar,  than  in  the  purchase 
of  food  which  contains  an  excess  of  nitrogenous  matters. 

91.  Flesh  hi  Food. — "Still,  we  ought  not  to  leave  unnoticed  that  the 
flesh-forming  matters  are  very  important  indeed,  and  that  oil-cakes  are 
peculiarly  rich  in  them.  In  one  sense  they  are  perhaps  most  essential — per- 
haps even  more  essentially  necessary  than  the  other  constituents  of  food 
which  produce  fat,  or  are  employed  in  the  animal  economy  to  keep  up  the 
animal  heat.  They  are  more  important  in  this  sense  ;  whereas  the  animal  or- 
ganization has  the  power  to  make  fat  from  gum,  sugar,  nmcilage,  and  even 
from  young  cellulose  or  young  vegetable  fiber,  it  has  not  the  power  of  making 
a  particle  of  flesh.  Unless,  therefore,  food  is  given  to  animals  which  contains 
ready-made  flesh,  an  animal  can  not  grow,  and  the  other  constituents  of  food 
remain  unavailable.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  nitrogenous  matters  of  food 
are  extremely  valuable  ;  but  in  a  purely  practical  sense  they  are  not  so  val- 
uable as  the  oil,  starch,  or  sugar  of  food,  because  by  spending  a  certain  amount 
of  money  in  food,  we  do  not  get  so  great  a  return  in  the  shape  of  butchers' 
meat  by  purchasing  these  flesh-forming  matters  as  by  purchasing  feeding 
substances  rich  in  oil  or  starch.  However,  in  speaking  of  the  relative  value 
of  the  various  constituents,  especially  tlie  oily  and  the  flesh-forming  constit- 
uenis,  we  are  not  to  overlook  that  the  quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter  which 
is  not  applied  for  tlie  formation  of  flesh,  passes  through  the  animal,  and  is 
ol)tained  again  in  the  dung,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  quantity  tliat 
escapes  by  evaporation  through  the  skin  or  through  the  lungs.  A  certain 
quantity  of  nitrogenous  food  evaporates  through  the  skin,  or  with  the  per- 
spiration ;  but  by  far  the  largest  proportion,  according  to  some  experiments, 
nineteen  twentieths,  of  the  flesh-forming  or  nitrogenous  matters  of  food  are 
found  again  in  the  dung ;  according  to  otliers  the  amount  is  seven  eighths. 
But,  speaking  in  round  numbers,  I  think  we  are  not  far  wrong  iii  saying  that 


68  .  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

we  may  fairly  expect  tliree  fourtlis  of  tlie  nitiogcuized  matters  of  oil-cake  back 
again  in  the  mamire ;  .iiid  periiaps  we  are  safe,  likewise,  in  asserting  tliat 
fully  one  lialf  of  tlie  money  valne  of  rape  and  the  best  cotton  cakes  is  ob- 
tained back  again  in  tlie  manure.  So  we  must  not  put  down  these  constit- 
uents, which  arc  called  nitrogenous,  as  useless,  because  they  alone  do  not 
produce  much  butchers'  meat ;  nor  must  we  estimate  the  value  of  oil-cake 
entirely  by  tlie  increase  in  the  live  weight  of  cattle  fed  upon  the  cake,  but 
also,  and  chieflv,  I  believe,  by  the  increased  value  of  the  manure  which  is 
l)r()duced  througli  the  instrumentality  of  oil-cake. 

92.  Bone  in  Foodi — "  I  will  now  direct  attention  to  the  inorganic  matters 
or  ash  of  oil-cakes.  These  inorganic  matters  may  be  called  bone  material  ; 
for  the  ash  of  oil-cakes  is  particularly  rich  in  i)hosi>hates  of  lime,  or  the  ma- 
terial of  which  the  greater  \>a.i-t  of  the  bone  is  composed.  Now,  the  large 
proijortion  of  oil  ;  next,  the  large  pri-yjtortion  of  flesh-forming  matters;  and 
third,  a  considerable  proportion  of  bone  material  are  characteristics  that 
confer  a  i)articular  value  upon  oil-cake,  either  directly  as  food,  or  indirectly 
as  useful  material  for  increasing  the  value  of  farm-yard  manure.  For  let  me 
observe,  that  oily  matters  and  substances  tliat  make  butchers'  meat  arc  the 
most  valuable  constituents  in  all  feeding  materials,  and  therefore  also  in  an 
oil-cake.  On  the  other  hand,  the  flcsh-forining  constituents  and  the  bone- 
forming  materials — in  other  words,  the  nitrogen  and  the  phosphates  of  tlie 
cake — are  the  two  most  valuable  fertilizing  constituents.  "\Vc  have  thus  in 
oil-cakes,  in  a  concentrated  state,  materials  that  produce  butchers'  meat, 
and,  at  tlie  same  time,  yield  the  most  valuable  fertilizing  constituents.  There 
is  no  other  description  of  food  which  unites  these  useful  properties. 

93.  LiilSfFll-fakei — "  You  are  all  aware  we  disiinguisii  chieily  the  follow- 
ing kii\(ls  of  linseed-cake :  English  cake,  American  cake,  and  foreign  cakes. 
Among  foreign  cakes  there  are  various  descriptions.  There  is  the  Baltic, 
the  Marseilles,  the  Naples  cake,  and  various  others.  We  have  here  an  ex- 
cellent specimen  of  good  English  cake.  The  English  cake  is  made  now  of 
two  qualities,  thick  and  thin  cake  ;  the  latter  is  made  in  imitation  of  the 
American  barrel  cake,  of  which  specimens  are  before  you.  You  observe 
how  closely  the  tliin  English  cake  resembles  the  American  bari'el  cake.  The 
latter  has  gained  much  favor,  and  therefore  the  manufacturers  in  England 
liave  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  imitate  the  form  in  which  it  is  sold.  In 
the  first  place,  notice  that  the  American  cake  occasionally  is  as  bad  as 
English  and  foreign  cakes.  It  is  not  every  description  of  American  cake 
which  is  good,  but  generally  speaking,  as  it  comes  into  the  market,  espe- 
cially the  barrel  cake,  it  is  of  a  very  superior  character.  But  the  question 
whether  it  is  generally  superior  to  the  English  cake  or  not,  is  one  which  is 
not  very  readily  decided  ;  you  may  get  English  cake  quite  as  good,  if  "not 
be' tor,  than  tlie  American  cake. 

'•  Soiue  years  ago  it  was  the  fashion  to  buy  the  English  cake  in  preference 
to  any  oilier,  but  it  is  now  the  fashion  to  buy  the  American  barrel  cake.  I 
can  only  account  for  this  by  the  fact  that  the  English  cake,  being  produced 


Seo.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  69 

in  good  quality,  was  rapidly  consumed;  the  American  cake  was  usually 

scut  in  a  very  damaged  condition  to  this  country,  coming  as  it  did  in  bat^s  • 
our  sharp  American  friends  very  soon  found  that  they  must  send  their  cake 
here  in  a  good  condition.  They  dried  it  previously  to  sending  it  over  and 
imported  it  in  barrels,  and  this  improved  condition  of  the  American  cake 
greatly  increased  its  reputation,  which  has  been  kept  up  ;  so  that  at  the  pres 
out  time  in  most  markets,  American  cake,  especially  the  barrel  cake,  fetches 
a  iiigher  price  than  the  English.  But  a  reference  to  the  diagram  will  show 
you  tliat  there  is  no  essential  diiFerence  between  good  English  cake  and 
good  American ;  indeed,  if  anything,  the  advantage  is  in  favor  of  the  speci- 
mens of  English  cake.  The  difference  is  extremely  small.  There  is  the 
same  quantity  of  oil  in  both  cases.  The  proportion  of  flesh-forming  matters 
is  rather  larger  in  the  English  than  in  the  American.  There  is  the  same 
amount  of  ash  in  both.  Tlie  proportion  of  sand  hardly  amounts  to  one  pey 
cent,  in  tlie  English  cake,  and  in  the  American  it  is  only  a  half  per  cent. 
Tliese  differences  are  extremely  small  and  unimportant,  so  that  you  may 
get,  and  often  do  get,  as  good  English  cake  as  American.  And  occasion- 
ally, also,  you  get  bad  American  cakes ;  but  on  the  whole,  the  exporters 
of  American  cake  are  very  jealous  as  to  the  kind  of  article  they  send  to  this 
country,  especially  if  they  go  to  the  expense  of  packing  it  in  barrels. 

94-.  Cotton-CakCi — "  We  distinguish  now  principally  two  kinds  of  this  cake 
• — the  one  made  of  the  whole  seed,  and  the  otlier  of  the  shelled  seed.  The 
difference  in  the  two  qualities  of  cake  will  at  once  become  intelligible  by 
an  examination  of  tlie  seeds,  or  the  raw  materials  from  which  the  cakes  are 
made.  The  decorticated  or  shelled  cake  is  made  of  the  kernel  of  the  cotton 
seed  ;  the  whole  cake,  in  which  we  recognize  an  abundance  of  the  husk,  is 
made  of  the  entire  seed ;  and  inasmuch  as  the  cotton  seed  contains  full  half 
its  weight,  and  some  descriptions  contain  as  mucli  as  60  per  cent,  of  the  hard 
husk,  we  must  not  expect  that  the  cake  made  of  tlie  whole  seed  should  be 
60  valuable  as  the  decorticated  cake.  There  are  several  specimens  of  cotton- 
cake  on  the  table.  There  is  very  little  value  in  the  husk  itself;  tlie  difference 
in  the  two  kinds  of  cotton-cake,  then,  arises  from  the  different  mode  in  which 
they  are  made.  The  one,  the  decorticated  cake,  is  made  from  the  kernel ; 
the  other  kind  is  made  from  the  whole  seed.  The  difference  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  two  kinds  of  cake  is  very  great.  The  decorticated  cotton-cake 
contains  16  per  cent,  of  oil  (more  than  any  other  description  of  cake),  while 
the  whole-seed  cake  contains  only  6  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  albuminous 
or  flesh-forming  matters  in  the  decorticated  cake  amounts  to  41  per  cent.  • 
in  the  whole-seed  cake  it  is  only  23  per  cent,  or  just  one  half.  So  with 
respect  to  the  other  constituents,  the  proportion  of  woody  fiber  is  very  much 
larger  in  the  whole-seed  cake  than  in  the  other.  The  husk  in  the  whole- 
seed  cake  for  a  long  time  was  a  great  impediment  to  the  general  use  to 
which  cotton-cake  is  now  applied  in  this  country.  I  remember  when  tlie 
first  cargoes  of  cotton-cake  came  into  England,  before  the  decorticated 
cotton-cake  was  known;  trials  were  made  of  it,  which  proved  quite  unsuc- 


70  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


cessfiil.  People  (lid  not  like  it  at  all,  and  I  believe  the  cotton-cake  would 
never  have  been  extensively  used  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  invention  of  a 
very  useful  machine,  ])atented  in  America,  by  means  of  which  the  hard 
husks  can  be  removed  from  tlie  kernel.  The  use  of  this  machine  gives  us  a 
superior  oil  and  a  superior  cake.  The  cot;on-seed  oil  made  from  the  kernel 
alone  is  a  very  useful  anicle,  and  so  is  the  cake,  whereas  tlie  oil  expressed 
from  the  whole  seed  is  dark  brown  in  color,  and  can  not  be  used  except  for 
the  commonest  piirjioscs  for  which  oil  is  employed.  The  difference  in  the 
value  of  the  two  descriptions  of  cake  is  so  great,  that  I  almost  think  two 
tuns  of  the  oil<'ake,  made  of  the  whole  seed,  do  not  go  further  than  one  tun 
of  the  best  decorticated  cotton-seed  cake.  Moreover,  there  is  a  certain 
danger  in  using  the  whole-seed  cake.  Several  cases  of  so-called  poisoning 
have  been  brought  under  my  notice  within  the  last  year  or  two.  Animals 
that  have  freely  partaken  of  tlie  whole-seed  cake  have  died  suddenly,  and 
people  have  imagined  that  there  was  something  injurious  in  the  husk;  but 
examination  has  shown  that  the  effect  produced  is  very  much  like  that  which 
is  occasionally  produced  in  the  case  of  boys  who  die  from  inflammation  of 
the  bowels  in  countries  where  cherries  are  very  abundant.  Being  very 
greedy,  and  eating  the  cheri-ies  with  the  stones,  they  get  a  stoppage  of  the 
bowels,  and  so  die  from  inflammation.  There  is  nothing  poisonous  in  the 
husk  of  the  cotton-seed,  and  when  given  judiciously,  no  injury  will  result; 
but  if  aninuils  are  supplied  with  an  unlimited  quantity  of  dry  food  with  the 
whole  seed,  ihere  is  indeed  a  danger.  The  hard  husk  is  indigestible,  and 
may  roll  togetlier  in  sucii  large  masses  that  inflammation  of  the  bowels  will 
ensue.  There  is  no  such  danger,  however,  in  the  use  of  decorticated  cotton- 
cake.  The  decorticated  cake  occurs  of  various  degrees  of  qualify.  And 
allow  me  to  observe,  with  respect  to  all  kinds  of  cake,  that  not  only  the 
composition,  but,  even  in  a  higher  degree,  the  condition  of  the  cake,  deter- 
mines in  a  great  measure  its  value.  I  have  here  a  specimen  which  you 
would  hardly  recognize  as  of  the  same  description  as  another  specimen  also 
on  the  table,  of  a  very  beautiful  character;  it  is  the  same  kind  of  cake,  only 
it  is  in  a  bad  condition.  I  say,  then,  the  condition  of  a  cake  determines 
everything. 

95.  Condition  of  f ake> — "Some  time  ago  I  was  very  much  gratified  in 
finding  what  great  care  Mr.  Stratton,  of  Eroad  Ilinton,  a  celebrated  sliort- 
horn  breeder,  takes  in  selecting  the  very  best  of  American  barrel  cake  for 
his  stock.  "We  often  forget  that  animals  have  appetites  as  we  have,  and  that 
they  like  food  in  a  good  condition  better  than  food  in  a  bad  one.  The  com- 
position of  two  samples  of  the  same  food  may  not  vary  much,  yet  the  prac- 
tical effect  produced  by  them  may  vary  exceedingly.  There  is  nothing 
remarkable  in  this,  for  we  know  that  if  we  get  good,  wholesome  bread,  which 
is  one  or  two  days  old,  we  do  well  upon  it ;  but  if  it  remains  in  a  damp 
cellar  and  gets  moldy,  stale,  and  moist,  it  loses  its  fine  flavor,  and  in  this 
condition  may  do  us  harm.  So  it  is  with  stale,  Tuoldy  cakes.  Animals 
never  do  well  on  very  old   cakes.     In   examining,  therefore,  the   different 


Sec.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  71 

cakes,  we  ought  to  examine  particularly  their  condition.  I  allude  especially 
to  tlie  examination  of  cotton-cake,  because  every  pierson  has  the  means  of 
examining  its  condition  with  very  little  trouble.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  examine 
the  condition  of  linseed  ;  it  presupposes  an  extensive  acquaintance  with 
various  descriptions  of  linseed-cake.  You  must  have  seen  a  great  many 
samples  of  cake  before  you  can  give  a  trustworthy  opinion.  Not  so  with 
decorticated  cotton-cake.  In  this  the  color  affords  an  excellent  criterion  as 
to  its  freshness.  The  freshest  cotton-cake  is  as  yellow  as  mustard.  I  hold  a 
piece  of  cake  in  my  hand,  the  exterior  of  which  is  brown  ;  but  if  I  cat  away 
a  portion,  you  will  observe  that  the  interior  is  bright  yellow — very  different 
from  the  part  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  air.  This  was  an  excellent  cake 
when  we  first  got  it  for  feeding  purposes,  and  we  are  feeding  it  extensively 
on  our  farm  at  Cirencester.  When  we  lirst  had  it,  it  was  of  a  bright  yellow 
color ;  but  you  observe  how  it  has  since  changed.  From  this  we  may  learn 
a  very  useful  lesson,  that  we  may  take  the  color  as  a  guide  to  the  condition 
and  age  of  the  cakes.  If  we  are .  presented  with  a  cake  which  is  as  brown 
as  the  specimen  before  me,  and  if  you  find  on  cutting  it  that  the  brown  color 
has  penetrated  deep  into  the  interior,  we  may  at  once  conclude  that  it  is  a 
stale  old  cake.  The  deeper  it  has  penetrated,  the  older  the  cake,  and  the 
more  it  lias  suffered  by  bad  keeping.  If  it  is  kept  in  a  damp  place,  its  color 
and  condition  are  rapidly  deteriorated, 

COMPOSreiON   OF   LINSEED   AND   OF   OIL   CAKES. 

lin«,.pH.  Mi.««r,i     Cotion-secd  cake  Poppy- 

Linseed.  ^'^^^I^'       Eape-eake.      M";^»  ^  made  of  .eJ 

whole  seed.  cake. 

Water 7.50 12.44 10.68 11.90 11.19 11. G3 

Oil 34.00 12.79 11.10 6.69 9.08...    .     6.75 

FleBh-forming  matters 24.44 27.69 29.53 23.48 25.16 31.46 

Heat-giving  constituents 30'73 40.95 40.90 62.14 48.93 38.18 

Inorganic  matters  (ash) 3.33 6.13 7.79 6.79 6.64 12.98 


100.00 100.00 100.00 100  00 100.00 100.00 

9G.  Salt  for  Stock. — A  great  deal  has  been  written  upon  the  use  of  salt 
for  animals,  and  much  reasoning  employed  to  prove  various  positions ;  but 
very  few  accurate  experiments  have  been  made.  Loose  and  general  observ- 
ations have  been  the  basis  for  most  of  the  opinions  formed.  A  certain 
quantity  of  salt  is  unquestionably  useful ;  an  excess  is  as  certainly  hurtful. 
The  proper  amount  is  what  we  want  to  have  determined.  All  ordinary  food 
of  animals  contains  more  or  less  salt — as,  for  example,  a  tun  of  barley  or 
oats  straw,  and  of  some  kinds  of  hay,  contains  six  pounds  of  salt ;  a  tun  of 
carrots  contains  four  pounds.  We  can  not,  therefore,  speak  of  animals  eating 
no  salt — they  all  partake  of  it,  but  we  wish  to  know  the  right  quantity. 

The  Genesee  Farmei\  from  which  we  have  frequently  extracted  useful 
facts,  and  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  the  next  half  dozen,  says  of  salt  for 
cattle  feeding  for  the  shambles  : 

"  We  have  had  our  doubfs  whether  it  was  good  economy  to  allow  animals 
feeding  for  the  lutcher  the  free  use  of  salt.  Salt  is  doubtless  conducive  to 
health,  favoring  the  formation  of  bile,  and  aiding  in  carrying  effete  matter 


72  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

from  the  system ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  favors  the  accu- 
mulation of  fat.  Liebig,  indeed,  asserts  that '  the  absence  of  common  salt  is 
favorable  to  the  fonnation  of  fat, ^  and  that  the  '  fattening  of  an  animal  is 
rendered  impossible,  when  we  add  to  its  food  an  excess  of  salt,  although 
short  of  the  quantity  required  to  produce  a  purgative  effect.'  Ilecently, 
however,  in  allusion  to  experiments  made  since  tlie  publication  of  the  work 
in  wliich  the  above  sentences  occur,  Liebig  says:  'Salt  does  not  act  as  a 
producer  of  flesh  ;  but  it  neutralizes  the  injurious  actions  of  the  conditions 
which  must  be  united  in  the  unnatural  state  of  animals  fed  or  fattened  in 
order  to  produce  flesh ;  and  the  advantages  attending  its  use  can  hardly  be 
estimated  too  highly.' 

"  Boussingault  is  also  in  favor  of  salt.  Two  lots  of  steers  were  fed  tliirteen 
months,  one  with  and  one  without  salt.  The  average  weiglit  per  head  of 
the  salted  lot,  at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment,  was  995  lbs. ;  at  the 
end  of  thirteen  months,  2,090  lbs.  Increase,  1,135  lbs.  They  consumed  per 
Iiead  15,972  lbs.  of  hay.  One  tun  of  hay,  therefore,  produced  14:3  lbs.  of 
increase  of  animal. 

"The  second  lot,  which  received  no  salt,  averaged  at  the  commencement 
of  the  experiment  896  lbs. ;  at  the  end  of  thirteen  months,  1,890  lbs. 
Increase,  994  lbs.  They  consumed  per  head  14,553  lbs.  of  hay,  or  one  tun 
of  hay  produced  137  lbs.  of  increase  of  animal. 

"The  steers  receiving  salt  produced  six  pounds  more  increase  for  each  tun 
of  hay  consumed  than  those  which  were  not  allowed  salt.  This  may  be 
considered  only  a  slight  advantage,  and  in  France  did  not  pay  the  cost  of 
the  salt ;  in  this  country,  liowever,  where  salt  is  much  cheaper,  its  use  will 
doubtless  be  profitable.  Boussingault  remarks :  'The  salt  exercises  no  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  growth,  yet  it  appears  to  exert  a  beneficial  effect 
on  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the  animal.'  Up  to  the  first  fourteen 
days  no  perceptible  dift'erence  was  observed  between  the  two  lots ;  but  in  the 
course  of  the  month  following,  the  difierence  was  visible,  even  to  the 
impracticed  eye." 

With  such  good  authority,  it  is  presumed  feeders  will  continue  the  use  of 
salt;  but  let  us  give  them  this  one  word  of  caution — do  not  give  it  in  excess. 
If  you  can  not  get  rock-salt,  or  if  that  is  too  expensive,  mix  fine  salt  with 
soft  clay,^and  dry  that  in  large  cakes,  and  lay  them  under  cover  for  the  cattle 
to  lick. 

97.  Ilock-Salt. — We  reiterate  that  rock-salt  is  not  only  the  most  econom- 
ical, but  the  most  convenient  for  the  farmer  to  salt  his  cattle,  since  it  can  be 
placed  where  they  can  lick  it  at  their  leisure,  and  there  it  will  remain,  sum- 
mer and  winter ;  the  rains  have  very  little  effect  upon  it  while  in  a  lump, 
as  it  comes  from  the  quarry,  it  being  really  what  its  name  indicates,  a  piece 
of  rock.     When  broken  fine  it  dissolves  easily,  but  not  before. 

A  farmer  who  has  the  least  idea  of  economy  should  learn  how  much  he 
can  save  in  a  year,  or  a  lifetime,  by  the  simple  operation  of  substituting  rock- 
salt  in  place  of  that  in  ordinary  use  for  farm-Stock.     A  lump  of  rock-salt 


Sec.  G.]  feeding  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  73 

may  be  placed  in  any  out-door  situation,  wliere  cattle  can  go  and  lick  if 
whenever  their  appetite  inclines  them  to  do  so,  and  it  will  not  waste  by 
exposure  to  dew  or  rain,  because  it  is  not  hygrometric,  as  is  the  manufactured 
salt  in  common  use.  Another  thing  in  its  favor  is  this — your  stock,  with 
salt  always  before  them,  will  never  eat  too  much.  Neither  will  they  eat  it 
too  fast,  as  they  almost  always  do  Avhen  salted  with  tine  salt ;  nor  waste  it 
by  scattering  it  in  the  dirt,  or  leaving,  it  to  dissolve  and  sink  into  the  earth. 
Another  difSculty  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  rock-salt  constantly  within  reach 
of  stock,  and  that  is,  the  hooking  and  punching  of  the  weaker  animals  by 
the  strong  ones,  ih  fighting  their  way  to  the  once-a-week,  or  perhaps  once- 
a-month,  salting-place. 

Rock-salt  is  a  mineral  as  much  as  marble,  and  almost  as  solid  and  hard, 
and  is  quarried  out  of  mines,  like  coal  or  other  mineral  substances.  The 
most  extensive  salt  mines  are  at  Ci'acow,  in  Poland,  where  there  are  regular 
cartways,  streets,  and  villages  of  miners'  huts,  where  men,  women,  and 
children,  and  domestic  animals  live  deep  down  in  the  earth.  Our  principal 
supply  of  rock-salt  comes  from  Cheshire,  England,  where  there  are  extensive 
mines.  In  its  mineral  state,  the  salt  is  of  a  slightly  reddish  color,  and  dingy 
white,  and  some  of  it  needs  to  be  melted  and  purified  for  culinary  pnrposes. 
The  purest  portion  may  be  reduced  at  once  to  powder  by  breaking  and 
grinding,  and  is  then  quite  white.  The  salt  known  here  as  Liverpool  salt  is 
refined  rock-salt  from  the  Cheshire  mines. 

A  lump  of  rock-salt  as  big  as  a  man's  head  may  be  fixed  by  pins  npon  a 
rock  or  block,  where  the  water  will  not  stand  around  it,  and  it  will  remain 
until  all  licked  away  by  the  cattle's  tongues.  In  case  of  stock  in  stables,  a 
lump  may  be  placed  in  each  manger. 

98.  Bones  for  Animais. — A  good  deal  has  been  lately  said  abont  feeding 
animals  with  bone-meal.     We  give  several  opinions  upon  the  subject : 

E.  C.  "Wright,  of  Gallatin  County,  111.,  states,  on  the  authority  of  the  Eev. 
John  Crawford,  of  Crawford,  in  that  county,  that  the  bones  of  swine  dying 
with  what  is  called  hog  cholera,  decay  as  rapidly  as  the  flesh,  and  that  portions 
of  the  skin  outlast  the  bones.  He  wants  scientific  men  to  give  attention  to 
this  strange  consumption  of  the  solids,  and  thinks  that  it  may  bo  the  means 
of  suggesting  a  remedy  for  the  disease  so  fatal  and  so  pecuniarily  distressing 
to  a  vast  number  of  farmers  in  the  West.  Now,  as  we  know  that  feeding 
bone-meal  to  animals  and  phosphate  of  lime  to  plants  that  need  it,  has 
proved  beneficial,  is  it  impossible  or  improbable  that  feeding  it  to  swine 
suflerlng  from  a  disease  that  produces  the  effect  described,  may  not  be  the 
means  of  curing  or  preventing  the  disease? 

Dr.  Waterbury  says :  "  There  are  some  new  theories  in  relation  to  feeding 
phosphates  to  animals.  It  is  possible  that  this  may  have  some  effect.  There 
is  an  idea  prevailing  that  feeding  material  that  makes  bones  will  increase 
their  size.     It  is  a  subject  well  M'ortliy  of  more  attention." 

Prof.  Mapes  states  that,  when  a  calf  is  deficient  in  bone,  that  is,  too  weak 
to  stand,  feeding  bone-meal  to  the  cow  that  suckles  the  calf  will  furnish  it 


74  DOMESTIC  AlOMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

with  the  necessary  material.  Tliis  fact  is  well  known  to  many  farmers,  and 
that  cows  eat  old  bones  with  great  avidity.  "We  also  know  that  physicians 
are  using  a  solution  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  their  practice,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  it  may  be  administered  to  domestic  animals  with  equally  good  ctiect; 
and  whether,  in  the  case  named,  it  worked  a  cure  or  not,  it  is  well  worth 
trying.     Many  things  much  more  simple  have  produced  wonderful  results. 

99.  Water  for  Stock. — See  that  your  stock  have  an  abundance  of  clear, 
good  water  in  hot  weather.  If  it  is  pnmped  from  wells,  it  should  always  be 
standing  in  boxes  or  troughs,  so  that  stock  can  have  access  to  it.  Select,  for 
hot  days,  fields  with  plenty  of  shade  trees  in  them,  to  protect  stock  from  the 
burning  sun.  Pastures  should  always  contain  shade  trees,  and  they  should 
be  planted,  if  not  there. 

Mr.  Strawn,  the  great  Illinois  farmer,  has  successfully  tried  this  method 
of  keeping  water  on  a  stock  farm : 

Dig  a  basin  five  or  ten  rods  square,  and  ten  feet  deep,  upon  a  high  knoll ; 
feed  corn  in  the  basin  to  your  hogs  and  cattle,  until  it  is  well  puddled  by 
the  tramping  of  their  feet,  which  will  make  it  almost  wafer-tight.  Mr. 
Strawn  says  the  rains  of  a  single  winter  sufficed  to  accommodate  several 
hundred  head  of  stock,  and  that  it  had  been  dry  but  once  in  twelve  years. 

For  watering  at  the  barn,  in  all  situations  where  digging  wells  is  expen- 
sive, cisterns  should  be  provided,  if  running  water  from  some  brook  or 
spring  can  not  be  brouglit  in  pipes,  or  sent  iip  by  a  water-ram. 

100.  rhaffing  Food  for  Stock. — Tliere  is  no  disputing  the  fact  that  chafling 
food,  particularly  all  coaree  foi'age,  will  pay  well,  where  it  is  as  dear  as  it  is 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  York.  At  the  State  Fair  Farmers'  Club,  at  Elmira, 
October,  1860,  the  following  opinions  were  given  upon  the  subject : 

A.  B.  Dickenson  said :  "  On  good  hay  you  can  fat  cattle,  but  you  can  not 
upon  corn-stalks,  but  they  are  better  than  poor  hay.  I  can  not  make  an 
acre  of  corn-stalks  as  good  as  an  acre  of  grass.  If  you  want  to  raise  a  big 
crop  of  corn,  put  on  barn-yard  manure  year  after  year  on  grass,  and  afie:- 
ward  plow  it  in  and  make  it  mellow  and  rich,  sixteen  inches  deep,  and  then 
corn  will  never  exhaust  the  soil.  Corn-stalks  must  always  be  chaflfed  to 
obtain  their  full  value." 

Col.  Butterfield,  of  Utica,  said:  "Up  to  two  or  three  years  ago,  I  thought 
l)ut  little  of  corn-fodder.  I  then  cut  the  top  stalks;  now  I  cut  up  by  the 
ground,  and  my  cattle  do  first-rate  on  corn-stalks  till  March.  To  get  the 
greatest  benefit  from  corn-stalks,  they  must  be  chaff'cd  and  steamed." 

Hon.  T.  C.  Peters,  of  Darien,  N.  Y.,  said  :  "  I  grow  corn  for  fodder  as  well 
as  grain,  and  cut  up  from  the  ground,  and  chaS"  the  stalks  for  feeding.  Tliere 
is  no  other  feed  for  milch  cows  in  Avinter  equally  valuable  if  it  is  well  cured 
and  flien  chaffed  ;  and  if  steamed,  it  is  still  better." 

Mr.  Lyman  Barnard,  of  Steuben  County,  said  :  "  I  cut  up  my  corn  from 
the  ground,  and  cut  the  stalks  up  fine  in  a  stalk-cutter,  and  mix  with  cut 
straw,  and  I  find  my  cattle  and  horses  do  as  well,  or  better,  than  tipon  good 
timothy  hay." 


Seo.  6.]  FEEDING   CATTLE  AND   CAKE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  75 

Mr.  Plumb,  of  Onondaga  County,  said  :  "  We  don't  raise  any  crop  as  val- 
uable as  corn,  and  we  do  raise  good  wheat.  I  foddered  150  sheep  and  12 
cows  till  March  upon  ten  acres  of  corn-stalks,  allowing  the  stock  to  run  at  a 
straw-stack  besides.  I  raise  the  large  eight-rowed  yellow  corn  with  a  small 
oob,  and  like  it  better  than  Dutton  corn.  It  yields  better  than  any  white 
corn." 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  really  scientific  men  we  have  conversed  with 
upon  the  subject,  that  in  all  places  where  hay  usually  sells  as  high  as  $20  a 
tun,  and  power  is  not  unusually  expensive,  that  it  would  pay,  not  only  to 
chaff  all  hay,  stalks,  straw,  etc.,  but  actually  to  grind  these  substances  into 
meal — not  very  fine,  to  be  sure,  but  so  that  none  of  the  particles  would  be 
more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  We  saw,  a  few  years  ago,  the 
model  of  a  newly-invented  mill  that  was  most  admirably  well  calculated  for 
doing  such  work  as  reducing  hay  and  straw  to  meal.  It  was  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Blanchard,  of  Boston. 

Flint,  in  his  "  Dairy  Farming,"  in  speaking  of  feeding  milch  cows,  says  : 
"  One  of  the  best  courses  is,  to  feed  in  the  morning,  either  at  the  time  of 
milking — which  I  prefer — or  immediately  after,  with  cut  feed,  consisting 
of  hay,  oats,  millet,  or  corn-stalks,  mixed  with  shorts,  and  Indian,  linseed, 
or  cotton-seed  meal,  thoroughly  moistened  with  water.  If  in  winter,  hot 
or  warm  water  is  far  better  than  cold.  If  given  at  milking-time,  the  cows 
will  generally  give  down  the  milk  more  readily.  The  stalls  and  mangers 
ought  always  to  be  well  cleaned  out  first." 

101.  Nutritive  Value  of  Various  Kinds  of  Fodder.— The  following  tables 
will  be  useful,  as  showing  the  relative  value  of  various  substances  : 

, — rer  centage  of  Nitrogen , 

Net.  equivalent.                    Dried.  Undried. 

-1.  Meadow  hay 100   1.34   \Ab 

2.  Red  clover  hay 75  1.70  1.54 

3.  Rye-straw 479  0.30 0.24 

4.  Oat-straw 383  0.36 0.30 

5.  Wheat-straw 426  0.36  0.27 

6.  Barley-straw 460  0.30  0.25 

7.  Pea-straw 64  1.45  1.79 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  these  several  substances,  in  which 
their  relative  value  will  more  distinctly  appear : 

Water.  Woody  fiber.  ^tafgCh^  Gum,      6J»'en.Al;        Fatty  matter.         Saline  matter. 

14        30 40 '. 7.1  2to5  5tol0 

14        26  40  9.3  3  to  6  9 

12  to  15  45  38  1.3  .......      —  4 

12        45  .......  35  1.3  0.8  6 

12  to  15   50  30  1.3  2  to  3  5 

12  to  15  50 30  1.3  —  5 

10  to  15  25  45  12.3  1.5  4  to  6 

From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that,  taking  good  English  or  meadow 
hay  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  and  calling  that  one,  4.79  times  the 
weight  of  rye-straw,  or  3.83  times  the  weight  of  oat-straw,  contains  the  same 
amount  of  nutritive  matter  ;  that  is,  it  would  take  4.79  times  as  much  rye- 
straw  to  produce  the  same  result  as  good  meadow  hay. 


76 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


Chap.  I. 


NUTRmVE  EQUIVALENTS.     (PttACriCAL  aot  Tueorbticai..) 


AST1CLE3   OF  POOD. 


THEOKtTiCAL    VALUES. 


English  hay. 


K<'»I  clover  hay 

K--ti  clover  (green)  . .. 

Hj— ilraw 

<)a'.-3traw 

C  trrol-leavea  (tops). . . 

tiwediah  turnips 

M.ingel-wurzcl    

Willie  siliciaa  beet . .. 

(Carrots 

rolalocs 

Potatoes  kept  in  pita.. 

Beans 

Peas    

IniHan  corn 

i;u.kwbcat 

Harhv 

Oaia.'. 

Rye 

Wheat.   

01-cake  (linseed) 


70.9 

8.94 

91.0 

1.S3 

M.fi 

1.4-3 

87. « 

2.40 

7.1.9 

1.50 

7(1 « 

1.18 

7.9 

5.50 

8.6 

4.20 

i,s.n 

2.00 

la.-i 

2.40 

13.2 

2.02 

12.4 

2.22 

11. ■) 

2.27 

in..-i 

2..S3 

13.4 

6.00 

AOLT. 

Pbuk. 

g? 

i 

il4- 

■3 

i  * 

^  tz 

•^ 

1=  =5 

'■ 

'■ 

I.IU 

100 

•_ 

l.-SS 

88 



l.M 

75 

]  to    6.03 

.64 

811 



.24 

479 

1  to  24.40 

.80 

«,'<.■{ 

1  to  12.50 

.S5 

185 

— 

.17 

(!76 



— 

— 

1  to    7.20 

.18 

669 

.80 

8~2 

1  to    7.R4 

.86 

819 

1  lu    9.'0 

.80 

li<f 



6.11 

28 

1  to    2.8 

8.84 

27 

I  to    2.14 

1.64 

70 

1  to  e..^ 

2.10 

,V) 

1  to    6.05 

1.76 

65 

1  to    4.25 

1.92 

60 

1  to    4.'  S 

2.00 

.5S 

1  to    4.43 

2.09 

65 

1  to    2.42 

6.20 

22 

— 

PrecUcd    TftluM,  «■    obula«il   l>j   cxpertmenu 
f««dlus,  acconllut  to 


84  5-12 
&1J 


58  1112  89} 
6S  1-16  I  "" 
38  5-6      1 


300  '  —       800      250  j     201     1    _ 
40)  :  250     4I-.0      250  t    S.'.3     !    SCCf 


Oats  in  the  bundle,  well  cut  up,  straw  and  all,  make  excellent,  cheap  feed 
for  horses  or  other  stock ;  in  many  cases  it  is  much  better  than  threshing 
them.  For  heavy  teams  hard  at  work,  a  little  sound  corn-meal  mixed  wet 
with  them,  makes  a  feed  that  can  not  well  be  beaten.  It  is  a  highly  econ- 
omical and  satisfactory  way  of  feeding,  both  to  man  and  beast,  M-here  oats 
sell  at  a  low  price  by  the  bushel. 

103.  A  Treatise  ou  Feeding. — A  valuable  treatise  on  feeding,  wliich  miglit 
be  studied  with  profit  by  all  farmers,  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Ilorsefall,  an 
English  farmer,  and  published  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  which  may  be  found  complete  as  an  appendix  to  Flint's  "  Dairy 
Farming." 

103.  Soiling  Cattle* — Soiling  is  a  term  ajiplied  to  the  practice  of  confining 
animals  to  the  stable,  and  growing  a  green  crop,  such  as  sowed  corn,  sorgo, 
wheat,  rye,  or  oats,  clover,  etc.,  which  is  cut  up  as  needed,  and  carried  to  the 
animals,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  have  the  range  of  the  pastures.  Mr. 
Pliilo  Gregory,  of  Gliester,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  sowed  a  patch  of  half  an 
acre,  with  corn  for  fodder,  making  the  rows  thirty  inches  apart.  With  the 
product  he  kept  tiocntij-fivc  cows  for  six  uvcks  without  other  food. 

The  most  extensive  and  successful  system  of  soiling  is  ])ursued  by  Hon. 
Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,  of  Boston,  who  has  published  a  small  volume  giving 
details  of  his  practice.  One  of  the  great  advantages  of  soiling  is  the  saving 
of  manure,  the  quantity  being  largely  increased  over  that  made  by  an  equal 
number  of  cattle  at  pasture,  or  fed  in  the  ordinary  way.  "We  recommend 
any  one  disposed  to  attempt  the  soiling  system  to  road  Mr.  Quincy's  book. 

101.  Diseases  of  Tattle. — We  shall  not  attempt  to  give  a  treatise  upon  the 


Sbo.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FARM-STOCK.  Y7 

diseases  of  cattle  and  the  remedies ;  for  this,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to 
Dr.  Dadd,  veterinary  surgeon,  Boston,  and  his  valuable  writings,  as  well  as 
several  other  good  publications,  not  forgetting  the  Stoch  Journal,  New 
York.  We  will  give,  however,  the  following  sensible  remarks  upon  one 
of  the  most  common  diseases,  or  symptoms  of  disease,  from  Thos.  E.  Hatch, 
Keene,  JST.  H. 

105.  The  Horn  Ail. — Mr.  Hatch  says:  "'Horn  Ail,'  or  'Hollow  Horn,' 
is  an  absurd  misnomer  for  an  imaginary  disease  in  many  cases,  and  for  a 
symptom  of  fever  in  others.  Many  a  farmer  has  reluctantly  '  cut  off  one 
inch,'  or  more,  from  the  tail  of  a  beautiful  animal,  when  it  was  turned  out 
to  pasture,  under  the  erroneous  impression  that  it  would  do  better,  '  for  the 
hair  hung  in  curls,'  although  the  animal  was  in  perfect  liealth  and  good 
condition,  and  needed  no  remedy  of  any  kind.  In  fever,  the  degree  of 
arterial  excitement  is  estimated  in  part  by  the  heat  at  the  base  of  the  horn, 
which  is  very  thin,  and  covers  the  most  Avascular  bone  in  the  animal,  thereby 
displaying  symptoms  of  great  value  to  those  capable  of  appreciating  them. 

"  But  even  in  fever  there  can  never  be  the  slightest  occasion  for  '  cutting 
off  one  inch  of  the  tail,'  nor  for  pouring  hoiling  water  upon  the  horns  of  a 
suffering  animal  until  he  '  dodges.''  A  cathartic  of  epsom  or  glauber  salts, 
sulphur  or  linseed-oil,  combined  with  ginger,  red  pepper,  or  any  stimulant 
aromatic,  will  do  all  the  good,  and  much  more,  than  the  slight  bleeding  from 
the  cut  can  do,  and  not  leave  the  animal  to  thump  its  sides  the  remainder 
of  its  life  with  a  mutilated  stump,  a  living  monument  that  all  the  darkness 
of  the  dark  ages  has  not  yet  passed  away. 

"The  hope  tliat  I  may  be  the  means,  in  a  single  case,  of  preserving  intact 
one  of  the  beauties  of  the  bovine  race,  to  the  unfortunate  animal  suffering 
from  'Horn  Ail'  or  'Tail  Sickness,'  is  the  only  apology  that  I  can  offer  for 
this  communication.  I  would  as  soon  knock  off  the  horn,  or  slit  the  ears  of 
a  favorite  animal,  as  to  '  cut  off  one  inch  of  the  tail,'  and  should  have  as 
good  physiological  reasons  for  so  doing.  Tlie  disfigurement  in  either  case 
would  be  about  equal,  but  the  inconvenience  which  the  animal  would  suffer 
from  the  loss  of  the  long,  silky  brush  so  kindly  furnished  by  nature,  espe- 
cially in  'fly  time,'  would  be  immeasurably  greater." 

The  Ohio  Kercuma,  an  ounce  to  a  dose,  given  in  wliisky  a  few  times  to 
a  cow  with  this  disease,  is  recommended  as  a  valuable  cure.  In  our  opinion, 
good  feed  and  warm  stables  as  a  preventive  are  worth  more  than  all  the  cures. 

106.  Cure  of  Scours  in  Cattle. — An  English  farmer  recommends  the  use 
of  acorn-meal  as  a  sure  cure  of  diarrhea  in  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  lanib«, 
and  young  stock  generally.     He  says : 

"  I  sent  the  dried  acorns  to  the  mill  to  be  ground  into  flour,  and  when  I 
found  symptoms  of  scour  or  diarrhea  in  my  cattle,  I  ordered  two  handfiils 
to  be  mixed  in  a  bran  mash,  and  given  warm  immediately,  and  to  continue 
it  once  a  day,  until  the  disease  disappeared.  This  proved  a  never-failing 
cure — insomuch  that  I  never  had  any  trouble  from  the  disease  afterward  ; 
and  my  neighbors,  seeing  this,  had  recoui-se  to  me  for  a  little  of  my  acorn 


78  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

flour,  when  the  disease  appeared  in  their  cattle,  which,  of  course,  I  was  glad 
to  give  thcin,  the  result  being  the  same  as  in  my  own  case." 

107.  To  Cure  Lice  on  Cattle. — Some  farmers  have  great  faith  in  the 
efficacy  of  onions  for  ridding  cows  or  oxen  of  lice.  Mr.  Roe,  of  Orange 
County,  N.  Y.,  claims  to  have  found  them  an  infallible  remedy  in  his  prac- 
tice. They  also  give  a  tone  to  the  stomach,  and  are  especially  valuable  in 
hot  weather,  when  working  cattle  will  lie  in  the  shade  at  noon-time,  and 
refuse  to  eat.  Mr.  Roe  uses  the  "  scullions,"  or  small,  unsalable  onions,  and 
those  which  become  soft  or  sprouted  toward  spring.  He  gives  a  feed  of  half 
a  peck  once  a  day,  at  noon,  and  says  that  two  feeds  are  sufficient  to  extirpate 
any  number  of  vermin. 

A  correspondent  recommends  the  following  remedy  for  lice  or  ticks :  "  One 
tablespoonful  of  sulphur  to  one  pint  of  salt,  mi.K  thoroughly  together,  and 
feed  to  cattle  or  sheep  once  a  week,  in  quantities,  as  wc  usually  feed  cattle, 
for  two  months  in  succession,  and  there  will  be  no  ticks  or  lice  on  them." 

108.  Cattle  Poisoned  with  BrinCi— Many  farmers  have  learned  to  their 
sorrow  that  old  brine,  placed  within  the  reach  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  perhaps 
other  farm  stock,  will  cause  death  ;  and  as  there  are  others  who  may  not  have 
learned  this  fact,  we  now  place  it  on  record  for  their  benefit.  We  will  also 
give  the  results  of  certain  investigations  made  at  the  Veterinary  School,  at 
Ayort,  France,  by  M.  Reynal,  which  throw  additional  light  upon  the  subject. 
It  is  ascertained  that  the  poisonous  projjcrties  of  brine  are  not  immediately 
acquired  ;  but  it  assumes  this  condition  only  after  it  has  been  in  contact  for 
several  months  with  the  meat,  when,  if  mixed  with  the  food  of  stock,  even 
in  small  quantities,  it  will  produce  death ;  but  when  hogs  and  other  stock  can 
get  to  it,  unmixed  with  food,  its  effects  are  still  more  speedily  fatal.  The 
poison  acts  as  a  local  irritant,  exciting  violent  intestinal  congestion  and 
inflammation.  It  likewise  increases  the  secretion  of  the  skin  and  kidneys, 
and  exerts  a  direct  effect  upon  the  nervous  system,  giving  rise  to  trembling, 
loss  of  sensation,  convulsions,  etc. 

The  salt  of  the  worst  brine  may  be  saved  in  a  pure  state  by  boiling  the 
brine  and  carefully  skimming  off  all  the  scum.  The  remainder  may  then  be 
used  as  brine,  or  reduced  to  salt  by  still  more  boiling. 

109.  Cattic  Poisoaed  by  Wild  Cherry  Leaves. — It  is  not  an  unusual  thing 
for  cattle  to  be  poisoned  with  the  leaves  of  the  common  wild  cherry-tree, 
which  are  almost  sure  death  if  eaten  in  a  wilted  state,  unless  a  remedy  is 
immediately  administered.  Tlie  most  convenient,  read3'  remedy  which  a 
farmer  can  use  is  hog's  lard  and  molasses,  mixed  in  about  equal  quanti- 
ties, by  melting  the  lard  and  warming  the  molasses.  It  should  be  given  in 
doses  of  a  pint  or  a  quart,  by  means  of  a  black  bottle,  pouring  it  well  down 
the  animal's  throat. 

110.  Overstockine;  the  Farm. — Tliis  is  about  the  worst  practice  in  farming, 
as  regards  stock,  either  in  summer  or  winter.  It  is  not  only  unprofitable  to 
keep  useless  animals,  such  as  liorses  or  oxen,  but  if  you  are  overstocked,  the 
whole  must  deteriorate.     There  is  nothinff  about  a  farm  that  has  a  more 


Sko.  6.]  FEEDING  CATTLE  AND  CARE  OF  FABM-STOCK.  79 

distressed  appearance  than  half-starved  animals,  and  there  is  nothing  about 
farming  that  is  more  unprofitable.  Even  the  manure  accumulated  from 
such  stock  is  far  less  valuable  than  that  saved  from  -well-fed  animals. 

The  most  important  tiling  in  farm-stock  is  a  good  team,  and  that  should 
be  the  first  consideration.  Have  a  team  or  teams  sufficient  to  do  all  your 
work,  except  some  particular  things,  such  as  threshing,  and  for  such  extra 
work  have  a  standing  arrangement,  if  possible,  with  a  neighbor  to  exchange 
team  work.  You  can  not  afford  to  keep  any  extra  team.  You  may  be 
overstocked  in  any  other  kind  of  animals  with  less  damage  than  working 
ones,  but  you  can  in  no  way  afford  to  do  without  enough  of  them,  and  the 
better  they  are,  the  better  it  will  be  for  you.  Farm-stock  must  be  adapted 
to  circumstances  to  be  profitable.  "When  milk  sells  at  two  cents  a  quart,  at 
or  near  the  farm,  milch  cows  are  profitable  stock,  because  if  one  average  five 
quarts  a  day,  her  milk  will  bring  $36  50  a  year,  and  some  of  the  milch  dairy 
cows  near  New  York  double  that.  The  average  we  have  heard  estimated 
at  $45  for  all  the  cows  kept  on  a  farm.  We  have  known  the  profit  of 
grazing  a  herd  of  fatting  bullocks  through  the  season  often  to  range  from 
§38  to  $40  a  head,  but  we  could  not  recommend  every  one  to  go  into  the 
business,  because  it  requires  skill  in  buying,  keeping,  and  soiling  that  all  do 
not  and  are  not  likely  to  possess.  In  all  cases  farm-stock  should  be  adapted 
to  circumstances,  and  there  is  certainly  a  want  of  judgment  in  this  respect 
that  is  amazing.  Men  in  Mississippi  have  tried  to  raise  fine-wool  sheep 
suited  to  Vermont,  and  men  in  "Vermont  have  tried  to  use  mules  for  farm- 
work,  instead  of  their  own  hardy  breed  of  horses,  because  they  had  read 
that  they  were  much  the  most  economical  for  fiirm-work  in  all  the  Southern 
States.  The  pastures  of  New  England  are  noted  for  their  sweet  grass  and 
excellent  red  cattle  ;  and  tlie  blue-grass  fields  and  fat  Durhams  of  Kentucky 
are  equally  noted,  and  all  should  know  that  it  would  not  serve  either  section 
to  advantage  to  exchange  breeds  of  cattle.  The  adaptability  of  stock  to  the 
farm  is  a  subject  that  we  do  not  wish  to  dictate  upon,  but  we  ask  reasonable 
men  to  take  counsel  with  reason,  and  apply  that  ni  all  cases  to  their  own 
circumstances. 

111.  Imported  vs.  Native  Stock. — Eobert  Purvis,  of  Byberry,  Penn.,  has 
a  farm  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  one  of  the  best  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
cojisequently,  in  our  opinion,  his  ideas  are  entitled  to  a  share  of  our  respect. 
He  says : 

"For  many  years  I  have  made  it  my  business,  as  it  has  been  my  pleasure, 
to  do  what  I  could  to  promote  the  improvements  of  farm-stock.  My  chief 
attention  has  been  given  to  cows,  hogs,  and  fowls,  though  I  have  not  been 
unmindful  to  other  varieties.  Of  cows,  I  have  raised  the  Durham,  Ayr- 
shire, and  the  Devonshire  ;  of  hogs,  the  Berkshire  and  tlie  Suffolk  ;  and  of 
fowls,  a  great  variety.  I  have  confined  my  attention  chiefly  to  those  of  for- 
eign growth  or  origin.  That  I  have  succeeded  as  well  as  others,  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  at  the  various  shows  I  have  taken  a  fair  share  of 
the  premiums.     Nevertheless,  my  success,  though  encouraging,  has  not  been 


80  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

altogether  satisfactory ;  that  is,  it  has  not  proved  to  me  that  any  of  these 
foreign  breeds,  whether  of  cows,  hogs,  or  fowls,  are  the  best  that  we  can 
liave  in  this  country,  or  are  just  the  thing  we  want.  On  the  contrary,  it  has 
demonstrated  to  me  quite  the  opposite,  viz. :  That  before  we  can  attain  the 
desii-ed  success  in  this  field  of  experiment,  we  must  give  more  attention  than 
wc  are  now  giving  to  animals  which  are  the  growth  of  our  oicn  soil.  .Kot 
tliat  I  would  nndervalue  the  advantages  of  importing  the  best  varieties  of 
foreign  breeds,  for  too- much  praise  can  not  be  rendered  those  public-spirited 
men  who  spend  their  money  liberally  in  bringing  to  our  shores  the  best 
specimens  tliey  can  obtain  of  European  animals  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  too 
little  credit  may  be  given  to  others  who  are  doing  what  they  can  to  improve 
our  native  breeds. 

"  I  don't  know  how  it  may  be  with  others,  but  according  to  my  experience 
and  observation,  there  is  an  tcnvari/iiig  U-^ulency  in  all  imported  stock  to 
deterioration.  Whether  it  is  owing  to  the  climate,  or  soil,  or  whaf,  I 
don't  pretend  to  eay  ;  but  this  tendency  to  dep;enerate  in  all  foreign  animals, 
whatever  pains  may  have  been  taken  with  them,  has  been,  according  to  my 
knowledge,  witliout  an  exception.  Now,  assuming  this  to  be  true,  wliicli, 
nnderstand  me,  I  do  not  aver,  the- question  arises :  "Would  it  not  be  better  for 
US,  in  trying  to  impi'ove  onr  stock,  to  make  our  selections  for  the  purpose 
without  regard  to  the  animal's  origin  ?  In  milch  cows,  for  instance,  ought 
we  not  to  choose  the  finest-looking  animal  and  best  milker  we  can  find, 
whether  native,  imported,  or  mixed?  and  ought  we  not  to  see  that  the  oflP- 
spring  are  the  product  of  a  sire  chosen  on  the  same  principle?  Is  it  not 
likely,  and  does  not  experience,  so  far  as  it  has  been  made,  show  that  the 
tendency  of  this  sort  of  breeding  is  to  a  continual  improvement  in  the  stock? 
I  would  ask  the  same  questions  in  regard  to  hogs,  fowls,  horses,  sheep,  and 
al!  other  kinds  of  animals.  In  otlier  words,  ought  we  not  to  make  more  ac- 
count of  our  native  breeds,  and  seek,  by  judicious  crossing  and  care  in  other 
respects,  to  attain  tlie  ei^  which  we  have  not  yet  reached  in  the  matter  of 
stock-raising  ?" 

Do  farmers  generally  sufficiently  ajipreciato  the  reason  why  imported  or 
liigh-bred  cattle  look  so  much  better  than  the  natives?  Is  it  not  because 
one  class  is  high-fed  as  avcU  as  high-bred,  and  treated  with  the  greatest  pos- 
sible care,  while  many  of  the  poor  natives  are  treated  with  the  greatest 
possible  neglect — exposed  to  storms,  summer  and  winter,  and  kept  upon 
sliort  pasture  while  it  is  possil)le  for  the  animals  to  get  a  living,  and  then 
grudgingly  fed  coarse  herbage  to  carry  them  alive  through  the  winter. 
With  such  treatment,  the  poor  natives  have  no  fair  chance  to  compete  with 
the  pampered  stock  lately  imported ;  yet,  witli  equally  good  treatment  and 
constant  care  in  breeding,  we  believe  as  good  cattle  may  be  raised  up  out 
of  some  of  the  natives  as  can  be  found  among  tliose  imported  and  maintained 
at  such  great  extra  expense.  At  least,  we  believe  that  if  as  much  care  had 
been  bestowed  on  our  native  stock  as  lias  been  on  tlic  imported  breeds  for  the 
last  thirty  years,  the  natives  would  now  be  nearly  equal  to  the  imported. 


PLATE    VI. 

(Page  81.) 

The  subject  of  feeding  swine  is  treated  of  in  Section  II.,  but  to 
enable  readers  to  understand  the  style  of  the  different  breeds,  fed 
to  a  condition  for  show,  we  have  preferred  to  direct  his  attention  to 
this  picture  rather  than  to  a  written  description.  Upon  the  left 
hand  he  will  see  representatives  of  the  Berkshire,  black  and  white. 
In  the  center  are  the  beautiful  white,  thin-haired  SufiFolk,  and  on 
the  right  the  black,  thin-haired  Essex,  a  favorite  breed  in  England, 
lately  introduced  into  this  country.  Indeed,  all  three  of  these 
named  are  favorite  English  breeds.  On  the  right,  in  the  rear,  an 
American  breed,  the  Chester  County,  is  represented.  All  that  is 
known  of  the  history  of  this  breed  is  Ijriefly  told  in  ^  13.  Tliis 
picture  of  four  families  of  swine  is  equal  to  any  other  ever  printed. 
It  is  worthy  of  careful  attention. 

Above  the  swine,  as  they  always  should  be,  in  the  estimation  of 
farmers,  are  the  sheep,  showing  good  representatives  of  the  three 
great  ftimiUes  of  long  wool,  fine  wool,  and  medium.  On  the  right, 
the  long-wool  variety,  luider  the  name  of  Cotswold,  are  well  repre- 
sented. In  the  center,  the  pair  of  merinos  stand  as  fair  types  of 
the  fine  avooI,  and  are  handsome  portraits  of  the  large-sized  sheep 
of  this  variety.  The  noble  South  Downs  on  the  left  show  what  this 
breed  looks  like.  Their  black  faces  and  legs  and  round,  full  bodies 
are  characteristics  of  the  family.  Altogether,  these  four  families  of 
swine  and  three  of  sheep  make  a  pictui-e  that  is  not  to  be  passed 
lightly  over. 


Seo.  7.] 


SHEEP   HUSBANDRY. 


81 


Wliy  should  we  import  hogs  ?  All  the  improved  English  breeds  arc 
made  up.  And  why  we  can  not  just  as  well  make  a  breed  here  that  shall 
suit  our  circumstances,  and  need  no  acclimathig,  we  can  not  imagine.  Tlie 
fecundity  of  pigs  gives  the  breeder  a  greater  facility  in  improving  his  hogs 
than  he  possesses  with  any  other  large  domestic  animal.  Let  hiin  have  an 
object  in  view  and  steadily  pursue  it  for  a  few  years,  and  success  and  great 
profit  are  certain. 


SECTION  VII.-SHEEP  HUSBANDRY. 

reeds  of  English  Sheep.— At  a  recent  meeting  of 

the  Central  Farmers'  Club  at  London,  Mr.  Charles 

Howard  delivered  an  address  on  the  tubject  of 

"The  Merits  of  Pure-Bred  and  Cross-Bred  Sheep." 

'•^~s  In  this  address  he  gave  the  origin  and  mei-its  of 

several  of  the  "  established"  breeds.      We   condense  as 

follows : 

I.  SoTTTHDOWNS. — "  Tlie  South,  or  Sussex  Downs,  are  de- 
scended from  small,  gray,  and  dark-faced  sheep  which 
were  found  on  the  hilly  and  mountainous  districts  through- 
out England.  John  Ellman  was  the  original  improver. 
He  was  followed  and  surpassed  by  Jonas  Webb,  who  has 
made  the  Southdown  perfect.  Tlie  peculiarity  of  this  sheep  is  its  supe- 
rior quality  of  mutton  and  wool.  Average  weight,  from  thirteen  to  fifteen 
months,  is  126  lbs. ;  weight  of  fleece,  6  lbs.  The  ewes  are  capital  breedeis, 
and  generally  produce  one  third  twins.  They  are  best  adapted  to  elevated 
situtUious  and  bare  pasturage.  Among  the  nobility  and  fancy  farmers  they 
arc  regarded  as  tlie  elite  of  sheep. 

II.  Hampshire  Dcwns.-^"  This  valuable  sheep  has  been  established  from 
various  crosses,  commencing  with  the  century.  Tliey  present  as  great  a 
uniformity  in  wool,  color,  and  general  appearance  as  their  smaller  but  hand 
somer  cousins,  the  Southdowns.  Tiiey  have  risen  into  favor  rapidly.  They 
arc  very  liardy,  and  of  good  constitutions,  and  good  wool-bearers,  the  aver- 
age fleece  being  6  to  7  lbs.,  of  early  maturity,  and  have  plenty  of  lean  as 
well  as  fat  meat,  and  will  graze  to  almost  any  weight  you  may  choose  to 
make  them.     The  ewes  are  good  breeders  and  sucklers. 

HI.  Leicesters. — "Tliese  originated  with  Bakewell.  To  this  breed  all 
other  long-wooled  sheep  are  indebted  for  their  improved  shape  and  greater 
disposition  to  fatten.  Their  chief  characteristics  are,  great  aptitude  to  fatten 
with  a  comparatively  small  consumption  of  food,  and  early  maturity;  fleece, 
7  lbs. ;  carcass,  at  fourteen  or  fifteen  months,  140  lbs.  They  are  not  very 
good  breeders,  and  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  have  more  lambs  than  ewes. 

IV.  The  Cotbwold. — "This  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  established  breeds. 


82  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


They  were  originally  heavy,  eoai-se  animals,  with  a  thick,  heavy  fleece,  well 
adapted  to  the  bleak,  iininclosed  Cotswold  hills.  Tiiey  are  now  very  hardy, 
and  will  succeed  well  in  almost  any  situation,  and  produce  a  great  amount 
of  wool  and  mutton  at  an  early  age.  They  sometimes  reach  86  lbs.  to  the 
quarter.  The  average  weight  of  an  ordinary  flock  when  tit  for  the  butcher,  • 
at  fourteen  or  tifteen  montlis  old,  is  about  ISO  lbs.,  and  the  weight  of  wool 
of  the  whole  flock  would  be  about  7i  lbs.  each.  Many  of  these  sheep  are 
now  being  exported  to  Australia  to  produce  mutton  for  tlie  miners. 

V.  LiNcoLNsniuES. — "  As  the  western  part  of  Great  Britain  is  famous  for 
its  Cotswolds,  so  is  the  northeastern  esteemed  for  the  heavy-woolcd  and 
large-framed  Lincolns,  to  which  district  they  especially  belong,  and  where 
for  many  years  they  held  their  own.  They,  like  the  Cotswolds,  have  been 
improved  by  an  admixture  of  Leicester  blood.  Tlie  present  improved  Lin- 
coln sheep  partakes  largely  of  the  pecnliariiios  of  the  Cotswold  and  Leices- 
ter, having  the  expansive  frame  and  nobility  of  appearance  of  the  one,  with 
the  quality  of  flesh,  compactness  of  form,  beauty  of  countenance,  and  pro- 
pensity to  fatten  of  the  other  ;  but  they  far  exceed  either  in  weight  of  fleece. 
Three-year  olds  sometimes  weigh  OOj  lbs.  to  the  quarter,  and  yearlings  71 
lbs.  The  weight  of  wool  of  an  entire  flock,  under  fair  average  management, 
is  about  8|lbs.  each;  weight  of  carcass  at  twenty-eight  months,  100 lbs. 
Tlie  Lincoln  breeders  consider  the  mutton  excellent,  having  less  fat  and  a 
greater  proportion  of  fine-grained,  lean  flesh  than  the  Leicesters.  The  ewes 
are  good  breeders,  but,  like  the  Cotswolds  and  Leicesters,  they  are  not  good 
sucklers. 

VL  SiiKOPsmEES. — "These  are  crosses.  Their  merit  consists  in  their  su- 
periority over  any  other  breed  in  their  own  country.  Tlicy  possess  h.irdincs.s 
of  constitution,  excellent  quality  of  mutton,  and  are  prolific  bi-eeders ;  but 
they  are  not  equal  to  other  breeds. 

VIL  OxFOKDSiiiRE  Downs. — "Tliis  breed  of  sheep  was  produced  twenty, 
seven  years  ago  by  crossing  the  Hampshire,  and  in  some  instances  South- 
down cAves,  with  Cotswold  rams,  and  then  putting  the  crosses  together. 
They  drop  their  lambs  in  February,  and  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  months  old 
they  are  ready  for  market,  weighing,  on  an  average,  140  lbs.  each,  with  a 
fleece  varying  from  7  to  10  lbs.  The  ewes  are  good  mothers,  and  produce  a 
great  proportion  of  twins." 

We  might  add  here,  as  these  last  two  breeds  are  crosses,  that  Mr.  IToward 
stated,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  experience  and  address,  "  that  from  a  judicious 
pairing  of  cross-bred  animals,  it  is  practicable  to  establish  a  new  breed  alto- 
gether," and  for  some  locations  better  fitted  than  most  of  the  existing  breeds. 

113.  Production  of  Sexes  among  Sheep. — The  Journal  (T Agriculture  Pra- 
tique has  a  paper  giving  a  variety  of  facts  on  this  subject — from  which  the 
deduction  is  made,  that  the  sex  depends  on  the  greater  or  less  vigor  of  the 
individuals  coupled.  This  has  long  been  known  and  acted  upon.  It  is  fur- 
ther stated,  as  shown  by  careful  observation  and  experiment,  that  more 
males  are  born  among  the  first  and  last  births  in  a  flock  reared  by  a  single 


Sko.  7.]  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY.  83 

rain,  than  among  the  lamljs  bom  in  the  intervening  i)eriod,  when  the  male 
is  weakened  by  excessive  exerlion;  and  that  the  ewes  wliicii  prodnce  males 
are  on  an  average  lighter  tlian  thoie  which  produce  females,  and  lose  more 
weight  than  the  latter  during  the  nursing  period.  Thus  vigor  in  the  male 
tends  to  produce  males,  but  more  from  tlie  weaker  than  tlie  stronger  ewes  ; 
and  the  opposite  fact  in  regard  to  females  tends  to  keep  up  the  equilibrium, 
and  secure  the  perfection  and  preservation  of  the  species,  by  confining  the 
reproduction  of  either  sex  to  the  most  perfect  type  of  each  respectively. 

114.  First  Importation  of  Meriuos.— The  first  importation  of  Spanish  sheep 
into  the  United  States  took  place  in  1801.  Four  were  sliipped  by  Mr.  Dides- 
sert,  a  banker  of  Paris,  three  of  which  perished  on  the  passage.  In  1802  a 
large  importation  was  made  by  Col.  Humphreys  ;  and  in  1809,  '10,  and  '11, 
tlie  Hon.  "Wm.  Jarvis,  the  American  consul  at  Lisbon,  sent  home  large  and 
valuable  flocks  to  his  farna  in  Weathersfield,  Vt. 

115.  General  Care  and  Management  of  Sheep. — Tliere  are  not  many  men  in 
this  country  more  capable  of  giving  information  upon  this  subject  than  T.  S. 
(4old,  of  Cornwall,  Connecticut.  In  the  series  of  Yale  College  lectures,  in 
the  winter  of  1859,  '60,  Mr.  Gold  gave  a  lecture  upon  sheep  husbandry,  in 
which  he  made  tlie  following  points,  wortliy  of  note  by  all  sheep  farmers  : 

"  Thrift. — It  should  always  be  the  object  of  the  flock-master  to  keep  his 
sheep  in  a  thriving  condition.  The  quality  of  the  wool,  as  well  as  its  quan- 
tity, and  the  general  productiveness  of  the  flock,  demand  this  system. 

"  Shelter  is  the  first  necessity  in  providing  for  wintering  sheep  success- 
fully. The  Southdowns  will  bear  exposure  better  than  any  other  class, of 
sheep.  Tlie  open  fleece  of  the  long-wooled  parts  on  the  back  wlien  wet,  and 
admits  the  water,  which  completely  drenches  the  animal,  so  that  his  abund- 
ant fleece  is  no  longer  a  protection  from  cold. 

"  Economy  in  feeding  demands  shelter  for  all  sheep,  as  not  only  less  food 
is  required,  but  also  it  is  better  preserved  from  waste.  Water-soaked  hay, 
or  that  whicli  is  in  any  way  soiled,  is  always  rejected.  The  improvement 
in  the  qualify  of  the  vxcmure  forms  another  argument  in  favor  of  shelter. 
That  this  is  not  only  healthful  but  grateful  to  the  sheep  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  we  see  in  the  fact  tliat  even  in  summer  they  will  seek  their  winter 
sheds  at  the  approach  of  a  storm  if  tliey  are  within  their  reach. 

"  Ventilation  is  of  jjaramonnt  importance  as  connected  with  shelter;  and 
to  insure  this,  sheds  open  to  the  south  are  to  be  preferred.  A  stable  with 
an  open  window  will  answer  for  a  small  number,  but  the  crowding  of  a 
large  flock  in  such  a  place  aficcts  the  organs  of  respiration,  and  may  result 
in  serious  disease,  and  sliould  never  be  tolerated. 

"The  best  form  of  rack  has  posts  three  feet  high  in  the  corners,  a  bottom 
of  boards,  the  sides  and  ends  of  two  boards  each,  and  the  lower  one  the 
widest,  with  narrow  perpendicular  strips  nailed  on  to  keep  the  stronger 
sheep  from  crowding  the  weaker.  The  spaces  are  larger  in  their  perpen- 
dicular than  their  horizontal  opening.  The  size  of  these,  as  well  as  the 
width  of  the  rack,  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  sheep.     Not  more 


84  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [CniP.  I. 

than  one  Inindred  of  the  fiiic-wooled  sheep  should  be  confined  in  the  same 
yard,  wliile  tlie  long-wooled  will  not  thrive  with  more  than  twenty-live.  A 
hofipital,  enug  and  comforfahle,  should  receive  any  slieep  that  may  be  weak 
fnim  ago  or  disease,  until,  by  careful  feeding  and  nursing,  they  can  be  re- 
turned to  the  fl<ick. 

"  It  is  the  worst  possible  practice  to  allow  the  sheep  to  fall  away  in  flesh, 
as  the  grass  fails  in  autumn.  The  increasing  wool  conceals  the  shrinking 
carcass,  much  to  the  disappointment  of  the  careless  flock-masters.  Better 
conline  them  in  the  yard  than  allow  them  to  ramble  about  in  search  of  some 
field  of  winter  grain,  which  furnishes  a  little  green  food,  but  too  light  to  be 
of  any  real  value. 

"  Winter  fodder  should  embrace,  in  addition  to  the  dry  food,  a  duo  pro- 
portion of  that  which  is  green  and  succulent.  Fine  early-cut  clover  hay, 
well  cured — tliat  from  old  meadows,  consisting  of  a  variety  of  grasses — 
forms  the  best  dry  fodder.  Economy  demands  that  the  quality  should  be 
good,  else  much  waste  ensues  ;  yet  the  sheep  is  very  fond  of  variety,  and  al- 
most all  of  the  so-called  weeds  become  a  choice  morsel.  The  botanist  knows 
full  well  that  a  sheep-range  will  be  most  barren  of  the  objects  of  his  search. 
The  immortal  Linnreus  tested  the  plants  most  indigenous  to  Sweden  by 
off"ering  them,  fresh  gathered,  to  the  various  domesticated  animals.  Horses 
ate  202  species,  and  refused  212;  cattle  ate  276  species,  and  refused  218; 
while  sheep  took  readily  385,  and  refused  only  141  species.  For  fattening, 
add  to  the  hay,  roots,  grain,  or  linseed,  or  cotton-seed  meal.  The  English 
system  of  winter  feeding  on  turnijis  in  the  field  is  here  prevented  by  ex 
cessive  cold.  Use  them  in  the  yards  in  moderate  weather.  Sudden  changes 
from  green  to  dry  food,  and  the  reverse,  should  be  avoided.  Regularity  in 
the  hours  of  feeding  is  very  important. 

"  The  amount  of  fodder  varies  with  the  kind  of  sheep,  though  it  is  not 
directly  proportioned  to  the  live  weight.  Ten  small,  fine  wooled  sheep  will 
eat  as  much  as  a  cow,  the  larger  ones  requiring  more.  Two  to  two  and  a 
half,  or  even  three  and  one  third  per  cent,  of  the  Jive  weight  in  hay  value  is 
estimated  by  ditl'erent  authors  as  daily  required. 

"  No  other  animals  except  calves  should  lie  in  the  yards  with  sheep.  The 
losses  from  the  horns  of  steers  and  the  heels  of  colts  more  than  balance  an}- 
supposed  gain.  As  the  brcalhiiig  of  the  sheep  on  the  hay  does  not  of  itself 
render  it  distasteful  to  cattle,  it  may  be  gathered  from  the  racks  and  fe<l  in 
another  inclosure. 

"  It  is  estimated  that  300  lbs.  of  good  hay  will  winter  a  small  sheep,  while 
larger  ones  may  take  three  times  the  amount. 

"  Water  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  thrift  of  the  sheep  in  the  winter.  It 
is  best  brought  into  the  yards,  as  the  steep  banks  of  streams  prove  dangoi-- 
ous  to  the  sheep. 

'■'■Salt  may  be  provided  in  winter  by  a  moderate  salting  of  the  hay  — 
two  to  four  quarts  a  tun  ;  but  excessive  sailing  must  be  avoided,  for  with  it 
neither  sheep  nor  cattle  will  thrive. 


I   i 


!  I 


Seo.  7.]  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY.  85 

"  As  the  lambing  season  approaches,  snug  quarters  must  be  provided  for 
the  breeding  ewes,  where  they  can  be  clean,  warm,  and  dry." 

116.  Graia  for  Sbcep. — Major  Wm.  Lee,  one  of  the  most  successful  wool- 
growers  of  western  Pennsylvania,  manages  his  sheep  as  follows,  according  to 
the  Ohio  Farmer :  "  They  are  not  confined  to  sheds  ;  they  are  only  provided 
wiili  a  dry  place  for  shelter  and  rest.  After  they  rise  of  their  own  accord,  in 
the  morning,  he  feeds  again,  two  thirds  corn,  and  one  third  barley  or  oats.  Af- 
terwards he  feeds  hay,  and  also  at  three  o'clock  again,  so  that  the  sheep  have 
finished  eating  before  nightfall.  He  considers  that  corn  will  make  more 
wool  than  oats,  and  general  opinion  favors  out-door  feeding.  Sheep  housed 
will  not  eat  as  much,  nor  will  they  shear  as  much  wool." 

Another  sheep-farmer  says :  "  I  am  willing  to  make  afiidavit  that  with 
me,  in  many  years'  experience  carefully  tested,  sheep  of  the  same  kind,  weigh- 
ing from  110  to  130  lbs.,  will  put  on  more  fat  and  gain  a  great  deal  more 
weight  on  1  or  1  j  lbs.  of  grain  or  oil-cake  per  day,  in  three  or  four  months, 
icith  only  straw  fur  fodder,  than  those  weighing  80  to  90  lbs. ;  and  I  value 
a  sheep  weighing  125  to  130  lbs.  as  worth  half  a  cent  more  per  pound  of  live 
weight,  for  me  to  feed  fat  than  one  weigliing  90  or  100  lbs.  Now,  no  man 
will  suppose  that  the  straw  will  put  on  any  fat,  or  make  sheep  gain  in  weight. 
If  you  feed  sheep  straw  only,  they  would  lose  weight,  and  that  greatly ;  but 
with  a  pound  of  meal  or  grain  daily,  they  will  gain  daily.  I  can  prove  all  I 
have  said  by  neighbors  who  have  been  feeding  for  a  few  years  past,  and  who 
will  now  only  buy  the  largest  sheep  of  their  class,  or  the  largest  cattle  of 
their  age." 

117.  Weight  of  Hay  for  Sheep. — The  question.  How  much  hay  do  sheep 
or  cattle  require  per  day  ?  is  thus  answered  by  Alexander  Speck  von  Stern- 
berg, of  Lutzchena,  Saxony,  to  the  Hon.  Joseph  A.  Wright,  American  min- 
ister at  Berlin.  He  says  :  "  One  thirtieth  part  of  the  weight  of  the  live 
animal,  in  good  hay,  is  considered  necessary  per  day  for  its  sustenance. 
According  to  the  quality  of  the  fodder,  and  its  abundance  or  scarcity,  this 
may  be  increased  to  one  twentietli  part ;  but  less  than  one  thirtieth  part 
ought  not  to  be  given.  Taking  good  meadow  hay  as  the  fodder  standard,  a 
ram  should  receive  about  2>\  lbs.  per  day,  a  ewe  about  2 J  lbs.,  yearlings, 
etc.,  in  that  proportion — taking  the  average  of  a  full-grown  ram  at  110  lbs., 
of  a  ewe  at  73  lbs.,  the  weight  of  each  varying,  according  to  age,  size,  and 
condition,  between  105  and  125  lbs.  as  regards  the  full-sized  rams,  and  from 
70  to  85  lbs.  as  regards  the  full-grown  ewes.  The  weight  of  a  wether  varies 
between  80  lbs.  in  lean  condition,  and  110  to  115  lbs.,  if  strong  and  fat  for 
t!ie  butcher.  One  pound  of  good  meadow  hay  is  considered  equivalent  to 
1|  lbs.  of  oat,  pea,  wheat,  or  barley  straw,  libs,  of  turnips,  or  2  lbs.  of  grains 
in  die  wet  state,  as  delivered  from  the  brewery  in  winter.  When  the  time 
for  stabling  for  Avinter  arrives,  the  sheep-master  has  his  supplies  of  straw, 
hay,  and  turnips  allotted  to  him  on  the  basis  of  the  above  calculation,  and 
he  is  bound  to  make  them  serve  out  the  proper  time,  under-feeding  being  as 
much  guarded  against  as  over-feeding  and  waste." 


86  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

Another  writer  says:  "The  usual  rate  of  the  consumption  of  food  is  at 
the  rate  of  Si  lbs.  of  hay  daily  for  every  100  lbs.  of  live  weight.  If  we  take 
the  average  of  Hocks,  the  live  weiglit  of  lUO  common  sheep  would  be  about 
7  500  lbs.,  or  from  tliat  up  to  8,000  lbs.  It  is  rare  that  a  M-hole  flock  of 
fine-wooled  sheep  will  average  more  than  70  lbs.  for  each  head,  though  it  may 
be  that  tliis  weiglit  is  exceeded  in  some  instances.  At  the  rate  mentioned, 
a  flock  of  100  sheep  should  use  up  or  consume  280  lbs.  of  hay  per  day,  or  a 
total  of  25  tuns  in  the  winter  season  tliat  lasted  180  days.  This  would  also 
equal  504  lbs.  to  each  single  sheep  ;  or  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule, 
that  a  full-grown  Merino  sheep,  averaging  in  live  weight  from  75  to  100  lbs., 
will  consume  during  the  winter  season  a  quarter  of  a  tun  of  hay,  or  its  equiv- 
alent, if  comfortably  kept.  If  grain  forms  a  part  of  the  ration,  of  course 
some  of  the  hay  may  be  saved  ;  but  if  the  animal  is  to  be  kept  growing 
wool,  it  will  need  is  full  ratio  of  hay,  and  a  little  grain,  too." 

lis.  Changiu?  Pasl?irCi — Some  shet'p-farmcrs  arc  very  particular  about 
changing  pastures.  This  is  right,  if  llie  inclosures  are  small.  If  there  is  a 
wide  range,  it  is  of  no  particular  advantage  1o  confine  slieep  to  one  portion 
of  it,  and  then  shift  them  to  another. 

119.  Feedius  Sheep  vsi  Beeves. — 'Mechi,  wlio  is  a  highly  cnliglitened  and 
practical  Englisli  ngricullnrist,  says  lie  is  convinced  that  beef  must  sell  at 
20  per  cent,  higher  than  mutton  to  make  tliem  pay  alike.  He  also  remarks, 
that  lie  agrees  with  a  friend  of  his,  who  says,  that  he  who  keeps  many  bul- 
locks will  never  need  to  make  a  will. 

Our  observation  in  relation  to  the  comparative  profits  in  this  country 
coincides  with  Mr.  Mechi. 

Thos.  Ikdl,  of  Monmouth  County,  N.  J.,  makes  the  following  statement  in 
regar<l  to  the  profits  of  feeding  sheep  : 

"I  usually  keep  about  100  sheep,  and  renew  my  flock  every  year.  J[y 
neighbors  and  myself  agree  with  a  drover  to  lake  certain  numliers,  and  he 
goes  up  the  Delaware  into  the  State  of  New  York,  where  he  obtains  a  large 
strain  of  common  f-heep.  1  buy  the  best  ones  in  the  flock,  paying  the  high- 
est market  price,  which  this  year  was  $'i  50  a  head,  while  my  neighbors  prefer 
to  take  tlie  lower-priced  sheep,  graduating  down  to  $3  50  or  $2  25  a  head.  I 
get  my  new  flock  in  about  the  1st  of  October,  and  immediately  put  the  ewes  to 
full-blood  Southdown  bucks,  so  as  to  have  the  lambs  dropped  early  in  April. 
I  have  good  autumn  pasture,  so  as  to  keep  the  flock  in  good  condition  to  go 
inio  winter  (puirters,  where  I  keep  them  in  yards  with  open  sheds,  fifty  shec>p 
in  a  pen,  with  feeding-racks,  and  freedom  to  lay  under  cover  or  out  in  the 
open  weather.  Their  own  instinct  governs  them  about  seeking  shelter  when 
it  storms.  I  feed  the  flock  once  a  day  upon  hay,  and  once  a  day  upon  wliolc 
stalks  of  Indian  corn  cut  from  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  is  hard  enough  to 
ripen  in  the  shock,  when  the  shocks  are  well  cured,  and  afterward  the  corn 
is  husked  and  stalks  stored  for  winter.  T!ic  sheep  trim  them  of  leaves, 
and  the  dry  stalks  nuike  good  bedding  for  them.  I  watcli  my  ewes  and  take 
them  out  of  the  flock  as  the  time  aiqiroaches  to  drop  their  lambs,  and  put 


Sec.  7.]  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY. 

tlieiii  in  other  yards,  wliere  they  are  fed  on  grain  and  good  hay,  and  I  sel- 
dom lose  a  lamb.  I  graze  my  tlock  upon  less  than  eighteen  acres  of  good 
pasture,  which  has  been  made  to  produce  sweet  grass  by  the  apjjlication  of 
greon  sand  marl,  by  which  I  have  renovated  a  worn-out  farm.  By  the  end 
of  July  I  have  my  lambs,  which  are  largo  and  fat,  and  M-ell  marked  with  the 
Southdown  characteristics,  all  off  to  the  butcher — this  year  at  $4  75  eacli, 
selling  the  whole  lot  to  one  man.  I  could  have  sold  them  in  small  lots  so  as 
to  average  $5  a  liead.  The  ewes,  after  the  lambs  are  taken  off,  become  fat 
upon  grass  alone,  so  as  to  bring  the  best  market  price  of  tliat  class  of  sheep 
in  September.  I  have  just  sold  all  off,  and  find  tliat  the  100  liead  which  1 
purchased  at  $3  50  one  year  ago,  have  yielded  me  in  wool.  Iambs,  and  old 
shccj)  $7  50  a  head  over  the  cost  of  the  stock.  Last  year  I  realized  $7  a 
head  profit,  or  rather,  I  got  that  for  keei>ing  100  head  of  sheep  one  year,  and 
I  think  that  sum  may  be  safely  calculated  upon  every  year.  And  besides 
this  ]:!ofi?,  I  find  my  sheep  are  enriching  my  land  and  are  more  advan 
tagcoi;s  in  every  way  than  any  otlier  kind  of  stock.  Every  farmer  keeping 
sheep  should  have  a  lot  of  movable  fence,  and  inclose  small  plots — say  half 
an  acre  at  a  time — of  the  poorest  parts  of  tlie  farm,  such  as  gravelly  knolls, 
upon  which  to  yard  tlie  flock  nights.  The  only  drawback  to  keeping  sheep 
upon  hundreds  of  farms  near  New  York  is  the  worthless  cur  dogs.  In  New 
Jersey  we  have  a  good  law  which  gives  out  of  the  general  tax  $5  a  head  for 
all  sheep  killed  by  dogs.  Tliat  insures  every  common  sheep,  but  does  not 
warrant  me  in  keeping  full-blood  Southdown  or  other  valuable  breeds.  The 
State  of  New  York  needs  a  stringent  law  against  dogs  to  protect  the  interest 
of  farmers  who  keep  sheep,  particularly  in  the  coimties  near  the  city." 

The  above  statement  of  Mr.  Bell  is  a  very  encouraging  one,  and  would 
doubtless  encourage  many  of  the  farmers  convenient  to  the  city  market  to 
adopt  the  same  course  if  the  State  Legislature  would  protect  tliem  against 
dogs.  Tlie  question  resolves  itself  into  this  simple  form :  Is  it  of  more  gen- 
eral advantage  to  the  State  to  grow  wool  and  mutton  than  it  is  to  grow  dogs 
— dogs,  too,  of  the  most  worthless  sorts  ?  It  is  one  of  the  rarest  things  in  tlie 
world  that  a  sheiaherd  dog  or  a  good  house  watch-dog  ever  kills  sheep.  It 
is  only  the  meanest,  prowling,  thieving,  worthless  curs,  of  no  value  to  their 
owners,  that  destroy  sheep.  Let  ns  have  a  law  to  annihilate  them,  and  then 
eveiy  man  can  keep  sheep  with  the  same  results  as  Mr.  Bell. 

Mr.  Carpenter,  of  Elmira,  said  :  "  A  neighbor  of  mine  makes  just  about 
the  same  average  upon  his  flock  of  grade  Southdowns.  He  shears  six  pounds 
of  wool  per  head,  and  he  sells  his  lambs  at  $4." 

Samuel  Tliorne,  of  Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.,  pursues  the  same  course, 
with  the  same  results,  as  Mr.  Bell. 

Mr.  Wade,  of  Canada  "West,  says  :  "  Tliat  he  prefers  the  long-wool  sorts, 
because  they  are  more  hardy.  The  mutton  sells  readily,  and  the  wool, 
though  not  worth  so  much  a  pound  as  the  fine-wool  sorts,  weighs  so' 
much  more  that  the  value  of  the  fleece  is  equal.  We  don't  grow  much 
corn,  but  we  feed  a  great  many  roots,  and  feed  well.     It  is  foolish  to  try  to 


88  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

keep  any  animal  upon  low  diet.  We  feed  anything  that  sheep  eat  best,  and 
I  fatten  principally  upon  turnips  and  hay,  with  a  little  meal.  The  long-wool 
Bliuep  are  better  adapted  to  Canada  ^tlian  the  line-wool.  "We  shear  eight 
pounds  of  clean  wool  per  head.  The  Coiswold  variety  are  preferred  ;  they 
liave  stronger  constitutions  than  the  Leicester  sheep." 

Gen.  Harmon,  of  Monroe  County,  s;iys :  "  I  commenced  with  fine-wool 
sheep,  forty  years  ago.  I  then  tried  Leicosterehire,  and  then  came  back  to 
Merino.  I  have  less  than  200  acres,  and  grow  30  or  40  acres  of  wheat  every 
year ;  the  land  improves  by  sheep.  My  average  weight  of  fleece  is  five  pounds. 
I  keep  330  head,  and  get  over  S700  a  year  for  wool  and  increase.  I  stable 
50  sheep  in  a  room  14  by  40  feet,  without  change  in  the  winter.  I  wash  my 
sheep  clean  and  let  them  run  six  or  eight  days,  and  then  shear.  I  don't 
breed  from  gummy  sheep.  I  iced  in  board-racks,  -with  straight  sticks,  so 
the  sheep  can  put  in  their  heads.  Tliure  are  about  25  acres  of  reclaimed  land 
on  my  farm  that  will  keep  sheep  alive,  but  -won't  fat  them.  My  farm  is 
limestone,  and  I  prefer  fine-wool  sheep  to  any  other  for  profit ;  and  I  con- 
sider sheep  twice  as  profitable  as  cattle  upon  any  grain  farm.  I  never 
breed  from  ewes  less  than  three  years  old.  I  don't  like  the  cross  of  Lei- 
cester bucks  upon  fine  ewes.  I  have  sold  of  wool  and  sheep  over  $'J00  a 
year." 

Lewis  F.  Allen,  of  Black  Eock,  says :  "  I  have  kejit  sheep  twenty-five 
yeare  upon  a  clay  loam,  natural  to  sweet  grasses,  limestone  formation,  on  the 
Niagara  River.  There  is  no  general  rule  as  to  the  profit  of  keeping  sheep. 
All  depends  upon  circumstances.  In  Canada  I  have  seen  the  best  long-wool 
sheep  I  ever  saw,  but  these  sheep  arc  too  fat  for  eating.  You  might  as  well 
dine  ofl"  a  cake  of  tallow  as  such  meat.  Such  sheep  may  be  profitable  in 
Canada.  With  me  those  sheep  require  good  shelter.  They  are  not  kept 
warm  by  their  long  fleeces.  My  sheep  sheared  five  to  eight  pounds  of  wool. 
I  don't  approve  of  feeding  many  roots  except  to  breeding  ewes.  Tiiey  are 
likely  to  scour  sheep  ;  at  least  they  do  mine. 

"  On  some  soils  it  may  be  best  to  plow  in  clover ;  on  other  soils  it  is  not. 
As  to  mutlon  sheep,  I  have  fed  Southdowns,  and  the  cheapest  way  that  I 
can  make  mutton  is  upon  gi'ass,  and  wethers  of  150  lbs.  bring  five  cenis  a 
pound  gross  at  Buffalo.  I  would  keep  mutton  sheep  if  I  had  a  good  farm  on 
a  railroad.  I  can  always  sell  my  lambs  at  $2.  Jfy  Southdown  fleeces  bring 
§1  50  average.  Southdown  mutton  is  the  best  we  have,  and  the  sheep 
always  sell  well  for  mutton.  The  fine-wool  sheep  mutton  is  apt  to  taste  of 
the  greasy  wool.  Tlie  iferino  shee]-)  are  a  hardy  race  of  sheep,  but  they  are 
not  a  good  breed  to  feed  for  mutton." 

Mr.  Bowen,  of  Orleans  Count}',  says:  "I  have  bred  both  coarse  and  fine 
sheep.  I  have  raised  coarse-wooled  sheep  that  weighed  150  lbs.  each  at  one 
year  old.  I  find  the  coarse-wool  breed  the  most  ]irofitab]e.  My  sheep 
average  six  pounds  of  wool,  that  sells  at  31  cents  a  lb.  My  sheep  are  a 
cross  of  Cotswold,  and  are  closc-wooled  and  hardy.  I  live  on  a  gravelly 
loam,  wheat  soil,  and  1  think  it  desirable  to  increase  the  stock  of  sheep  in 


Sec.  r.]  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY. 

this  State.  A  field  of  clover  fed  off  by  eheep  will  yield  more  wheat  than 
if  not  fed  ofF." 

Mr.  Pettibone,  of  Vermont,  says :  "  If  a  man  keeps  but  few  sheep  he 
should  keep  a  mutton  hreed.  If  he  keeps  a  large  flock,  or  say  200  or  300, 
he  should  keep  line-wool  sorts.  The  trouble  in  sheep-breeding  is  in  letting 
them  run  down  in  October.  I  winter  300  head,  and  100  ewes  will  give  lUO 
lambs.  I  use  400  acres,  but  many  of  them  are  on  the  mountain,  and  valued 
at  only  $7  an  acre.  I  do  not  let  all  my  ewes  breed.  I  keep  my  sheep  in 
very  close  winter  quarters  on  hay.  I  feed  breeding  ewes  one  peck  of  corn  a 
day  to  100  head.  In  eleven  years  I  have  not  had  a  lamb  die,  and  ewes  are 
kept  without  grain,  but  always  with  water  and  salt  by  tbem.  There  is  a 
material  diflereuce  in  the  value  of  the  fleece,  according  to  the  way  sheep 
are  kept.  I  prefer  always  to  have  my  sheep  fixt.  In  January  I  select  my 
ewes,  and  never  sell  the  choice  ones.  I  have  a  ewe  tluit  has  produced 
eighteen  lambs  and  shears  four  pounds  of  good  wool.  I  do  not  select  the 
most  gummy  sheep  for  my  use ;  they  arc  much  more  tender  tlian  those  less 
gummy.  Still,  you  must  have  greasy  wool  if  you  have  fine  wool.  I  feed 
generally  twice  a  day— sometimes  only  once.  The  sales  of  my  wool  last 
year  produced  over  $2  a  head  for  my  flock,  and  the  average  for  fifteen  years 
has  been  four  and  three  quarter  pounds,  such  as  sold  this  year  at  50  cents 
a  pound.  My  land  is  limestone  clay  loam.  I  have  picked  out  and  sold 
twenty  wether  lambs  to  a  neighbor  Avho  sheared  eiglit  pounds  a  liead,  and 
sold  two  sheep  for  mutton  at  $3  50  a  head.  A  flock  of  300  head  of  sheep 
ought  to  average  five  pounds  of  clean  wool.  I  select  in  the  fall  eight  or  ten 
wethers,  and  feed  them  with  meal  through  the  winter,  and  give  them  good 
grazing  in  summer,  and  kill  through  the  summer,  and  the  tallow  averages 
10  or  12  lbs.  and  the  meat  10  or  15  lbs.  per  quarter.  The  pelts  sell  at  75 
cents.  A  three-year  old  wether,  pure  Merino  breed,  often  weighs  75  lbs. 
I  have  sheared  14  lbs.  of  wool  per  head  from  bucks,  which  sold  for  50  cents 
a  lb.,  and  8  lbs.  of  wool  from  ewes." 

A.  B.  Dickinson  says  :  "  I  have  sheared  11,000  sheep  in  a  year,  and  know 
something  of  them.  The  man  who  raises  sheep  for  mutton  had  better  raise 
the  largest  kind,  for  they  produce  the  most  money,  though  they  may  not  make 
the  best  kind  of  mutton.  For  wool,  I  would  keep  none  but  the  line-wooled 
variety  of  sheep,  but  I  would  not  keep  the  gummy  sort,  because  the  clean 
wool  will  always  produce  the  most  money.  Li  washing  sheep,  I  am  sure 
that  the  wool  can  always  be  made  cleaner  when  the  sheep  are  washed  in  a 
vat  than  in  a  stream.  If  20  sheep  will  weigh  20  cwt.,  they  M'ill  eat  just 
about  as  much  as  two  bnllocks  of  tliat  weight — that  is,  if  they  are  ma- 
ture sheep.  Young  sheep  eat  more,  according  to  live  Aveight,  than  old 
ones." 

Mr.  Johnston  bought  thirty  Lcicesters  one  fall,  put  them  in  his  yards,  fed 
them  each  twelve  ounces  of  oil-meal  with  wheat  straw,  and  Jio  /^ay,  all 
winter.  In  spring  he  sheared  from  them  five  pounds  of  wool  each,  pastured 
them  all  summer,  kept  them  over  until  the  following  February,  and  sold 


90  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


tliein  for  nine  iloUars  and  ticcnty  cents  each.  Tliey  cost  him  two  dollais. 
Blieep  fed  with  oil-cake  meal  or  grain  eat  but  little  salt,  make  richer  maiuirp, 
more  wool,  and  more  carcass.  He  gives  usiialK'  one  pound  of  oil-meal  when 
feeding  with  straw,  and  half  a  pound  with  hay.  ]f  there  should  be  any 
signs  of  foot-rot  in  the  fldck,  he  pares  the  hoof,  and  rubs  into  the  s<Ti;s  a 
salve  of  blue  vitriol  and  lard.  In  very  hot  weather  he  mixes  tar  with  the 
salve,  to  make  it  adhere.  Sheep  are  never  let  out  of  the  yards  in  winier, 
but  to  the  yard  they  have  free  access  at  all  times  from  the  low,  open  siicl*, 
and  every  part  of  the  shedc  and  yard  are  deeply  bedded  with  clean  s:ra\'.\ 
Tlie  shepherd,  instead  of  wading  through  a  slough  worse  than  that  described 
by  Eunyan,  walks  on  a  soft  bed  of  straw,  so  clean  at  any  time  as  cot  to  scil 
the  white  fleece  of  the  cleanest  Leicester. 

"Wm.  II.  Ladd,  of  Ohio,  says:  "  My  practice  is  to  turn  the  lambs  in  with 
their  mothers,  after  they  have  been  separated  some  twelve  hours,  and  assoim 
as  they  nurse,  separate  them  again;  then,  after  twenty-four  hours,  allov.' 
them  to  nurse  once  more.  Since  I  have  adopted  this  plan,  I  have  never  Imd 
a  ewe's  udder  injured.  Lambs  should  have  a  very  little  salt  frequently, 
when  first  weaned,  as  the  herbage  lacks  the  large  projiortion  of  salt  which 
the  mother's  milk  contains.  But  great  care  should  be  used  not  to  give  them 
much  salt  at  once,  or  it  will  set  them  to  purging;  and  if  a  lamb  commences 
to  purge  soon  after  being  taken  from  the  mother,  it  seldom,  if  ever,  recovers 
from  it. 

"  Lambs  that  come  early  arc  invariably  the  largest,  strongest,  and  most 
healthy ;  consequently  they^  are  the  best  breeders.  Tlie  ewe  that  has  Iut 
lamb  early  has  sufficient  time  to  get  in  good  order  before  winter,  and  after 
the  lamb  is  weaned,  she  is  not  subject  to  weakness  and  disease,  as  those  of 
late  weaning,  and  is  consequently  a  better  breeder  the  next  season.  Poor, 
late  feeble  lambs  and  ewes  should  never  be  permitted  to  breed,  for  if  such 
are,  it  invariably  follows  that  the  flock  will  degenerate.  Generating  or 
breeding  ewes  should  be  carefully  selected.  Ewes  sometimes  continue  strong 
and  productive  until  twelve  or  flfteen  years  of  age ;  this  depends  on  their 
general  health  and  constitution." 

120.  Age  of  Slipcp  for  Muttou. — A  late  English  writer  says:  "A  sheep,  to 
be  in  high  order  for  the  palate  of  the  epicure,  should  not  be  killed  earlier 
than  five  years  old,  at  which  age  the  mutton  will  be  rich  and  succulent,  of  a 
dark  color,  and  full  of  the  richest  gravy— -whereas,  if  only  two  years  old,  it 
is  flabby,  pale,  and  flavorless." 

121.  Grub  ill  Sheep. — Take  one  quart  of  whisky  and  two  ounces  of  yellow 
snuflT,  mix,  and  warm  to  blood-heat.  Let  one  man  hold  the  sheep,  and 
another  take  a  small  syringe,  and  discharge  about  a  teaspoonful  of  the  mix- 
ture into  each  nostril.     It  is  said  to  be  a  certain  cure. 

122.  Gross  aud  Net  Weisbt  of  Sheep.— The  usual  estimate  of  gross  and  net 
weight  of  sheep  is,  that  the  dressed  carcass  will  weigh  one  half  as  much  rs 
the  gross  weight,  and  therefore,  when  the  sheep  are  sold  at,  say  five  cents  a 
pound  alive,  the  price  is  equivalent  to  ten  cents  a  pound  for  the  meat,  sinking 


Seo.  7.]  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY.  91 

the  pelt  and  all  tlie  offal,  so.  that  the  butcher,  if  he  could  sell  tlio  carcass  at 
cost,  would  still  have  the  pelt,  rough  fat,  head,  etc.,  for  a  proiit.  Ilenee  it 
will  be  seen  how  it  is  that  mutton  in  the  carcass  is  often  quo'ed  in  market 
reports  at  less  than  it  appears  by  livestock  reports  to  have  aetuallj  cost. 

123.  Western  Mutton. — It  is  one  of  the  iucompreliensible  things  in  "Western 
agriculture  that  so  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  business  of  fattening  sheep. 
With  a  vast  country,  as  well  adapted  to  making  mutton  as  pork,  and  in  many 
respects  even  better,  it  is  one  of  the  rarest  things  to  see  a  farm  devoted  to 
the  raising  of  sheep  for  their  meat  alone,  while  it  is  equally  rare  to  find  a 
farmer  who  does  not  raise  hogs  and  fatten  them  for  their  pork. 

"We  are  aware  that  the  "West  is  full  of  sheep,  and  that  the  business  is  not 
considered  very  profitable.  There  are  some  good  flocks — in  fact,  some  large 
flock-masters,  whose  principal  business  is  to  raise  sheep — but  it  is  for  their 
fleece  alone.  Very  few  farmers.  East  or  West,  have  ever  made  a  business  of 
making  mutton.  The  sheep  are  almost  entirely  bred  for  wool,  not  for  meat. 
And  besides  this,  more  than  one  half  of  all  the  sheep  in  the  United  States 
are  not  bred  distinctly  for  meat  or  wool,  but  simply  because  they  are  sJieej), 
and  will  answer  in  some  sort  for  both  purposes ;  but  their  fleece  is  often  of 
a  coai'se,  unprofitable  kind,  and  their  bodies  lean  and  liglit.  Such  slieep  are 
natui-ally  slow  to  acquire  fat,  when  fed  for  that  pnr]iose,  just  as  their  fleece 
is  naturally  of  light  weight  or  coarse  fiber.  Such  sheep  are  not  profitable, 
although  so  common  all  over  the  country'. 

Of  all  varieties  of  domestic  animals,  the  flesh  of  sheep  is  least  used,  except 
in  cities,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  that  is,  or  rather  might  be,  profitably 
consumed.  We  esteem  mutton  almost  the  very  best  kind  of  meat  provided 
for  a  civilized  people.  That  its  production  would  be  found  among  the  most 
profitable  we  have  no  doubt,  provided  a  good  breed  of  sheep  were  selected, 
especially  for  their  meat-producing  qualities.  For  this  purpose  we  esteem 
the  Southdown  variety  the  very  best.  We  have  known  flocks  of  fat  slieep 
of  this  sort  sold  here  for  $25  per  head.  Certainly  this  is  a  paying  price. 
We  have  several  times  reported  sales  of  sheep  in  New  York,  of  the  long-wooled 
kind,  at  $12  to  $20  per  head,  which  was  equal  to  12  to  16  cents  a  pound 
for  the  meat.  Is  this  a  profitable  price  for  the  fiirmer,  particularly  the 
farmer  of  the  West,  the  greatest  country  in  the  world  for  the  production  of 
pork  ? 

All  the  long-woolod  varieties  of  sheep,  known  as  Bakewell,  Leicester, 
Cotswold,  New  Oxfordshire,  etc.,  are  fat-producing  animals ;  that  is,  they 
are  as  naturally  inclined  to  acquire  fat  as  other  animals  are  to  produce  only 
lean  meat.  In  England,  such  mutton  is  much  esteemed.  In  this  country 
the  lean  kinds  are  preferred.  In  Ohio  and  other  Western  States  there  is  a 
grade  of  sheep  called  common,  that  are  as  well  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Western  farmer  as  any  he  could  obtain  in  this  country  (except  the  South- 
downs)  to  breed  for  mutton,  if  careful  selections  were  made,  and  some  care 
exercised  in  breeding  and  feeding.  It  is  true  they  are  a  mongrel  breed, 
made  up  of  crosses  of  all  the  varieties  ever  imported,  but  they  are  strong 


92  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

and  hardy  and  long-legged,  M-liicli  are  valuable  qiialitic3  for  the  drover. 
Tlicir  bodies,  when  well  fatted,  at  two  or  three  years  old,  will  weigh  fioni 
fifty  to  sixty-five  pounds,  and  the  meat  is  just  fat  enough  to  suit  the  Ameri- 
can taste.  The  heavier  carcasses  of  the  long-wuoled  variety  are  generally 
too  fat,  thougli  we  think  the  taste  for  fat  mutton  is  an  acquired  one,  like  that 
for  fat  i)0rk. 

But,  fat  or  lean,  mutton  will  always  find  ready  sale  in  this  city  at  remu- 
nerating prices.  Western  farmers  sliould  turn  their  attention  more  earnestly 
lo  the  subject  of  raising  sheep,  not  for  wool,  but  meat  for  the  supply  of  all 
the  Eastern  cities.  We  profess  to  be  tolerably  well  acquainted  with  the 
great  prairies  of  the  West,  and  fully  believe  that  there  is  no  branch  of  agri- 
culture 60  certain  to  produce  sure  and  profitable  returns  as  that  of  raising 
sheep  of  the  kind  we  have  indicated.  We  know  of  no  other  pursuit  that 
the  new  settlers  in  Kansas  could  adopt  at  all  to  compare  with  this.  Such  a 
tiiwn,  for  instance,  as  Lawrence,  might  own  a  hundred  thousaiid  sheep,  all 
of  which  should  be  kept  out  on  the  broad  prairies  in  summer,  under  the  care 
of  shepherds  and  their  dogs,  to  guard  them  night  and  day  from  their  greatest 
enemy,  the  prairie  wolf  In  M'inter  they  could  be  provided  for  on  a  hundred 
farms,  under  cheap  shelter,  with  earth  walls  and  grass  roofs.  They  winter 
well  upon  well-cured  wild  hay,  without  grain,  except  for  those  in  hospital, 
if  fed  occasionally  upon  any"  kind  of  roots,  such  as  can  be  grown  in  great 
abundance  in  that  soil.  In  the  fall  or  latter  part  of  summer,  select  the  best 
animals  for  market,  and  start  them  eastward  across  Iowa  and  Illinois,  feeding 
them  on  cheai)  grain  when  the  grass  fails  on  the  great  prairie  pasture. 

The  raising  of  cattle  must  be  the  business  of  Kansas  settlers,  and  we 
believe  the  best  of  all  will  be  mutton  sheep.  The  new  settlors,  too,  must  for 
a  time  make  meat  their  principal  diet — in  fact,  it  is  the  national  diet  of  that 
region,  just  as  vegetables  are  in  China.  We  do  not  know  of  a  greater  act 
of  folly,  or  a  greater  humbug,  than  inducing  people  to  go  to  Kansas  to 
practice  the  peculiar,  not  to  say  stupid,  doctrine  of  A'egetarianism. 

What  the  people  of  the  West  want — -what  all  who  grow  meat  and  all  wlio 
consume  it  want — is  to  have  the  great  sea  of  prairie  grass  converted  into 
meat — cheap  meat.  This  should  be  the  leading  object  of  all  emigrants  to 
the  West.  The  business  of  grain-growing  naturally  belongs  to  a  pastoral 
people,  upon  old  farms,  rather  than  to  new  settlers.  It  is  a  subject  to  be 
thought  of  both  by  emigrants  and  old  settlers,  M-hich  is  the  most  profitable, 
stock  or  grain,  and  if  stock,  which  particular  kind. 

124.  Sheep  in  Texas.— There  is,  or  has  been,  a  sort  of  mania  about  slieep  in 
Texas.  The  start  made  a  few  3'ears  ago  by  (t.  W.  Kendall,  and  his  success, 
after  going  through  all  the  phases  of  ill  luck,  losses,  and  discouragements, 
which  perseverance  overcame,  has  induced  many  others  to  establish  great 
sheep-farms  in  that  State.  j\Iajor  AVm.  Leland,  one  of  the  proprie;ors  of 
the  Metropolitan  Hotel  in  this  cit)',  is  one  of  the  number  who  has  followed 
the  lead  of  Mr.  Kendall,  with  every  prospect  of  success.  There  is,  besides 
the  fine  wool-flocks  established  in  Texas,  a  constant  and  large  importation 


Sec.  r.]  SHEEP   HUSBANDRY.  93 

of  the  coarse-wool  slieep  of  Mexico.  It  is  estimated  that  a  fourth  of  a 
million  of  Mexican  slieep  have  crossed  the  line  into  Texas  since  the  first  of 
1859,  and  the  number  is  constantly  increasing.  These  Mexican  sheep  are 
crossed  with  Nortliern  stock,  and  make  a  valuable  progeny,  both  for  wool 
and  mutton.  We  shall  expect  before  many  years  more  to  see  Texas  mutton 
sheep  in  the  New  York  market  more  frequently  than  we  now  see  Texas 
beef-cattle,  and  tliat  they  will  be  much  better  liked,  both  by  butchers  and 
mutton-eaters,  than  the  bullocks  are. 

A  Massachusetts  correspondent  wants  to  know  more  than  we  do  about 
sheep-farming  in  Texas.  We  commend  liim  to  Wm.  AVilkinson,  Comal 
Ranche,  near  New  Braunfels,  Texas. 

We  don't  know  "  what  part  of  the  State  is  most  suitable  for  sheep 
husbandry,"  but  we  do  know  that  part  of  it  is,  as  above  indicated,  for  there 
George  W.  Kendall  and  others  have  succeeded. 

"What  breeds  of  shee})  are  to  be  chosen?"  We  can  answer:  All  breeds 
that  have  succeeded  in  the  Northern  States  have  succeeded  in  Texas. 

"  What  are  the  pecuniary  advantages?"  This  question  we  can  answer  by 
stating  that  the  first  cost  of  land  for  a  location  is  very  small  compared  with 
the  cost  in  Massachusetts,  while  there  is  a  boundless  range  of  open  country 
upon  which  great  flocks  can  be  grazed,  in  charge  of  the  shepherd  and  his 
dogs  ;  and  as  for  winter  feeding,  that  is  not  worth  mentioning,  and  the  rudest 
shelters — mere  earth  walls — to  break  the  force  of  tlie  wind,  will  answer  at 
first  in  place  of  costly  barns.  Subsistence,  too,  for  hirelings,  is  also  quite 
inexpensive,  and,  taken  altogether,  Texas  certainly  appears  to  have  many 
advantages  for  slieep  husbandry. 

There  are,  to  bo  sure,  some  drawbacks.  It  is  a  long  way  from  the  great 
center  of  commereo  to  which  wool  must  be  transported,  and  so  far  as  we  can 
see,  it  is  so  far  away  from  mutton-eating  communities,  that  the  meat  is  nearly 
valueless.  We  very  well  remember,  however,  when  the  same  thing  was 
true  of  Ohio,  wliere  thousands  of  sheep  have  been  slaughtered  for  the  pelts 
and  fat,  and  the  meat  fed  to  the  pigs.  Now,  sheep  are  worth  in  Ohio  within 
a  dollar  wliat  tliey  are  in  New  York.  Time  may  work  a  similar  change  for 
Texas,  and  then  it  will  rival  all  other  States  as  a  sheep-producer,  for  that  is 
a  business  that  can  and  will  be  conducted  without  slave  labor. 

125.  ProiiHCin'^  TwhiSc— A  large  sheep-breeder  has  declared  "that  sheep 
highly  fed  wiih  meal  or  otlicr  good  provender,  about  the  time  the  buck  is 
with  them  in  the  fall,  will  almost  invariably  have  two  lambs  apiece,  and  that 
these  may  nearly  all  be  raised  by  proper  attention  to  the  mothers.  The 
great  mistake  in  regard  to  sheep  is  in  not  keeping  them  well  enough.  If 
you  Avisli  them  to  be  prolific  or  profitable,  give  them  plenty  of  the  best  hay 
through  the  winter,  and  meal  daily,  and  for  shelter  a  warm  barn-cellar, 
wherein  is  an  open  tank  of  pure  water.  No  kind  of  grain  need  be  ground  for 
feeding  sheep — the  hardest  is  thoroughly  masticated  and  digested  by  them. 
The  importance  of  good  feeding  is  unquestionable." 

It  is  by  no  means  an  unheard-of  thing  for  all  the  ewes  of  a  flock  to  average 


91  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

twins.  An  average  of  130  per  cent,  to  150  per  cent,  is  quite  usual,  and  with 
so:no  breeds  a  much  greater  increase  is  tlie  general  rule.  The  sheep  ofteis 
her  owner  more  sources  of  protit  than  any  other  animal.  First^  her  natural 
increase ;  second,  her  wool ;  third,  her  flesh  ;  and  this  is  the  most  imjiorlant 
of  all  tiic  cousidcraiions  connected  with  sheep  husbandry,  because  a  greatly 
increased  consumption  of  the  flesh  of  sheep  will  greatly  promote  healtli. 

Sheep  "  come  in  play"  wonderfully  in  well-managed  farms,  especially  such 
as  are  pushed  to  their  utmost  capacity,  as  a  means  of  increasing  fertility  in 
varfous  ways,  feeding  off  green  crops,  such  as  clover  or  rye,  previous  to 
plowing  tliem  under,  securing  thus  the  advantage  of  passing  the  crop  through 
the  animal  system  without  moving  it  fronr  the  fleld,  scattering  the  manure 
very  eveidy  previous  to  plowing,  and  giving  what  remains  of  the  green  crop 
when  plowed  in  the  advantage  of  undergoing  its  decomposition  in  contact 
with  animal  excrements.  Tiie  sheep  possesses  other  and  greater  advantages 
over  other  kinds  of  stock,  which  reconnnend  it  for  general  culture.  Among 
tliese  is  its  great  fecundity. 

126.  IVuinbering  Sheep. — W.  D.  Dickinson,  of  Victor,  Ontario  Co.,  X.  Y., 
gives,  in  the  Stock  Journal,  the  following  plan  of  numbering  sheep: 

"About  twelve  years  since  I  commenced  numbering,  classifying,  and 
registering  my  flock,  which  has  been  of  great  advantage  to  me,  enabling  me 
to  select  at  all  times  for  sale  (which  I  invariably  do  myself)  such  as  arc  of 
the  least  value,  whether  with  regard  to  age,  weight  of  fleece,  quality  of 
wool,  or  value  as  breeders. 

"My  method  of  numbering  is  by  notches  in  the  ear,  as  follows:  A  notch 
in  tiie  fore  part  of  the  left  ear  stands  fur  1,  one  in  the  back  part  of  the  same 
for  3.  With  these  I  number  up  to  10 ;  thus,  two  notches  in  the  fore  part,  2  ; 
two  in  the  back  part,  C ;  two  in  each,  8,  etc.  A  notch  in  the  fore  part  of 
the  right  car  stands  for  10,  one  in  the  back  part  of  the  same,  30.  With 
these  I  number  to  100.  Tliis  is  as  far  as  I  have  occasion  to  go  in  my  flock, 
as  I  seldom  have  over  300,  and  consequently  never  have  as  many  as  100 
lambs  of  each  sex  in  one  j-car.  Tliis  might  be  carried  much  farther  by 
cutling  oft"  the  end  of  the  left  ear  for  100,  and  of  the  riglit  for  200;  a  notch 
might  then  be  made  in  the  end  of  the  left  ear  for  400,  and  in  the  end  of  the 
right  for  800. 

"The  age  of  my  sheep  is  known  by  the  hohs  through  the  ears.  A, hole 
through  the  left  oar  stands  for  1 — tliat  is,  the  year  1841,  '51,  or  '01,  showing 
tile  year  in  which  the  sheep  was  born  ;  one  in  the  right  ear  for  3,  so  that  a 
sheep  born  in  the  year  '5(3  would  have  two  holes  through  the  right  ear;  if  in 
'j7,  two  holes  tlirougli  the  right  and  one  through  the  left ;  for  '58  would  re- 
quire two  through  each,  instead  of  which  I  si'nply  make  a  notch  in  the  end 
of  the  left  ear;  and  for  '59,  one  in  the  end  of  the  right.  The  years  '40,  '50, 
'00,  etc.,  the  ears  are  left  without  anj'  holes — thus  connnencing  anew  every 
ten  years,  by  which  time  those  of  that  age  are  usually  gone.  I  number  my 
iambs  as  they  are  dropped,  commencing  each  year  with  No.  1,  both  buck 
and  ewe  lambs. 


seo.  r.] 


SHEEP  HUSBANDRY. 


95 


"  My  book  is  kept  in  tl 

le  following  manner : 

No.  of 
Ewes. 

Year 
born. 

Class. 

Live 
weight 

Weight  of 
Fleece. 

Buck  U3«d. 

Yeaned. 
April. 

Sheared. 
June. 

liUolv 

Lambs. 

Ewe 
Lambs. 

E  em  ark  3. 

7 
15 

'51 
•54 

3 

1 
2 

84 
93 
83 

6-1 
4-1 
4 

34-53 
39-53 
51-53 

12 
13 
13 

11 

24 

1 
2 

1 

"In  the  iirst  column  is  the  number  of  the  ewe;  in  the  second,  the  year  in 
which  she  was  born  ;  in  the  third,  the  class  denoting  the  quality  of  the  wool, 
which  is  regulated  by  the  number  of  curves  to  the  incli ;  the  first  containing 
24  and  upward  ;  the  second,  22  to  24  ;  the  third,  20  to  22  ;  the  fourth,- 18  to 
20.  The  fourth  column  gives  the  weight  of  the  sheep  when  sheared ;  the 
fifth,  the  weight  of  fleece  ;  the  sixth,  the  number  of  buck  used  and  the  year 
in  wliicli  he  was  born ;  the  seventh,  the  month  and  day  the  lamb  was 
dropped;  the  eighth,  the  time  when  the  ewe  was  sheared;  the  ninth  and 
tenth,  the  number  of  the  buck  and  ewe  lambs.  My  flock  now  numbers  267, 
principally  breeding  ewes  and  yearlings.  My  average  weight  of  fleeces, 
wlicn  well  washed,  is  usually  about  4i  lbs.,  the  quality  of  wool  equal  to  me- 
dium Saxon,  numbering  from  20  to  28  curves  to  the  inch,  averaging  about  24." 

Another  plan  is  given  as  follows,  for  numbering  sheep,  which,  though  not 
quite  as  permanent  as  the  method  detailed  above,  may  be  preferred  by  some 
persons  on  the  score  of  humanity, 

"  We  were  handed  a  sheet  of  paper  upon  which  was  noted  the  weight  of 
fleece  of  each  sheep  in  the  flock  ;  opposite  was  set  the  number  of  the  sheep, 
a  corresponding  number  having  been  brandetl  upon  the  animal  itself  at  the 
time  of  talcing  its  last  clip,  by  applying  a  mixture  of  lampblack  and  tar  with 
cast-iron  figures.  This  course  had  been  pursued  for  some  years,  and  its 
I'csults  were  apparent  in  a  wool  crop  brought  up  from  an  average  of  four 
poiinds  to  over  five,  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  size  and  quality  of 
sheep.  The  practice  had  been  to  slaiaghter  and  otherwise  dispose  of  all  ani- 
mals ranking  lowest  in  weight  of  fleece  and  to  imjirove  upon  the  quality  of 
the  remainder  by  judicious  crossing." 

127.  Shearing  Slieep« — An  old  sheep-shearer,  who  can  clip  a  sheep  hand- 
somely in  three  minutes,  or  shear  and  tie  np  the  fleece  in  four  minutes,  wlio 
has  often  clipped  100  sheep  a  day,  wants  us  to  give  our  readers  the  benefit 
of  his  plan  of  doing  it.  First,  have  two  pairs  of  good  shears;  one  pair  to 
trim  with,  and  the  other  to  do  the  principal  work,  and  never  use  dull  shears. 
A  good  oil-stone  is  the  best  sharpener.  What  is  termed  a  down-set  shear, 
with  blades  five  inches  long,  he  considers  best.  In  using  them,  never  draw 
the  shears  backward  while  making  the  clip,  but  rather  push  forward  and 
keep  the  shears  level  and  close,  and  never  clip  twice  in  one  spot,  as  that  cuts 
tlie  wool. 

To  hold  the  sheep,  have  a  bench  as  high  as  the  lower  part  of  the  knee- 
cap ;  or  if  the  shci'p  is  large,  it  may  be  lower.  Lay  the  sheep  back  to  yon, 
with  head  to  your  right  hand.  Put  your  right  knee  gently  on  the  sheep's 
neck,  with  its  right  fore  leg  in  the  bend  of  yours  as  you  kneel,  having  tlie 
sheep  close  to  the  edge  of  tlie  Ijench,  with  its  back  braced  against  jour  left 


96  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

leg.  Rest  your  left  arm  on  the  sheep's  left  flank,  while  j'ou  hold  its  right 
iiind  leg  in  that  hand,  stretched  out  to  the  edge  of  the  bench,  and  holding  to 
it  if  you  wish,  if  the  sheep  is  disposed  to  struggle. 

Commence  shearing  at  the  opening  on  the  left  side  of  the  breast,  and  trim 
off  all  tlie  wool  on  the  belly  and  inside  of  the  hind  legs,  and  remove  it  to 
one  side  till  the  fleece  is  oflf,  when  the  trimmings  of  clean  wool  are  to  be 
wrapped  in  it. 

To  shear  the  body,  place  your  left  leg  on  the  bench  astride  of  the  sheep, 
taking  the  jaws  in  your  left  hand,  and  clipping  tiie  foretop  and  right  side 
of  the  neck,  and  down  on  the  left  breast.  Jiieu  you  change  position,  step- 
ping back  a  little  and  raising  the  sheep  on  its  hips,  by  catching  hold  of  the 
left  hind  leg  with  your  right  hand  without  laying  down  the  shears.  Pull 
the  sheep  close  to  the  edge  of  the  bench  and  ylace  your  right  leg  between 
ils  hind  legs,  with  its  neck  and  shoulders  on  your  left  knee,  as  it  rests  on  the 
bench.  Now  clip  over  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  then  straighten  the 
neck  with  your  left  hand,  without  stopping  the  shears,  and  finish  off  the 
brisket  and  the  neck,  and  then  clip  on  down  the  side,  and  over  the  hip  and 
back,  letting  the  sheep  down  gradually,  so  as  always  to  have  the  skin  you 
arc  clipping  free  of  wrinkles.  Now  take  your  loft,  knee  ofl"  the  neck,  and 
hold  it  wi:h  your  left  hand  while  you  remove  your  right  leg  and  place  the 
left  one  in  its  place,  so  that  you  can  bring  the  right  knee  upon  the  bench, 
keeping  the  shears  going  all  the  time  with  the  right  hand.  Then  lift  the 
head  with  the  left  hand,  and  clip  that  side  over  the  point  of  the  shoulder, 
and,  raising  the  sheep  gently,  bring  its  head  between  your  legs,  while  you 
finibh  clipping.  Take  care  that  the  sheep  does  not  struggle,  and  when  done, 
lift  it  clear  of  the  fleece,  so  as  not  to  tear  it.  Pold  the  fleece  with  all  the  loose 
wool  that  is  clean  inside  and  roll  it  very  snug,  with  the  cut  end  of  the  wool 
out,  and  tie  with  cotton  twine,  so  as  to  look  neat  and  bear  handling  without 
getting  loose  and  ragged. 

Following  the  above  directions,  you  will  need  to  stop  but  twice  for  a  mo- 
ment to  turn  the  sheep,  so  that  the  shears  are  almost  incessantly  clipping 
from  the  time  you  begin  till  you  have  finished. 

128.  Tag^ngi — One  of  the  cares  of  sheep  most  important  for  their  health 
and  comfort  is  tagging,  and  this  is  most  often  neglected.  Probably  the 
only  attention  ever  given  to  this  matter  is  at  shearing-time,  and  we  have 
seen,  even  then,  sheep  sent  off"  out  of  the  shearer's  hands  with  the  tag-locks 
untonched.  If  there  is  anything  in  farming  more  slovenly  than  this,  we 
don't  know  what  it  is. 

129.  To  Cleanse  Fine  Wool. — There  are  a  few  old-fashioned  houses  from 
which  the  spinning-wheel  is  not  yet  entirely  abandoned.  The  inmates  of 
such  do  not  always  know  how  to  cleanse  the  gum  out  of  Merino  wool  before 
sending  it  to  the  carding-machine.  Let  them  be  sure  to  remember  this 
direction,  by  which  we  have  cleaned  many  a  hundred-weight,  some  of  which 
was  almost  as  black  as  my  hat,  with  dirt  and  gum,  characteristic  of  all  fine- 
wool  sheep. 


PLATE    VII. 

(Pase  9T  ) 

Ix  this  plate  we  present  to  the  reader  such  a  collection  of  excellent 
portraits  of  the  most  celebrated  horses  in  America  as  can  nowhere 
else  be  procm-ed.  The  four  upper  figures  will  be  at  once  recognized 
as  correct  likenesses  of  animals  that  have  won  a  name  that  makes 
them  famous  in  equine  history.  That  of  the  Justin  Morgan  horse 
will  be  found  in  this  chapter.  He  is  the  ja-ogenitor  of  a  fomily  that 
has  won  the  hearts  of  the  people.  Flying  Childers  stands  as  the 
representative  of  the  race-course.  Patchen  and  Flora  Temple  are 
the  most  noted  of  the  great  family  of  American  fast  trotters.  The 
Arabian  here  represented  is  a  portrait  of  one  of  the  noted  horses 
presented  to  Hon.  William  H.  Sev/ard,  and  by  him  to  the  Xew  York 
State  Agricultural  Society,  and  this  picture  gives  one  a  good  idea 
of  the  spirited  appearance  of  that  breed.  The  Cleveland  Bay  is  the 
representative  of  a  class  of  noble  carriage  horses  which  has  given 
character  to  many  of  the  same  class  in  this  country,  particularly  in 
Central  Xew  York. 

The  Norman  horse,  as  we  see  him  here,  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  the  heavy  diligence  and  common  work-horses  of  France, 
having  a  thick  neck,  short,  strong  legs,  and  round,  compact  body, 
capable  of  sustaining  great  burdens,  and  pulling  immense  loads  at 
a  slow  gait,  as  compared  with  some  of  our  American  fast  horses. 
This  breed  was  made  quite  notorious  in  this  country  by  tlie  import- 
ation of  the  late  Edward  Harris,  of  New  Jersey,  about  twenty  years 
ago.  The  portrait  of  the  Canadian  horse  is  a  line  representative 
of  his  class,  which  was  formed  by  a  mixture  of  the  Xorman  horses 
of  the  early  French  settlers  of  Canada  witli  some  smaller  breed, 
which,  by  neglect  and  exposure,  and  carelessness  of  improvement  in 
breeding,  has  produced  a  race  of  small,  hardy  horses,  known  as 
Canadian,  which  are  sometimes,  though  erroneously,  called  ponies. 
A  careful  study  of  these  portraits  will  be  useful  to  all  farmers,  as 
well  as  many  other  persons. 


UH'KjBHK.VT    aiuuuiH    <Hf    HOKNK.S 


Seo.  8.] 


HORSES  AND  MULES. 


97 


For  100  lbs.  of  wool,  take  four  gallous  of  urine  and  eight  gallons  of  rain- 
water; mix  and  heat  a  little  above  blood-heat,  until  the  scum  rises,  whicli 
skim  off.  Keep  it  at  the  same  heat  in  a  kettle  on  coals  or  a  little  fire  out  of 
doors.  Put  in  what  wool  the  kettle  will  conveniently  hold,  and  let  it  remain 
about  five  minutes ;  take  it  oiit  on  a  board  that  will  drain  the  liquid  back 
into  the  kettle,  or  else  put  it  in  a  basket  over  a  tub,  so  as  not  waste  the  liquid, 
for  it  will  be  equally  good  for  the  last  batch  as  the  first.  When  it  is  drained, 
put  the  basket  under  a  stream  of  water  running  on  it  if  convenient,  or  in  a 
running  stream  if  you  can,  or  else  with  plenty  of  clear  water  in  a  large  tub ; 
it  will  wash  very  easily,  and  be  as  "  white  as  wool." 

Don't  forget  to  sprinkle  the  dirty  liquid  upon  the  poorest  spot  in  the  gar- 
den, for  it  is  a  powerful  manure. 

The  same  kind  of  liquid  is  the  best  thing  known  to  take  the  dirt  and 
grease  out  of  any  kind  of  foul  woolen  clothes  or  yarn. 


SECTION  VIII.-HORSES  AND  MULES, 

GENERAL  history  of  the  horse  and  his  uses,  and 
how  to  use  liim,  will  not  be  looked  for  in  a  work 
that  only  professes  to  give  little  items  of  informa- 
tion upon  a  great  many  things.  It  would  occupy 
a  volume  larger  than  this  one  to  give  a  tolerably 
full  history  of  the  equine  race,  since  it  has  been  sub- 
octed  to  the  use  of  man. 

mqnusis  the  generic  name  of  the  quadrupeds  which 
ive  a  single  digit  and  hoof  upon  each  foot,  as  has 
the  horse,  ass,  zebra.  The  horse  has  been  a  domestic 
well  as  a  wild  animal  from  a  very  early  time.  He 
is  mentioned  in  Genesis  as  being  in  harness  when 
Joseph  transferred  the  remains  of  his  father  from 
Egypt  to  Canaan. 
Horses  e.xist  in  a  wild  state  in  various  parts  of  the 
globe.  Tliey  were  once  quite  numerous  in  the  tenntory  embraced  in  some 
of  our  most  western  States.  Domestication  works  material  change,  the  most 
marked  of  which  is  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the  trunk.  Then  follows  an 
increased  size  of  all  parts,  and  a  loss  of  the  fleetness  natural  to  the  horse  in 
his  wild  state. 

The  Arabian  horse,  though  domesticated  by  a  semi-savage  race,  still  re- 
tains some  of  his  wild  characteristics,  one  of  which  is  fleetness  and  long 
endurance.  Tlie  Arab  tradition  in  regard  to  the  horse  is,  "  that  he  was 
created  out  of  the  wind,  as  Adam  was  out  of  the  earth."  Hence,  "  fleet  as 
the  wind,"  is  often  applied  to  the  horse.  The  tradition  is,  that  the  male  of 
the  horse  was  created  first,  as  the  more  noble  of  the  two,  and  that  the  horse 


98  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


was  created  before  man,  and  after  be  was  created  he  was  told  to  choose  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  auimals,  and  he  chose  the  horse ;  upon  which  God  said 
to  Adam  :  "  You  have  cliosen  that  which  is  a  glory  to  you,  and  will  be  to 
vour  children."  The  Arabs  profess  to  know  the  pure  Arabian  horse,  the 
descendant  of  Zad-tl-IiaJcS,  which  Solomon  presented  to  their  tribe,  by  the 
firmness  of  his  lips  and  cartilage  of  the  lower  part  of  the  nose ;  by  the  dilata- 
tion of  his  nostrils  ;  by  the  leanness  of  the  flesh  about  the  veins  of  his  head  ; 
br  the  cleu'anee  of  the  neck  and  shoulders  ;  by  the  softness  of  his  hair,  mane, 
and  skin;  by  the  fullness  of  his  breast ;  by  the  large  size  of  his  joints;  and  by 
the  dryness  of  his  extremities  ;  and  also  by  his  moral  indications,  for  a  noble 
horse  has  no  malice  in  him.  lie  loves  his  master,  and  frequently  will  suffer 
no  other  to  mount  him.  lie  refrains  from  doing  what  nature  prompts  as 
necessary  while  his  master  is  on  Ids  back.  lie  will  not  eat  food  left  by 
another  horse.  He  loves  to  splash  limpid  water  whenever  he  meets  it.  His 
instinct,  smell,  sight,  hearing,  intelligence,  and  address  are  all  used  for  his 
master;  and  he  will  iight  for  him.  Hence  the  Arab's  love  of  his  horse.  It 
will  be  well  for  us  all  to  remember  some  of  the  traditions  of  the  Arab,  for 
they  describe  valuable  points  in  a  horse. 

130.  Thorougb-Bredt — This  term  does  not  appear  to  have  any  very  def- 
inite meaning  in  this  country.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  trace  back  to 
something  in  the  way  of  pure  blood,  of  a  better  stock  than  the  common  one 
of  the  coimtry  ;  but  what  that  stock  is,  perhaps  not  one  in  ten  who  owns 
horses  can  tell.     A  writer  in  the  (English)  Fanner''s  JIagazinc  says  : 

"  The  term  thorough-bred  is  an  expression  not  clearly  defined  as  regards 
any  of  our  domestic  animals,  but  it  would  be  very  desirable  to  liave  some 
rule  established.  It  may  be  accepted  as  a  principle  that  breeding  from  ani- 
mals endowed  with  certain  properties  and  perfections  through  several  gen- 
erations, constitutes  the  claim  to  distiuction  ;  hut  there  is  no  adopteJ  riJe  to 
determine  how  many  generations  arc  sujfieunt  to  e-'iteiVlish  the  title.'' 

Yet,  according  to  our  understanding  of  tiie  term,  a  "  thorough-bred"  horse 
must  trace  back,  free  from  contamination  of  baser  blood,  to  the  pure  Arabian 
stock.  The  original  of  that  stock  in  England,  S'>  far  as  pedigrees  are  at- 
tempted to  be  trucLHl.  was  the  "  Darley  Arabian,"  brought  from  "  Araby  the 
blest"  by  a  Mr.  Darley.  That  horse  was  the  sire  of  Flying  Childers,  and 
grandsire  of  Eclipse,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  horses  ever  on  the  Knglish 
race-course.  He  was  not  what  would  be  considered  a  handsome  horse,  by  a 
breeder  of  Morgan  stock,  but  his  fleetness  and  endurance  were  beyond  com- 
petition, and  his  stock  have  followed  in  his  footsteps.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  twenty -five  years,  after  having  begotten  a  greater  number  of  prize-wiu- 
ning  colts  than  any  other  horse  that  ever  lived. 

If  a  horse  can  trace  back  to  old  Eclipse,  or  any  of  his  famous  colts,  there 
is  no  mistake  about  his  being  "  thorough-bred."  So  he  would  be  if  he 
traces  back  to  the  "Godolphin  Arabian,"  a  Barb  that  was  introduced  into 
England  at  a  later  jierio  1  than  the  D.irlev  Arabian. 

There  should  be  some  definite  rule  established  amonij  horse-breeders  and 


Sec.  8.]  HORSES— ENGLISH  BREEDS.  99 

our  several  State  agricultural  societies  as  to  how  far  back  and  to  what  stock 
the  pedigree  of  a  horse  should  go  to  make  him  eligible  to  a  prize  as  a  ''  thor- 
ough-bred." 

131.  Eng^lish  Hunters. — Tliis  is  a  term  given  to  a  breed  of  English  horses 
which  are  higli  up  in  thorough-bred  blood,  with  a  strain  of  other  blood 
possessing  great  powers  of  endurance.  Tlie  head  of  a  hunter  of  perfect  form 
is  small ;  his  neck  thin,  particularly  below  ;  a  firm  and  arched  crest ;  jaws 
wide,  and  very  ligiit  on  the  bit. 

132.  An  Englisb  Coach-Horse. — The  type  of  this  variety  is  the  "  Cleveland 
Bay,"  some  of  which  have  been  imported  into  this  country,  and  have  left 
their  mark  upon  the  finest  coach-horses  we  have  iu  the  United  States — such 
as  are  to  be  found  more  abundantly  in  Central  New  York,  than  in  any  other 
locality. 

133.  Eng^Hsh  Roadsters. — ^Tlie  term  more  common  for  this  class  in  En- 
gland is  "Hackney" — a  term  seldom  heard  in  this  country,  and  if  heard, 
would  be  more  likely  to  be  understood  as  meaning  a  "  hack-horse."  The 
nearest  type  of  a  hackney  that  we  have,  as  a  distinct  breed,  is  the  Morgan  horse. 

Youatt  says :  "  A  hackney  is  a  hunler  in  miniature.  His  bight  should 
rarely  exceed  fifteen  hands  and  an  incli.  He  will  be  sufficiently  strong  and 
more  pleasant  for  general  work  below  that  standard.  He  should  be  of  a 
more  compact  form  than  the  hunter,  of  more  bulk  according  to  his  hight. 
It  is  of  essential  consequence  that  the  bones  beneath  the  knee  should  be 
deep  and  flat,  and  the  tendon  not  tied  in.  The  pastern  should  be  short,  and 
less  oblique  or  slanting  than  that  of  the  hunter  or  race-horse.  Tlie  foot 
should  be  of  a  size  corresponding  with  the  bulk  of  the  animal — neither  too 
hollow  nor  too  flat,  and  open  at  the  heels.  The  forelegs  should  be  jierfectly 
straight;  for  a  horse  with  his  knees  bent  will,  from  a  slight  cause,  and  espe- 
cially if  overweighted,  come  down.  The  back  should  be  straight  and  short, 
yet  sufiiciently  long  to  leave  comfortable  room  for  the  saddle  between  the 
shoulders  and  the  luck  without  pressing  upon  either.  Some  persons  prefer 
a  hollow-backed  horse.  It  is  generally  an  easy  one  to  go.  It  will  canter 
well  with  a  lady,  but  it  will  not  carry  a  heavy  weight,  or  stand  much  hard 
work.  Tlie  road-horse  should  be  high  in  the  forehead,  round  in  the  barrel, 
and  deep  in  the  chest." 

13-i.  The  English  Dray-Horse. — Tliere  is  a  variety  of  horses  known  as  the 
dray-horse,  or  more  generally  in  this  country  as  the  English  cart-horse ;  a 
very  heavy,  strong,  slow-gaited  horse,  originated  by  a  cross  of  the  Flanders 
or  ISTorman  horse  Mith  the  Suffolk  Punch,  a  sorrel  horse  of  fifteen  or  sixteen 
hands  high,  with  low,  rounded  shoulders  ;  thick  on  the  top  ;  low  back  ; 
deep,  round  chest ;  long  back ;  high  croup  ;  large,  strong  quarters ;  full 
flanks  ;  round  legs,  and  short  pasterns.  This  is  a  good  description  of  a 
strong  work-horse.  We  have  something  like  it,  though  rather  increased  in 
size,  in  the  Pennsylvania  wagon-horse. 

135.  Morgan  Horses. — Tlie  most  distinct  strain  of  American  horses — in 
fact,  the  only  one  which  assumes  the  character  of  a  race — is  that  now  widely 


100  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


known  as  the  Morgan.  Tlie  origin  of  this  race  is  given  in  the  following  ex- 
tracts from  letters  written  by  a  son  and  a  relative  of  the  original  owner  of  the 
old  Morgan  horse: 

TLo  following  is  an  extract  from  a  letter  of  Justin  Morgan,  originally 
furnished  for  the  Cultivator  (vol.  ix.,  p.  99),  dated  Stockbridge,  Yt.,  March 
1,  1843.  After  stating  that  his  father  owned  the  horse  from  which  the  race 
of  Morgan  horses  sprung,  he  says : 

"  I  will  now  relate  the  facts  relative  to  said  Morgan  horse  as  I  recollect 
them.  My  father,  Justin  Morgan,  brought  said  horse,  or  rather  said  colt, 
into  Randolph,  Vt.,  in  the  summer  or  autumn  of  1795.  Said  colt  was  only 
two  yc;ii-s  old  when  my  lather  brought  him  to  Randolph,  and  had  never 
been  handled  in  any  way,  not  even  to  be  led  by  a  halter.  My  father  went 
to  Spriiigtield,  Mass.,  the  place  of  his  nativity,  and  the  place  from  which  he 
removed  lo  Randolph,  in  the  spring  or  summer  of  1795,  after  money  that 
was  due  to  him  at  that  place,  as  he  said  ;  and  instead  of  getting  money,  as 
he  expected,  he  got  two  colts — one,  a  three-year-old  gelding  colt,  which  he 
led  ;  the  other,  a  two-year-old  stallion  colt,  which  followed  all  the  way  from 
Springfield  to  Randolph  ;  having  been,  as  my  father  said,  always  kept  with 
and  much  attached  to  the  colt  he  led.  Said  two-year-old  colt  was  the  same 
that  has  since  been  known  all  over  New  England  by  the  name  of  the  Morgan 
horse.  My  father  broke  said  colt  himself,  and,  as  I  have  before  remarkuJ, 
owned  and  kept  him  to  tlie  time  of  his  decease,  which  took  place  in  March, 
179S,  and  said  horse  was  five  years  old  the  spring  my  father  died  ;  and,  as 
before  stated,  soon  after  my  father's  decease,  he  passed  from  my  father's 
estate  into  the  possession  of  Wm.  Rice,  of  Woodstock,  Vt.  I  can  not  state 
positively  that  my  father  purchased  said  colt  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  but  I  am 
very  confident  that  he  purchased  him  in  that  town  or  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  on  Connecticut  River." 

"We  next  ofler  an  extract  from  a  letter  of  John  Morgan  (see  Cultivator, 
vol.  ix.,  p.  110),  in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  material  points  set  forth 
by  Justin  Morgan  are  confirmed,  and  some  further  light  given  in  regard  to 
the  blood  of  the  first  Morgan  horse.  John  Morgan  resides  at  Lima,  New- 
York,  and  is,  we  believe,  a  relative  of  Justin  Morgan,  Sr.,  and  was  a  near 
neighbor  of  the  latter  previous  to  his  removal  from  Springfield  to  Vermont. 
In  reference  to  the  colt  above  desciibed  by  Justin  Morgan  (2d),  John  Mor- 
gan says  :  "  lie  was  sired  by  a  horse  owned  by  Sealy  Norton,  of  East  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  called  the  'True  Briton,  or  Beautiful  Bay.'  lie  was  kept  at 
Springfield  one  season  by  the  said  Justin  Morgan  [Sr.],  and  two  years  after,  I 
kept  him  two  seasons.  This  horse  was  said  to  have  been  raised  by  General 
Delancy,  commander  of  the  refugee  troops  on  Long  Island,  and  rode  by  him 
in  the  Revolution.  It  was  said  that  one  Smith  stole  the  horse  from  the 
General  at  King's  Bridge,  while  the  General  was  in  the  tavern  ;  ran  him 
across  the  bridge  and  took  him  to  the  American  army,  near  AVhite  Plains, 
and  sold  him  to  Joseph  Ward,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  $300.  It  was  also 
said  at  that  time  that  he  was  sired  by  the  imported  horse  called  '  Traveler,' 


Sko.  8.]  nORSES— THE  MORGAK  BREED.  101 

said  to  have  been  kept  in  Kew  Jersey.  Ward  was  a  mts-chant,  and  kept  tlie 
liorse  three  or  four  years  for  a  saddle  and  carriage  horse,  and  then  traded 
him  off  to  Norton,  and  Norton  kept  him  for  marcs  wliile  he  lived.  The 
description  of  the  Morgan  breed  given  by  Mr.  G.  Barnard  {Cultivuior,  vol. 
ix.,  p.  33),  answers  well  to  the  stock  of  '  True  Briton.'  I  have  always  under- 
stood that  Morgan  kept  the  colt  for  a  stallion  at  Randolph,  and  was  very 
celebrated  for  his  stock." 

The  above  statements  of  Justin  and  John  Morgan  comprise,  as  we  believe, 
the  true  history,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  of  the  origin  of  tlie  far-famed  Morgan 
horses.  From  tlie  position  of  the  Messrs.  Morgan,  they  have  had  the  best 
jjossible  facilities  for  obtaining  correct  information  on  this  subject,  and  we 
are  not  aware  of  anything  which  should  hinder  their  statement  from  receiv- 
ing full  credence. 

"  Of  the  old  Morgan's  progeny,  three  became  famous  as  stallions,  viz.,  the 
Slierman  Morgan,  the  Woodbury  or  Burbank,  and  the  Chelsea.  Of  these 
the  Sherman  Morgan  was  greatly  the  most  distinguished.  I  have  ascer- 
tained to  a  certainty  that  he  died  in  the  winter  of  1835.  Black  Hawk  was 
sired  by  him." 

130.  Black-Hawk  MorganSi — Fifteen  years  ago,  S.  W.  Jewett,  of  Vermont, 
wrote  of  these  as  follows : 

"  I  believe  the  Morgan  blood  to  be  the  best  tliat  was  ever  infused  into  the 
'Xorthern  horse.'  They  are  well  known,  and  are  esteemed  for  activity", 
iiardiness,  gentleness,  and  docility  throngliout  the  New  England  States ; 
well  adapted  for  all  work;  good  in  every  spot,  except  for  racers  on  the  turf. 
They  are  lively  and  spirited,  loftj'  and  elegant  in  their  action,  carrying  them- 
selves gracefully  in  the  harness.  They  have  size  in  proportion  to  hight ; 
bone  clean;  sinewy  legs;  compactness;  short,  strong  backs  ;  powerful  lungs; 
strength  and  endurance.  A  mixture  of  the  Morgan  blood,  tliough  small, 
may  be  easily  known  from  any  other  stock  in  the  country.  There  is  a  re- 
markable similarity  prevailing  in  all  of  this  race.  They  are  known  by  their 
short,  lean  heads,  wide  across  the  face  at  the  eyes ;  eyes  lively  and  prom- 
inent ;  open  and  wide  in  the  under  jaws,  large  windpipe,  deep  brisket, 
heavy  and  round  in  the  body,  broad  in  the  back,  short  limbs  in  proportion 
to  size,  broad  quarters;  a  lively,  quick  action;  indomitable  spirit;  move 
true  and  easy  in  a  good  round  trot ;  fast  on  the  walk.  Color :  dark  bay, 
chestnut,  brown  or  black,  with  dark  flowing  wavy  mane  and  tail ;  head  u]),  and 
move  without  a  whip ;  about  fifteen  hands  high ;  action  powerful  and  spirited. 

'•They  are  highly  celebrated  for  general  usefulness,  make  the  best  of 
roadsters,  and  live  to  a  great  age.  In  fact,  they  are  the  perfect  '  Yankee 
harness  horse.' 

"  The  Morgans  are  very  like  the  noble  Arab,  with  similar  eyes,  upright 
ears,  high  withers,  powerful  quarters,  hocks  well  placed  under  their  weight, 
vigorous  arms  and  flat  legs,  short  from  the  knee  to  the  pastern,  close  jointed, 
possessing  immense  power  for  their  size,  with  great  fire  and  courage.  But 
a  few  of  the  Morgans,  however,  evince  extraordinary  speed. 


102  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

"  It  is  eaid  that  the  best  stock  of  horses  in  the  New  England  States  are 
found  among  tlie  progeny  and  descendants  of  the  Sherman  Morgan,  wliicli 
was  owned  hy  Mr.  Bellows,  of  Vermont. 

"  Tlie  figure  given  on  another  page  is  a  portrait  of  Black  Hawk,  '  a  colt 
of  the  Sherman  Morgan,  which  was  got  by  the  old  Justin  Morgan  horse. 
The  dam  of  Black  Hawk  was  a  three-quarter-blooded  English  mare,  raised 
in  the  province  of  New  Brunswick.  She  could  trot  a  mile  in  less  than  three 
minutes,  and  weighed  1,025  lbs.,  and  was  in  every  respect  a  most  perfect 
aninial.' 

"  Black  Hawk  was  bred  by  Mr.  Mattliews,  of  Durham,  N.  II.  lie  is  a 
jet-black  color;  weighs,  in  good  flesh,  1,01011)3.;  his  hight  is  fifteen  liands 
and  one  inch.  A  line  drawn  from  the  hip  even  with  the  ham,  just  below 
the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  is  four  inches  longer  than  the  back,  or  the  distance 
from  the  hip  to  the  withers.  A  line  dropped  perpendicular  from  the  nock, 
parallel  with  the  fore  leg,  is  nineteen  inches  forward  of  the  junction  of  the 
withers.  The  distance  between  the  hip  and  the  ribs  is  only  one  and  a  half 
inches.  He  has  a  broad  and  vigorous  arm,  fat  and  clean  leg,  large  mnsclcs, 
short  from  the  knee  to  the  pastern,  large  windpipe  and  nostril,  well  open 
when  under  motion.  He  is  one  of  the  best  i)roportioned  and  most  elegant 
moving  horses  that  can  be  produced.  He  is  perfectly  sound,  a  close-jointed, 
clean-limbed  animal,  and  carries  a  beautiful  waving  head,  mane,  and  tail. 
His  legs  are  flat  and  hard,  clean  from  long  hairs  on  the  fetlock ;  his  eyes 
stand  out  prominent ;  his  disposition  kind  aud  playful.  He  keeps  fat  with 
very  little  feed  of  oats  and  bran,  three  quarts  of  each  daily,  and  five  or  six 
pounds  of  timothy  each  day. 

"  No  fault  can  be  found  with  the  horse,  nnlcss  it  be  in  his  size  ;  however, 
his  stock  are  suflicicntly  large  for  roadsters  and  for  general  usefulness  in 
this  State." 

137.  The  Faults  of  the  Morgan  HorsCi — Of  the  Morgan  horses  as  they 
were  at  the  lime  Mr.  Jewett  wrote,  particularly  the  Black  Hawk  strain  of 
the  blood,  we  have  no  fault  to  find — we  rather  indorse  his  statement.  But 
fifteen  years  have  wrought  a  change.  As  a  general  thing,  Morgan  horses 
have  been  bred  too  much  in-and-in,  and  without  regard  to  size.  They  are 
no  longer  "  lofty"  in  proportion  to  the  weight,  but,  on  the  cotitrary,  arc 
"  squatty,"  and  to  the  eye  of  a  good  judge  of  horses,  far  less  attractive  than 
they  were  formerly.  What  is  needed,  is  an  infusion  of  blood  of  a  taller  race 
—  such  as  gave  character  to  the  Black  Hawks.  Wherever  they  have  been 
crossed  with  Messenger  stock,  Cleveland  Bay,  or  othei'S  of  similar  form,  the 
improvement  has  been  marked,  and  some  of  the  very  finest  roadsters  and 
carriage-horses  have  resulted.  The  Morgans,  crossed  upon  other  good 
breeds,  do  not  improve  those  as  much  as  it  improves  theirs.  It  is  still  a 
favorite  breed  of  horses  in  New  England,  but  not  as  much  so  as  it  was  some 
years  ago.  The  uniform  color  of  the  family  has  been  a  great  recommenda- 
tion, and  there  has  been  also  a  greater  degree  of  general  beauty  in  the  Mor- 
gan family  of  horses  than  in  any  other  ever  extensively  bred  in  this  country. 


Sbo.  8.]  HORSES— SIZE  OF  ROADSTERS.  103 

We  shall  now  give  a  few  useful  items  for  owners  of  horses  of  whatever 
breed,  mongrel  or  thorough-bred. 

138.  Driving — The  Start. — The  first  mile  is  the  most  important  of  the  jour- 
ney. More  horses  are  injured  in  the  start  than  in  the  balance  of  the  whole 
<iay.  You  should  carefully  avoid  rapid  driving  immediately  after  a  horse 
has  been  full  fed.  Many  old  travelers  feed  over-night  all  the  grain  they 
intend  the  horse  to  eat  in  the  twenty  four  hours.  Others  feed  at  night  and 
at  noon,  and  then  give  time  after  the  horse  has  eaten  hia  mess  before  start- 
ing, or  else  drive  very  slowly  for  an  hour,  making  up  time  as  night 
approaches.  In  all  cases  when  a  horse  has  been  fed  and  watered  an  hour  or 
two  before  starting  upon  a  jonrney  or  di-ive  of  several  miles,  it  is  proper  to 
drive  slowly  for  the  first  mile  or  two  ;  but  when  the  feeding  and  watering 
have  been  more  recent,  the  propriety  of  going  along  at  a  jog  or  easy  pace 
is  still  more  urgent.  Colic,  founder,  broken  wind,  have  all  of  them  resulted 
from  too  rapid  driving  when  a  horse  was  full.  A  friend  of  ours,  a  pliysi- 
cian,  who  had  occasion  sometimes  to  violate  this  dictate  of  good  manage- 
ment in  his  haste  to  reach  some  case  of  great  urgency,  once  informed  us 
that  when  he  drove  at  a  rapid  rate  immediately  after  feeding,  his  horse 
would  scour  almost  invariably,  and  seem  to  suffer  considerably. 

Even  in  such  cases  where  a  horse  must  be  driven  upon  a  full  stomach,  it 
is  better  to  divide  the  distance  into  equal  parts — say  ten  miles,  which  you 
intend  to  drive  in  an  hour,  and  give  forty  minutes  to  the  first  half,  and  do 
the  other  five  in  twenty  minutes.  In  that  case  be  careful,  when  j'ou  stop, 
not  to  leave  the  horse  to  cool  suddenly.  If  the  weather  is  hot,  and  you  have 
driven  hard,  don't  mind  trying  to  get  your  horse  in  a  cool  shade.  The  sun 
won't  hurt  him. 

There  is  another  great  error  in  driving  which  has  often  been  suggested  to 
us.  It  is  that  of  constantly  urging  a  horse  to  exert  himself  beyond  what  is 
natural  to  him.  For  instance,  if  a  horse  is  urged  to  perfbi-ni  in  t^^'t)  hours 
a  distance  that  he  would,  at  his  natural  pace,  require  three  hours  to  do,  it 
will  injure  him  more  than  four  hours'  driving  at  his  regular  pace;  and  if 
this  urging  is  continued  all  daj',  he  will  break  down,  just  as  a  man  would,  if 
urged  to  double  his  speed  in  walking. 

139.  Size  of  Roadsters. — A  road  horse  should  be  about  fifteen  hands  high 
(a  hand  being  four  inches),  measured  from  the  top  of  the  shoulder  or  withers 
to  the  ground,  when  the  horse  stands  naturally ;  his  weiglit  should  be  about 
1,000  lbs.  ;  for  such  weight  in  an  animal  fifteen  hands  high,  in  moderate 
flesh,  indicates  compactness  and  power  somewhere.  Experience  has  proved 
tliat  horses  of  this  size  carry  their  weight  better  on  long  journeys,  injure 
their  feet  less  on  the  pavements  and  hard  roads,  and  are  apt  to  be  more  fleet 
than  those  of  a  larger  class  ;  for  while  greater  length  and  hight  will  give  an 
increased  stride,  either  running  or  trotting,  the  power  to  gather  rapidly,  and 
especially  for  long  distances,  requires  much  greater  muscular  exertion  in 
large  than  in  small  horses,  from  the  greater  weight  to  be  propelled.  Our 
fastest  trotters  have  generally  been  from  this  class. 


104  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

140.  talking  Horses. — Tlie  best  gait  a  horse  ever  had  for  everj-day  use 
is  a  good  walk.  It  is  a  gait  that  not  one  in  ten  possesses.  Colts  are  not 
trained  to  walk  in  all  the  Eastern  States.  Young  America  wants  more  speed. 
Kentiickj  has  more  good  walking  horses  than  any  other  State,  for  there  hoi-se- 
back  traveling  has  long  been  in  fashion  fur  men  and  women  over  a  country 
where  muddy  roatls,  at  some  seasons,  rendered  afiy  other  gait  impossible,  and 
60  horses  have  been  bred  for  the  saddle  and  trained  to  a  walking  gait.  This 
is  also  the  case  in  all  the  "Western  States,  and  perhaps  might  have  been  so  in 
Kew  England,  when  our  grandmothers  rode  to  meeting  on  a  pillion  behind  our 
grandfathers.  But  one-horse  wagons  have  put  horseback  riding  out  of  fashion, 
and  now  a  good  walking  horse  is  more  rare  than  one  that  can  trot  a  mile  in  2.40. 

At  the  Springfield  (Mass.)  horse  show  of  ISCO,  the  writer  was  one  of  a 
committee  to  award  prizes  to  the  two  best  walking  horses.  Out  of  seven- 
teen entered,  the  committee  found  but  one  which  was  considered  a  first-rate 
walker.  This  was  a  Morrill  mare,  which  walked  live  miles  an  liour  with  ease. 
Two  others  were  fair  walkers,  and  the  others  knew  no  gait  that  could  be 
called  walking.  At  the  New  York  State  Fair  the  same  state  of  facts  was 
agiin  developed.  A  letter  from  Wisconsin  says  :  "  I  think  horses  trained  to 
walk  fast  would  be  a  greater  benefit  to  farmers  in  general  than  fast  trotters, 
as  almost  ail  of  his  work  has  to  be  done  with  a  walk.  I  once  knew  a  man 
in  Massachusetts  who,  before  the  railroads  were  built,  kept  from  two  to  four 
teams  at  work  on  the  road,  and  never  allowed  them  to  trot  at  all,  and  made 
the  distance  in  quicker  time  than  his  neighbors,  who  made  their  horses  tvot 
at  every  convenient  place.  He  said  that  when  a  horse  commenced  to  walk 
after  a  trot,  he  walked  much  slower  than  his  common  gait  if  kept  on  a  walk, 
and  thereby  lost  more  than  he  gained."  "Will  farmers  think  of  this,  and  pay 
more  attention  to  walking  horses  ? 

141.  lustrumeiiCs  of  Torture  Used  by  Horsemen. — Tlie  following  sensible 
remarks  are  from  the  Irii^h  J^urnwr^s  Gazette.  They  are  quite  applicable 
here: 

"  Tlie  good  old  English  roadstei-'s  style  of  walk,  trot,  or  canter  is  too  steady 
for  your  fast  young  man  ;  he  thinks  it  far  beneath  him  to  speak  a  kindly 
word  to  his  horse,  or  to  control  him  by  an  easy  signal ;  and  however  quiet 
the  horse  may  be,  he  is  rarely  seen  on  his  back  without  at  leastyoio'  uuncc- 
esT^ary  instrinnents  of  torture — namely,  two  spure  with  sharp  rowels,  one 
whip,  and  a  severe  curb  bridle.  Why  should  it  be  the  universal  custom  in 
this  country  for  men  armed  with  these  cruel  instruments  of  torture  to  ride 
quiet,  docile  horses,  and  often  punish  them  for  a  fanciful  fault  which  they 
themselves  bring  about  by  their  own  want  of  experience  and  knowledge  of 
the  horse's  nature  ? 

"  If  a  man  has  not  the  ability  to  handle  a  horse  lightly,  and  at  the  same 
time  keep  his  balance  in  the  saddle,  he  lias  no  business  to  ride  one  of  value 
and  high  courage.  It  would  be  better  for  the  horse  and  safer  for  the  man 
to  keep  his  feet  on  terra  firnia. 

"Tlie  more  a  horse's  mouth  is  used  to  a  severe  bit,  the  less  he  will  care 


Sko.  8.]  HORSES  AND  HORSE  STABLES.  '         105 

for  it,  as  be  will  soon  learn  to  neutralize  its  effects  hy  pulling  and  keepinc 
the  reins  in  a  state  of  tension,  and  thereby  pievent  the  rider  from  cheeking 
or  wriggling  the  bit — to  punish  him.  The  dead,  steady  pull  is  far  less  pain- 
ful to  him  tlian  the  jaw-breaking  the  rider  would  be  able  to  inliict  upon  him 
if  allowed  to  keep  his  reins  slack  and  ready  for  a  jerk. 

"  One  of  the  many  causes  which  makes  pulling  horses  is  the  unsteady  seat 
of  their  riders.  Many  men  can  not  ride  a  light-mouthed  horse,  but  they  can 
sit  a  puller  with  ease,  because  the  firm  hold  this  horse  allows  them  to  have 
on  the  reins  is  the  main  thing  upon  which  they  depend  to  keep  their  balance. 

"I  have  seen  the  most  inveterate  pullers  in  some  people's  hands  ridden  in 
bits  invented  by  their  owners,  regular  jaw-breaking  or  choking  power,  and 
still  pulling  so  hard  as  to  tear  the  skin  of  their  rider's  hands.  And  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying — having  frequently  proved  my  assertions  by  prac- 
tice— that  if  one  of  these  tear-away  pullers  changed  hands,  and  his  new 
owner  would  bridle  him  with  an  easy  snaffle,  and  let  him  stand  in  the  stable 
— to  feel  the  difference— an  hour  before  he  was  mounted  he  would  forget  his 
old  habit." 

142.  Saddle-IIorses.— One  of  the  meanest  things  ever  taught  a  saddle- 
horse  is  to  cavort  and  curve,  and  go  dancing  and  prancing  about  as  though 
trying  to  keep  within  a  circle  ju?t  large  enough  to  hold  his  four  feet  closely 
drawn  together.  If  you  are  selecting  a  saddle-horse,  see  that  he  does  not 
stand  square  upon  his  forward  feet.  They  should  reach  avcII  forward,  and 
then  there  will  be  such  an  easy  spring  that  you  may  ride  at  a  smart  trot 
without  feeling  as  though  you  are  struck  with  a  sledge  at  every  step,  as  you 
may  upon  some  horses  Mdiose  hoofs  are  square  under  the  legs,  and  appear  to 
have  about  the  same  degree  of  spring  that  you  would  have  upon  wooden 
pins  stepping  along,  and  brought  down  at  every  step  like  a  pavier's  rammer. 
Never  select  a  very  round-backed  horse  for  the  saddle.  It  does  not  hold 
its  place  well  upon  such  a  back.  A  good  saddle-horse  must  possess  good 
sense  as  well  as  a  good  gait  and  gentleness. 

143.  Color  Indicative  of  Gentleness. — It  is  asserted  that  the  reason  why 
circus  managers  select  parti-colored  horses  is  not  their  fancy  color,  but  be- 
cause it  indicates  gentleness  and  tractability,  and  that  the  animals  will 
submit  to  training  better  than  horses  of  one  color.  A  little  thought  and 
observation  upon  this  subject  will  enable  any  farmer  to  settle  the  question 
in  his  own  mind.  Perhaps  there  is  more  than  appears  at  first  view  in  the 
common  expression,  "  a  fiery  black  horse."  Is  it  not  because  black  indi- 
cates a  fiery  temper  ?  Independent  of  color,  we  would  look  in  the  counte- 
nance of  a  horse  to  see  whether  he  would  bear  training.  In  some  animals 
there  is  a  general  appearance  of  an  ugly  disposition.  A  face  broad  and  full 
between  the  eyes  indicates  good  sense,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important 
things  in  a  horse. 

144.  Horse  Stables  should  be  light,  roomy,  and  well  ventilated.  Never 
put  a  horse  in  a  cellar.  Build  your  stables  high  ;  that  is,  high  between 
floors.     M(jst  stables  are  built  low  "  because  they  are  warmer."     But  such 


106  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


people  forget  tliat  warmtli  is  obtained  at  a  sacrifice  of  pure  air  and  the 
liealtli  of  the  animal.  Shut  .  man  up  in  a  tight,  small  bo.x ;  the  air  may 
be  warm,  but  it  will  soon  lay  him  out  dead  and  cold  if  hs  continues  to 
breathe  it.  If  stables  arc  tiglit,  they  should  have  high  ceilings;  if  they 
are  not  tight,  but  o^jcu  to  admit  cold  currents  of  air  from  all  directions,  they 
are  equally  faulty. 

Slatted  floors  are  getting  into  vogue.  My  own  stable  is  built  with  a  tight 
floor  nine  feet  long  and  four  and  a  half  feet  wide  for  each  stall,  with  a  pitch 
of  two  inches.  At  the  end  of  the  plank  there  is  a  slatted  portion,  four  feet 
wide,  two  inches  lower  than  the  plank.  Through  these  sluts  all  the  urine 
runs  into  the  manure  pile  in  the  cellar,  and  so  leaves  the  beds  of  the  horses  dry. 

145.  Sand  for  Horses'  Beds. — Mr.  Small,  of  Dundalk,  Scotland,  a  veteri- 
nary surgeon  of  considerable  experience,  states  that  sand  is  not  only  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  straw  for  horses'  beds,  but  superior  to  straw,  as  the 
sand  does  not  heat,  and  saves  the  hoofs  of  the  horses.  lie  states  that  sand  is 
exclusively  used  for  horses'  beds  in  liis  repository. 

I-IG.  To  Remove  Horses  from  a  Building  on  Fire. — Tlie  great  difliculty  of 
getting  horses  from  a  stable,  where  surrounding  buildings  are  in  a  state  of 
conflagration,  is  well  known.  Wilkes'  Spirit  of  the  Times  says,  a  gentleman 
whose  horses  had  been  in  great  peril  from  such  a  cause,  having  in  vain  tried 
to  save  them,  hit  upon  the  experiment  of  having  them  harnessed,  when,  to 
his  astonishment,  they  were  led  from  the  stable  Avithout  difliculty.  Throw- 
ing a  blanket  over  a  horse's  head  will  often  answer,  also,  and  may  be  easily 
tried  before  harnessing. 

147.  Proportion  of  Horses  lo  Men. — The  following  curious  account  is  given 
in  Appleton's  Encyclopedia,  of  the  number  of  horses  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
world  :  "  The  general  estimate  has  been  eight  to  ten  horses  in  Europe  for  every 
hundred  inhabitants.  Denmark  has  45  horses  to  every  hundred  inhabitants, 
which  is  more  than  any  other  European  country.  Great  Uritain  and  Ire- 
land have  2,500,000  horses  ;  France,  3,000,000  ;  Austrian  Empire,  exclusive 
of  Italy,  2,500,000 ;  Russia,  3,500,000.  The  United  States  have  5,000,000, 
which  is  more  than  any  European  country.  The  horses  of  the  whole  v/orld 
arc  estimated  at  57,420,000." 

14S.  M'hat  Constitutes  Legal  Unsoundness  in  Horsesi — A  Knee-fiprung  horse 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  unsound.  lie  may  be  a  very  fast  horse,  and  can 
endure  with  ease  the  labor  of  anj'  common,  ordinary  horse,  although  there 
is  an  alteration  of  structure  which  unfits  him  for  the  race-course.  Tliis 
would  not  be  likely  to  produce  disease  or  lameness ;  he  would  be  more 
likely  to  grow  better  than  worse,  if  used  for  common  puq^oses.  But  if  so 
bad  as  to  produce  stumbling  and  falling,  he  would  be  unsound,  and  a  wai-- 
ranty  should  be  taken  against  such  defects. 

Capped  Iloeks  can  not  be  considered  unsoundness,  if  produced  by  an  un- 
even stable  floor  or  by  kicking ;  but  if  produced  by  a  sprain,  and  a  perma- 
nent thickening  and  enlargement  of  the  membranes,  there  would  be  unsound- 
ness.    A  sj^ecial  warranty  should  be  required  in  such  cases. 


"vm 


HOKSJKS    'I'WT.TH    AT  BiPFBllKWT    AgBS. 


It  <i  KM  I'^.s    ^I'lKF.TH  .vi'  <,Hy  ywnwyr   Af'.K.s . 


PLATES    VIIT.,    TX. 

(Pages  106,  107.) 

These  plates  need  no  description  ;  they  require  study.  As  they 
contain  all  that  could  be  said  to  fully  understand  the  subject  illus- 
trated, we  have  written  nothing  about  the  art  of  "telling  the  age 
of  horses  by  examining  their  teeth."  Whoever  studies  these  plates 
will  learn  that  art.  Observe  the  steady  change,  year  by  year,  as 
it  is  mapped  out  before  you.  Open  the  mouth  of  your  horse,  and 
compare  its  appearance  with  the  illustration  of  the  year  correspond- 
ing to  his  known  age,  and  so  on  of  all  others.  Thus  you  will  learn 
the  art  and  the  value  of  these  engraved  representations. 


Seo.  8.]  HORSES— WEEK  UNSOUND.  107 

Contraction  of  the  Hoof  is  a  considerable  deviation  from  the  natural  form 
of  the  foot,  but  does  not  necessarily  constitute  unsoundness.  It  requires, 
liowever,  a  most  careful  examina'jon  by  the  purchaser  to  ascertain  that  there 
is  no  fever  or  ossification  of  the  cartiLige  ;  that  the  frog  is  not  diseased  ;  that 
the  animal  is  not  tender-footed  or  lame.  Unless  some  of  these  symptoms 
are  indicated,  he  must  not  be  pronounced  unsound.  A  special  warranty 
should  be  required  where  the  feet  are  contracted. 

Co7'ns  manifestly  constitute  unsoundness.  Although  few  men  lay  much 
stress  on  this  malady,  still  much  iuconvenience,  and  many  times  serious 
difficulties,  must  be  encountered  by  them,  as  they  are  seldom  thoroughly 
cured.  Many  horses  are  almost  constantly  lame  with  corns,  through  a  scrof- 
ulous habit  of  the  system.     A  warranty  against  such  animals  would  be  safe. 

TremWmg  Knees. — This  can  not  be  considered  unsoundness,  yet  it  is  a 
precursory  symptom  of  Icnec-sprung.  Trembling  of  the  knees,  after  a  smart 
exercise,  indicates  weakness,  and  should  be  regarded  as  objectionable. 

A  Cough  constitutes  unsoundness,  however  slight  or  of  short  standing. 
If  a  horse  is  noticed  to  cough  before  the  purchase,  or  immediately  after- 
ward, he  is  diseased ;  but  if  warranted  sound,  and  the  cough  is  not  discov- 
ered till  one  or  two  days  afterward,  he  is  not  returnable;  for  a  few  hours  arc 
sufficient  to  contract  a  cough,  by  taking  cold  while  standing  in  a  damp, 
musty  stable,  or  by  eating  different  feed,  musty  hay,  etc. 

Roaring,  Wheezing,  or  Whistling  is  unsoundness,  being  the  result  of  alter- 
ation of  structure  or  disease  in  the  air-passages.  Although  there  have  been 
decisions  to  the  contrary,  courts  and  jurors  are  often  at  a  loss  for  the  want 
of  intelligent  witnesses  ;  and  if  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  called  to  the  stand, 
not  having  seen  the  animal,  he  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  from  misrepresenta- 
tion.    Broken  Wind  is  still  more  decidedly  unsoundness. 

Crii  Biting. — A  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  this  being  unsoundness, 
and  courts  have  given  opposite  decisions  in  respect  to  it.  There  are  cribbers 
that  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  unsound,  as  they  are  not  perceptibly  injured, 
and  it  does  not  interfere  M'ith  their  condition  or  endurance.  Others  inhale 
and  swallow  a  great  amount  of  wind ;  they  bloat  and  are  subject  to  colic, 
which  interferes  with  their  health  and  strength ;  this  would  constitute  un- 
sinindness.  A  warranty  should  always  be  taken  against  injury  from  crib- 
bing ;  then  if  he  breaks  his  teeth  or  injures  himself,  recompense  may  be  had. 

Curh  constitutes  unsoundness  as  long  as  it  lasts,  and  perhaps  while  the 
swelling  remains,  although  no  inflammation  exists  ;  for  a  horse  that  has  once 
tlirown  out  a  curb,  is  liable  to  do  so  again  on  the  slightest  exertion.  A 
horse,  however,  should  not  be  returned  if  he  s])ring  a  curb  five  minutes  after 
purchase,  for  it  is  done  in  a  moment,  and  does  not  indicate  any  previous 
unsotmdness. 

l-i9.  Soiling  Horses. — TVe  commend  the  following  statement  of  J.  C.  Ad- 
ams, of  Seymour,  X.  Y.,  to  the  attention  of  all  owners  of  small  farms,  like 
the  little  one  where  we  practice  the  same  course : 

"I  have  in  close  proximity  to  my  barn  a  patch  of  ground,  7^  rods  by  16 


108  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

(three  quarters  of  an  acre),  seeded  to  clover,  from  which  I  kept  one  span  of 
horses  in  thriving  condition  from  the  first  day  oi  June  last  to  tlie  last  day 
of  August,  besides  cutting  900  lbs.  of  good  hay,  which  I  put  into  the  barn, 
and  harvested  of  the  second  mowing  seed  sufficient  to  stock  an  acre  or  two 
of  ground.  This  may,  and  undoubtedly  will,  seem  to  many  like  a  big  barn 
well  stretched.  In  fact,  I  should  doubt  the  reality  of  such  a  story  myself,  had 
not  my  eyes  seen  and  my  hands  felt  the  truth  of  such  a  statement.  By  the 
time  I  had  mowed  two  thirds  of  this  little  patch,  the  remainder  was  fit  to  be 
made  into  hay,  which  I  accordingl}-  did  up  after  the  most  approved  fashion. 
And  that  part  mowed  first  was  sufficiently  large  to  mow  again.  I  fed  them 
three  times  a  day  all  they  could  eat.  They  smelt  not,  touched  not,  tasted 
not  one  particle  of  grain  during  the  three  months  ;  used  them  more  or  less 
every  day,  and  at  the  end  there  was  a  perceptible  gain  in  flesh.  Kever, 
since  I  could  say  7)}i/  team,  have  I  summered  a  team  so  cheaply.  Tlie  great- 
est cost  is  cutting  and  putting  it  before  the  horses.  I  offered  them  Avater, 
but  they  did  not  drink  to  exceed  a  pailful  a  week. 

"  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  they  had  been  turned  loose  npon  this  piece 
of  ground,  ten  days  would  have  been  sufficient  time  to  eat  up  and  trample 
into  the  earth  everything  green  upon  it.  As  five  acres  of  good  pasture  is 
little  enough  to  summer  a  span  of  horses  when  allowed  to  run,  there  is  almost 
an  incalculable  saving  in  soiling  them." 

150.  Brecdiug  for  Loilgovlty. — We  have  had  a  few  instances  of  horses  liv- 
ing to  the  age  of  thirty  years,  but  they  are  so  rare,  that  such  an  old  horse  is 
Tooked  upon  as  a  curiosity.  Lewis  B.  Brown,  of  Westchester  County,  N.  Y., 
has  a  team  of  four,  the  aggregate  age  of  which  is  lOS  years,  the  oldest  being 
over  30  years,  and  all  in  such  vigor  of  constitution  that  but  few  teams  can 
hold  their  own  with  this  upon  the  road.  The  exhibition  of  this  old  team  at 
t!ie  Springfield  show,  in  1860,  attracted  universal  attention.  This  sIkiws  that 
such  old  horses  are  rare,  and  it  proves  that  old  horses  are  not  worthless.  It 
also  induces  the  question,  whether  we  can  not  breed  with  a  special  reference 
to  longevity.  If  selections  were  made  npon  both  sides,  of  stock  which  hail 
ancestors  noted  for  longevity,  and  this  course  continued  througli  several 
generations,  with  mares  and  stallions  which  have  arrived  at  mature  age,  still 
re:aining  a  vigor  like  that  exhibited  in  Mr.  Brown's  team,  who  can  say  that 
we  should  not  obtain  a  breed  noted  for  longevity,  and  that  horses  forty  or 
fifty  years  old  would  then  be  no  rarity  ?  This  is  a  subject  worth  thinking 
about. 

151.  Trealmcnt  of  foMs, — AVhcn  fii-st  foaled,  if  parturition  is  at  maturity, 
the  colt  should  have  eight  front  teeth,  four  in  each  jaw  ;  but  it  sometimes 
happens  that  these  are  not  all  cut  through,  and  the  gums  are  inflamed  and 
so  tender  that  the  colt  can  not  suck  well.  Tiiis  should  always  be  looked  to, 
and  the  gums  cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  and,  if  need  be,  the  colt  fed  until  it  can 
suck  freelj'. 

Colts  as  well  as  calves  are  sometimes  aflPected  by  lice  ;  these  may  be  got  rid 
of  in  various  ways.     Take  white-oak  bark,  boil  it  in  water,  making  a  strong 


Sec.  8.]  HORSES  AND  THEIR  DISEASES.  109 

decoction  ;  wash  tlie  animals  on  the  bade  and  on  the  sides.  In  twenty-four 
hours  the  lice  will  be  completely  tanned.  Tanner's  oil  is  also  first-rate.  So 
is  snuff  or  a  decoction  of  tobacco ;  and  we  have  heard  of  Peruvian  guano 
being  used  and  answering  the  same  pur2)ose  as  snuff. 

152.  Remedies  for  Some  of  ihe  most  Commoa  Diseases  of  Horsesi — There 
are  a  great  many  little  simple  complaints  that  can  be  cured  without  sending 
for  a  veterinary  surgeon.  "We  can  afford  room  for  only  a  few,  because  every 
farmer  should  take  an  agricultural  paper,  and  such  papers  are  stored  with 
valuable  remedies  such  as  the  following  : 

153.  To  Cure  ScratcheSo — When  the  horse  comes  in  at  night,  his  legs 
should  be  washed  clean  and  rubbed  as  dry  as  may  be  ;  then  apply  good 
vinegar,  rubbing  it  Avell  to  the  skin.  Two  applications  a  day  are  sufficient. 
1  have  always  found  it  a  sure  preventive  and  a  certain  cure.  If  the  legs 
have  become  cracked  and  sore,  apply  the  vinegar  freely  and  add  a  piece  of 
copperas  the  size  of  a  common  hickory  nut  to  a  quart  of  vinegar. 

Another  excellent  remedy,  which  we  have  used  a  great  many  times,  is 
beef  brine.  If  the  dirt  is  carefully  washed  off  with  warm  soap-suds,  and  then 
the  legs  well  bathed  with  the  brine,  it  will  require  but  two  or  three  applica- 
tions to  cure  a  very  bad  case  of  scratches. 

The  Maine  Farmer  gives  another  remedy.  It  says  :  "  Take  fresh  slaked 
lime,  and  dust  the  affected  parts  well  with  it  twice  a  day.  It  will  not  cause 
the  horse  any  uneasiness,  and  will  be  sure  to  effect  a  cure  in  a  ic:\Y  days. 

15-1.  For  Heaves  in  liorses. — Take  smart-weed,  steep  it  in  boiling  water  till 
the  strength  is  all  out ;  give  one  quart  every  day  for  eight  or  ten  days.  Or  mix 
it  with  bran  or  shorts.  Give  him  green  or  cut-up  feed,  wet  up  with  water, 
during  the  operation,  and  it  will  cure. 

155.  ChaGag  Uader  the  Collar. — A  gentleman  who  has  tried  the  plan  suc- 
cessfully for  five  years,  communicates  the  annexed  method  of  preventing 
horses  from  chafing  under  the  collar.  He  says  he  gets  a  piece  of  leather,  and 
has  what  he  terms  a  false  collar  made,  which  is  simply  cutting  the  leather 
in  such  a  shape  as  to  lie  singly  between  the  shoulders  of  the  horse  and  the 
coUai".  This  fends  off  all  the  friction,  as  the  collar  slips  and  moves  on  the 
leather,  and  not  on  the  shoulders  of  the  horse.  Chafing  is  caused  hj  fric- 
tion, hence,  you  see,  the  thing  is  entirely  feasible.  Some  persons  put  pads 
or  sheep-skins  under  the  collar ;  thCse,  they  say,  do  as  mucli  hurt  as  good, 
for  they  augment  the  heat.  A  single  piece  of  leather,  like  that  composing 
the  outside  of  a  collar,  without  any  lining  or  stuffing,  is  better  than  anv- 
thing  else. 

156.  For  Fistula. — Salt,  one  tablespoonful ;  soft  soap,  one  tablespoonful ; 
whisky,  one  tablespoonful ;  turpentine,  one  tablespoonful.  Mix  in  a  tin 
cup  ;  place  on  the  horse's  nose  a  twitch,  to  prevent  his  moving ;  have  your 
mixture  placed  on  a  little  fire,  and  as  soon  as  it  boils  up,  pour  immediately 
upon  the  diseased  part ;  repeat  the  operation  every  ten  or  twelve  days,  till  ap- 
plied three  or  four  times,  if  necessary.  It  will  not  take  off  the  hair  or  leave 
any  scar. 


110  DOMESTIC  AinSTALS.  [Chap.  I. 


Tliis  is  not  more  eifectual  tlian  the  following:  much  simpler  remedy,  which 
we  have  proved  for  bo'th  fistula  and  poll-evil.  Take  a  lump  of  potash 
or  saleratus,  as  big  as  you  can  crowd  into  the  pipe  of  the  fistula,  and  it 
causes  it  to  discharge  more  freely  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  it  begins  to 
heal.  In  one  case  of  poll-evil,  a  large  mare  would  not  allow  any  one  to 
touch  her  head  to  apply  the  reuiedy,  or  in  fact  to  be  bridled.  For  this  case 
we  took  about  two  ounces  of  saleratus  and  tied  it  in  a  cloth,  in  the  form  of  a 
pad,  inside  the  strap  of  a  halter,  where  it  crossed  the  top  of  the  head,  and  by  dint 
of  perseverance  succeeded  at  length  in  getting  it  on  and  firmly  secured,  when 
we  bid  her  go  and  live  or  die,  as  she  liked — we  would  do  no  more  for  her. 
A  shower  fell  soon  after,  and  the  next  time  we  saw  our  patient  she  was  par- 
tially healed :  the  caustic  had  taken  the  liair  off,  and  it  had  also  affected  the 
disease.  A  fortnight  later  we  caught  her,  and  found  she  did  not  object  to 
being  handled.  The  disease  was  cured,  and  (he  mare  was  worth  a  hundred 
dollars.  When  tui'ned  out,  she  could  not  have  been  sold  for  a  hundred 
cunts,  and  the  cure  had  not  cost  five  cents. 

Here  is  another  remedy  which  may  be  tried,  if  it  is  preferred  to  the  other. 
Tiic  following  is  sent  us  as  a  valuable  prescription  for  several  of  the  ills  that 
horse-flesh  is  heir  to,  such  as  fistula,  poll-evil,  ring-bone,  big  head,  etc.  : 
12  oz.  of  alcohol,  1  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  oz.  of  corrosive  sublimate, 
1  oz.  of  camphor  gum,  1  oz.  of  oil  of  spike,  1  oz.  of  castile  soap,  1  oz.  of  aqua- 
fortis— mixed  and  dissolved,  and  applied  with  a  swab  for  a  day  or  two,  and 
then  intermixed,  and  apply  again.  Take  care  only  to  touch  the  jiart  af- 
fected; and,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  hair  or  hoof  adjacent,  rub  it  well  with 
grease. 

157.  White  Lead,  its  Value  on  Sores. — W/iiie  lead  in  oil,  as  an  external 
application  or  remedy,  has  no  equal.  In  abrasions,  or  galls  from  the  sad- 
dle or  collar,  or  from  any  other  cause,  it  will  speedily  aid  the  part  in  healing. 
Applied  to  the  leg  of  a  horse — the  outer  coating  of  hair  and  skin  of  which 
was  torn  off — with  a  painter's  brush,  caused  it  to  heal  and  leave  no  scar.  It 
is  good  for  scratches  and  all  sores  upon  horses  or  other  animals,  and  equally 
good  for  men.  It  forms  an  air-tight  coating,  and  soothes  pain.  Every  farmer 
should  keep  a  pot  and  brush  ready  for  use,  and  he  should  not  fail  to  apply  it 
to  all  abraded  spots  on  tools,  as  well  as  stock.  White  lead  is  the  carbonate 
of  the  metal,  and,  when  pure,  is  very  white.  That  having  a  grayish  tint  is 
impure,  being  generally  adulterated.  For  use  as  a  paint,  a  lead  color  is 
produced  by  adding  lampblack,  and  a  drab  or  stone  color,  by  adding  burnt 
umber. 

158.  Liniment  for  Sweeney  in  Horses.— One  oz.  of  oil  of  spike,  1  oz.  of  oil 
of  amber,  1  oz.  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  a  small  quantity  of  rock-oil. 

159.  Blind  Staggers. — This  disease  is  more  common  in  the  Southern  than 
it  is  in  the  Northern  States.  The  Cotton  Planter  newspaper  gives  the  fol- 
lowing remedy  :  "  Take  1  gal.  of  green  hickory  wood  ashes,  1  half  pint  of 
spirits  of  turpentine,  1  oz.  of  gum  camphor,  and  a  sufficiency  of  lye  to  make 
a  thin  mush.     Fill  a  horn  with  this  mush,  while  boiling  hot,  and  with  a  thin 


Sbo.  8.]  HORSES— IMPERFECT  VISION".  Ill 

cloth  stretched  over  the  end  of  the  horn,  apply  it  four  times  upon  or  over 
the  region  of  the  brain,  each  time  filling  the  liorn  with  the  boiling  mnsh, 
which  will  blister  the  skin.  In  connection  with  this,  it  is  necessary  to  burn 
rags  wet  with  spirits  of  turpentine  imder  the  horse's  nose  until  you  produce 
a  free  discharge.  You  should  also  bleed  freely  from  the  neck,  and  give  one 
pint  of  linseed-oilas  a  purge. 

160.  How  to  Detect  Imperfect  Vision  or  Blindness  in  Horses.— Tou  may 
have  good  grounds  for  suspicion  of  imperfect  vision  when  the  horse  moves 
liis  ears  in  a  constant  and  rapid  motion,  directing  them  in  quick  succession 
to  every  quarter  from  whence  the  least  sound  proceeds.  Also  if  his  action  is 
lofty  and  faltering,  and  he  lifts  up  his  feet  and  replaces  them  on  the  ground 
as  if  stepping  over  some  obstacle,  when  there  is  actually  nothing  to  impede 
his  free  progression,  notwithstanding  these  symptoms  would  be  sufiicicnt  to 
create  suspicion,  there  are  other  causes  by  which  similar  symptoms  Avould 
appear  in  horses.  If  a  horse  with  perfect  eyes  were  led  from  a  dark  stable 
i:ilo  the  sunshine,  the  sudden  contraction  of  the  pupil  of  his  eye  would 
render  it  impossible,  for  a  few  moments,  for  him  to  see  but  very  indistinctly ; 
hence  symptoms  of  uncertainty  in  his  movements,  until  the  pupil  becomes 
steady  after  the  sudden  contraction.  The  dilating  and  contracting  of  the 
pu]iil  furnish  means  of  ascertaining  whether  blindness  exists  in  one  eye  or 
both,  as  this  pupil  varies  in  size  according  to  the  degree  of  light  which  is 
brought  to  bear  upon  it.  In  a  dark  stable  the  pupil  is  expanded,  so  that  a 
greater  portion  of  light  falls  upon  the  cornea  ;  but  if  the  horse  is  led  to  the 
door  of  the  stable,  the  pupil  will  contract  bo  as  to  exclude  more  light  than 
could  be  endured,  and  if  suddenly  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  aperture  will  be 
all  but  closed;  therefore  carefully  notice  the  eyes,  whether  they  contract  or 
expand  equally  by  the  increase  and  decrease  of  the  light.  If  the  horse 
should  be  examined  in  the  open  air,  notice  whether  both  pupils  are  of  ex- 
actly the  same  size.  After  this,  carefully  place  the  hand,  so  as  not  to  alarm 
the  horse,  over  each  eye,  to  shade  off  tlie  light,  and  hold  it  there  for  a  short 
time,  noticing  the  extent  to  which  the  pupil  dilates ;  then  pass  the  hand 
over  the  other  eye,  and  ascertain  whether  it  also  dilates  to  the  same  extent, 
and  if  still  it  be  uncertain,  place  both  hands  in  the  positions  of  shades  over 
both  the  eyes  of  the  horse,  and  you  will  at  once  perceive  whether  they  are 
perfect,  and  if  not,  which  of  the  two  is  imperfect. 

Nothing  tends  more  to  injure  the  eyes  of  a  horse  than  dark  or  badly  venti- 
lated stables.  Attention  to  the  lighting,  draining,  and  ventilation  of  horse 
stables  is  an  imperative  duty.  There  are  thousands  of  stables  in  which  the 
door  is  the  only  aperture  for  the  ingress  or  egress  of  pure  air,  and  even  this 
is  in  most  instances  closed,  both  when  the  horse  is  at  rest,  or  at  work  or  ex- 
ercise; thus  he  has,  while  in  the  stable,  to  constantly  breathe  vitiated  air. 

161.  Remedy  for  GaHs  on  Horses. — Use  whisky,  saturated  with  alum, 
to  wash  the  parts  liable  to  chafe,  which  tends  to  harden  the  skin  and  pre- 
vents its  rubbing  off.  For  galls  already  formed,  the  following  receipt  for  a 
salve  is  good  ;  so  it  is  for  human  flesh-sores. 


112  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

"  Take  of  Iioiiey,  twelve  ounces  ;  yellow  beeswax,  four  ounces  ;  compound 
galbannm  plaster,  six  ounces  ;  sweet  oil,  half  a  pint.  Put  the  lioney  into  a 
jar  by  the  fire,  then  melt  the  other  ingredients  and  mix  them  together ; 
spread  very  thin  on  linen,  and   apply  twice  every  day." 

162.  Horse-Shoeing. — It  is  wonderful  how  little  the  mass  of  smiths  who 
shoe  horses  know  of  the  anatomy  of  a  horse's  foot ;  of  its  delicate  organiza- 
tion, and  susceptibility  to  injury  by  improper  paring  of  the  hoof,  formation 
of  the  shoes,  and  attachment  of  the  same!  Horses  are  peculiarly  sensitive 
to  lameness,  and  it  is  obvious  that  great  care  in  the  particulars  mentioned 
should  be  observed,  in  order  that  a  firm,  positive,  and  comfortable  tread 
sliould  be  given  the  feet,  so  as  to  make  them  capal)le  of  exerting  the  won- 
derful degree  of  muscular  strength  of  which  they  are  possessed  without 
injury  to  the  exquisitely  constructed  parts  which  are  brought  into  play.  In 
one  of  the  numbers  of  the  Dnhlin  Agricultural  Review  we  find  a  long  article, 
written  by  William  Miles,  extracted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  London.  We  heartily  commend  this  able  production  to 
the  perusal  of  those  of  our  readers  interested  in  this  important  subject.  It 
commences  as  follows : 

"  If  I  were  asked  to  account  for  my  horses'  legs  and  feet  being  in  better 
order  than  those  of  my  neighbors,  I  should  attribute  it  to  the  four  following 
circumstances :  First,  that  they  arc  all  shod  with  few  nails,  so  placed  in  the 
slioe  as  to  permit  the  foot  to  expand  every  time  they  move;  secondly,  that 
they  all  live  in  boxes  instead  of  stalls,  and  can  move  wlienever  they  please  ; 
thirdly,  that  they  have  two  hours'  daily  walking  exercise  when  they  are  not 
at  work;  and  fourthly,  that  I  have  not  a  head-stall  or  rack-chain  in  niy 
stable.  These  four  circumstances  comprehend  the  whole  mystery  of  keeping 
horses' legs  fine,  and  their  feet  in  sound  working  condition  np  to  a  good  old  age. 

"  All  that  is  really  required  is,  to  take  one  anatomical  and  one  phys- 
iological fact  on  trust,  and  believe  that  the  horse's  hoof  is  lined  by  a  very 
sensitive  membrane  which  must  on  no  account  ever  be  wounded,  and  that 
the  hoof  itself  is  elastic,  and  expands  when  the  weight  of  the  horse  is  thrown 
on  the  foot,  and  con'racts  when  it  is  taken  off  again  ;  all  the  rest  is  jjurely 
mechanical,  and  merely  calls  for  the  exercise  of  a  little  thought  and  patience 
to  understand  the  principle  and  apply  it. 

"Tlie  result  of  the  numberless  experiments  I  have  made  at  various  times 
on  all  sorts  of  horses  doing  evcrj-  kind  of  work  is,  that  tliere  is  but  one  priii- 
ci})le  to  be  observed  in  horse-shoeing  which  will  admit  of  no  variation  or 
compromise  :  the  shoe  must  fit  the  foot,  whatever  the  shape  of  the  foot  may 
haj)pen  to  be,  and  it  must  be  nailed  to  the  hoof  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
]iermit  the  foot  to  expand  to  the  weight  of  the  horse;  this  latter  condition 
will  be  best  complied  with  by  placing  three  nails  in  the  outer  limb  of  the 
shoe,  and  two  in  the  inner  limb  between  the  foe  and  the  commencement  of 
the  inner  quarter  ;  a  larger  number  than  five  nails  can  never  be  required  in 
any  shoe  of  any  size,  or  under  any  circumstances,  excepting  for  the  sole  pur- 
pose of  counteracting  defective  and  clumsy  fitting. 


Seo.  8.]  HORSES  AND  HOESE-SHOEING.  113 


"  No  horse  should  have  more  than  one  foot  bared  at  a  time ;  however 
strong  his  feet  may  happen  to  be,  he  is  sure  to  stand  quieter  on  a  shod  foot 
than  he  can  on  a  bare  one,  and  it  will  prevent  his  breaking  the  crust.  A 
horse  with  weak  flat  feet  is  in  positive  misery  when  forced  to  sustain  his 
whole  weight  on  a  bare  foot,  while  the  of)posite  foot  is  held  up. 

"  A  strong  foot  with  an  arched  sole,  when  the  roads  are  in  good  order, 
will  require  to  have  the  toe  shortened,  the  quarters  and  heels  lowered,  and 
the  sole  pared,  until  it  will  yield  in  some  slight  degree  to  very  hard  pressure 
from  the  thumb  ;  but  on  no  account  should  it  ever  be  pared  thin  enough  to 
yield  to  moderate  pressure ;  the  angles  formed  by  the  crust  and  the  bars  at 
tlio  heels  must  be  cleared  out,  and  all  the  dead  horn  removed  therefrom,  and 
the  bars  should  be  lowered  nearly  to  a  level  with  the  sole. 

"  A  weak  flat  foot,  on  the  contrary,  will  bear  no  shortening  of  the  toe,  and 
very  little  paring  or  lowering  anywhere  ;  the  heels  of  such  feet  are  sure  to  be 
too  low  already,  and  the  sole  too  thin ;  in  fact,  the  less  that  is  done  to  them  the 
better  beyond  clearing  out  the  dead  horn  from  the  angles  at  the  heels,  and 
making  the  crust  bear  evenly  on  the  shoe  ;  but  the  hollow  between  the  bars 
and  the  frog,  or  the  frog  itself,  must  never  be  touched  by  a  knife  in  any  foot, 
whether  it  be  a  weak  one  or  a  strong  one ;  and  as  these  latter  directions 
difl^er  materially  from  the  usual  practice  of  smiths,  I  may,  perhaps,  be  ex- 
pected to  state  my  reasons  for  wishing  to  enforce  them  in  opposition  to  what 
they  no  doubt  consider  a  time-honored  custom ;  I  mean  the  inveterate  hkbit 
they  all  have  of  trimming  the  frog,  and  opening  out  the  heels  at  every 
shoeing  ;  but  I  think  I  shall  be  able  to  show  that  '  it  is  a  custom  more  hon- 
ored in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance.' 

"  The  shoe  should  be  neither  too  light  nor  too  narrow  in  the  web ;  light 
shoes  are  apt  to  bend  before  they  are  half  worn  out,  and  narrow-webbed 
shoes  expose  the  sole  and  frog  to  imnecessary  injury  from  stones  in  the  road. 
Every  fore-shoe  should  be  more  or  less  seated  on  the  foot-surface,  to  prevent 
it  pressing  on  and  bruising  the  sole  ;  but  a  perfectly  flat  surface  should  be 
preserved  around  the  edge  of  the  foot-surface  of  the  shoe,  from  heel  to  heel, 
for  the  crust  to  rest  upon.  The  amount  of  seating  to  be  employed  must  be 
determined  by  the  description  of  foot  to  be  shod ;  for  instance,  a  broad  foot, 
with  a  flat  sole  and  weak  horn,  will  require  a  wide  web,  considerably  seated, 
to  prevent  it  coming  in  contact  with  the  sole  and  bruising  it ;  but  a  narrow 
foot,  with  an  arched  sole  and  strong  horn,  will  require  less  width  of  web 
and  less  seating,  otherwise  the  dirt  and  grit  of  the  road  would  become  im- 
pacted between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  and  cause  as  much  pressure  and  injury 
as  tiie  iron  would  have  done." 

Many  men  who  own  and  use  horses  seem  to  be  indiflferent  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  shod,  so  much  so  that  they  take  them  to  any  one  who 
can  drive  a  nail,  leave  everything  to  him,  and  take  it  for  granted  that  if  the 
hoi'se  has  got  four  good  stout  shoes  on  his  feet  that  will  stay  on  as  long  as 
they  last,  it  is  all  right.  This  is  a  great  mistake,  and  will  often  lead  to  the 
discomfort  and  ultimate  ruin  of  the  horse. 


114  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  [Chap.  I. 

No  horse  that  is  badly  shod  can  travel  easily,  safely,  or  well ;  and  many 
Avho  use  horses  that  cut  their  legs  or  trip,  suppose  that  the  fault  is  in  the 
horse,  while  in  fact  no  one  is  in  fault  but  the  shoer.  There  are  hardly  two 
horses  that  require  precisely  Uie  same  shaped  shoe,  or  that  it  be  put  on  in 
precisely  the  same  way  ;  hence  to  shoe  cveiy  horse  so  as  not  to  pinch,  and 
consequently  injure  the  feet,  and  at  the  same  time  so  that  he  can  perform 
his  work  easily  and  well,  requires  considerable  exjiericnce  and  more  thaii 
common  skill  and  intelligence  on  the  part  of  hoi-se-shoers. 

One  of  the  objects  in  applying  the  shoe  is  to  preserve  the  natural  con- 
cavity of  the  sole  of  the  foot.  A  horse  in  his  natural  state,  and,  indeed,  up 
to  the  period  of  his  iirst  introduction  within  the  precincts  of  the  "  smithy," 
has  generally  a  concave  sole  ;  and  wisely  is  it  so  ordained.  Were  it  other- 
wise, the  animal  would  be  unable  to  secure  foothold  ;  as  it  is,  the  inferior  edge 
of  the  hoof — that  is,  the  ground  surface — projecting  beyond  the  sole,  may  be 
compared  to  the  point  of  a  cat's  claw  or  the  nails  of  a  man  ;  they  grasp,  as  it 
were,  bodies  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  and  thus  secure  a  point  of 
resistance  which  aids  in  advancing  limb  or  body  over  a  smooth  surface. 
Now,  in  order  to  preserve  the  natural  mechanical  functions  of  the  horn  and 
sole,  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  must  correspond  to  the  ground  surface 
of  the  foot ;  that  is  to  say,  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  must  be  beveled 
cup  fashion  ;  its  outer  edge  being  prominent,  takes  the  jjlace  of  the  hoof;  its 
inner  surface  being  concave,  corresponds  to  the  natural  concavity  of  the  foot. 
It  is  a  custom  among  some  blacksmiths  to  reverse  the  above  procedure,  and 
place  the  concave  surface  next  the  foot,  and  often  the  ground  .surface  appears 
to  be  more  convex  than  concave.  An  iron  shoe  tacked  on  to  a  horse's  foot 
is  one  of  the  unavoidable  evils  of  domestication,  yet,  when  properly  ajiplied, 
is  not  so  great  an  evil  as  some  persons  might  suppose. 

R.  Jennings,  veterinary  surgeon,  Philadelphia,  gives  his  views  as  follows 
upon  this  subject : 

163.  Contraction  of  the  Feet  of  Horses— The  Cause  and  Remedy,—"  The 
tendency  of  a  horse's  feet,  in  a  healthy  condition,  is  to  expand  whenever 
the  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  upon  them.  Being  a  very  complicated 
piece  of  mechanism,  they  arc  very  easily  disarranged,  and,  once  out  of  order, 
are  difficidt  of  repair;  hence  the  necessity  of  preserving  them  in  a  sound 
condition. 

"  Contraction  is  caused,  1st,  by  cutting  away  the  bars  of  the  feet,  which 
are  the  main  stays  for  the  support  of  the  quarters ;  2d,  by  (opening  tiie 
heels,  as  the  smith  calls  it)  cutting  away  a  portion  of  the  frog,  in  consc- 
(juence  of  which  the  moisture  of  the  frog  becomes  absorbed,  losing  its  elas- 
ticity and  destroying  its  function,  thus  exposing  the  feet  to  injury  by 
concussion  ;  3d,  by  standing  upon  plank  floors  ;  4th,  by  improper  shoeing. 

"  An  ordinary  observer  will,  upon  an  examination  of  the  common  shoe, 
notice  that  it  inclines  from  without  inward  at  the  heels,  thus  forming  a  con- 
cavity for  the  feet  to  rest  in ;  the  consequence  is  a  lateral  resistance  to  the 
expansion  of  the  hoofs  when  the  weight  of  the  animal  is  thrown  upon  them. 


Sko.  8.]  HORSES  AND  MULES.  115 

The  effects  of  this  resistance  are  to  force  the  heels  together,  creating  pressure 
upon  the  sensitive  parts  within  the  horny  case ;  establishing  fever,  by  which 
the  moisture  of  the  hoofs  is  rapidly  absorbed,  rendering  the  hoofs  hard, 
brittle,  and  liable  to  crack,  and  frequently  causing  corns,  navicular  joint 
lameness,  bony  deposits  to  be  thrown  out  from  the  lateral  wings  or  processes 
of  the  coffin  bones,  rendering  the  animal  permanently  lame  or  unsound. 
These  are  but  few  of  the  bad  effects  arising  from  contraction — enough,  how- 
ever, to  serve  our  purpose  at  present. 

"  Remedy. — Preserve  a  level  bearing  by  making  the  shoes  perfectly  flat 
on  the  quarters,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  expansion  of  the  feet. 
Should  contraction  already  exist  to  considerable  extent,  bevel  the  shoes 
slightly  outward  at  the  heels,  in  order  to  facilitate  expansion.  Care  should 
be  used  not  to  bevel  too  much,  or  bulging  of  the  lower  part  of  the  hoofs  at 
the  quarters  will  be  the  result.  The  shoes  should  in  all  cases  be  forged,  and 
not  twisted,  as  is  sometimes  done  to  save  trouble  by  the  bungling  smith. 
Proper  applications,  to  soften  the  homy  parts  and  promote  elasticity,  should 
also  be  used.     Such  preparations  are  put  up  in  the  form  of  hoof  ointments." 

164.  MnleSi — Few  of  the  farmers  of  this  country  are  aware  what  a  debt  of 
gratitude  they  owe  George  "Washington  for  the  introduction  of  mules  into 
general  use  for  farm  purposes. 

Previous  to  1783  there  were  but  very  few,  and  those  of  such  an  inferior 
order  as  to  prejudice  farmers  against  them  as  unfit  to  compete  with  horses  in 
work  upon  the  road  or  farm.  Consequently  there  were  no  good  jacks,  and 
no  disposition  to  increase  the  stock ;  but  Washington  became  convinced  that 
the  introduction  of  mules  generally  among  Southern  planters  would  pi'ove 
to  them  a  great  blessing,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  disease,  and  longer  lived, 
and  work  upon  shorter  feed,  and  are  much  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  care- 
less servants  than  horses. 

As  soon  as  it  became  known  abroad  that  the  illustrious  Washington  de- 
sired to  stock  his  Mount  Vernon  estate  with  mules,  the  King  of  Spain  sent 
him  a  jack  and  two  jennies  from  the  royal  stables,  and  Lafayette  sent  another 
jack  and  jennies  from  the  island  of  Malta. 

Tlie  first  was  of  a  gray  color,  sixteen  hands  high,  heavily  made,  and  of  a 
sluggish  nature.  Ke  was  named  the  Koyal  Gift.  The  other  was  called  the 
Knight  of  Malta ;  he  was  about  as  high,  but  lighter  made,  bl.-iek  color,  and 
lithe  and  fiery,  even  to  ferocity. 

The  two  different  sets  of  animals  gave  him  the  most  favorable  opportunity 
of  making  improvements  by  cross-breeding,  the  result  of  which  was  a  favor- 
ite jack  which  lie  called  Compound,  because  he  partook  of  the  best  points  in 
botli  of  the  original  jacks.  The  General  bred  his  blooded  mares  to  these 
jacks,  even  taking  those  from  his  family  coach  for  that  purpose,  and  pro- 
duced such  superb  mules  that  the  country  was  all  agog  to  breed  some  of  the 
same  sort,  and  they  soon  became  quite  common.  This  was  the  origin  of 
improved  mules  in  the  United  States;  though  over  seventy  years  since,  there 
is  no  doubt  there  are  now  some  of   the  third  and  fourth  generations   of 


116  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


Knight  of  Malta  and  Royal  Gift  to  be  found  in  Virginia,  and  tlic  great  ben- 
efits arising  from  tiieir  introduction  to  the  country  are  to  be  seen  upon  ahnost 
every  cultivated  acre  in  the  Southern  States.  Notwithstanding  tlie  enor- 
mous increase  of  late  years,  arising  from  a  systematic  course  of  breeding  in 
tiie  Northern  States  for  the  Southern  market,  mules  were  never  more  valua- 
ble than  at  present,  or  more  ready  of  sale  at  high  prices. 

165.  Lou^evity  of  MuleSi — We  have  numerous  reports  of  mules  attaining 
the  age  of  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  years,  and  Col.  Middleton,  of  South  Carolina, 
stated  some  years  ago  that  he  had  one  at  work  on  his  plantation  eighty  years 
old  ;  and  we  have  seen  an  account  of  a  mule  in  Ireland  certified  to  have  been 
at  work  since  1707,  making  him  over  150  years  old.  This  is,  of  course,  a 
very  nncommon  age,  but  we  are  satisfied  that,  with  proper  usage,  mules 
would  commonly  attain  to  about  forty  years,  being  serviceable  to  the  last, 
and  this  should  be  counted  as  one  of  their  elements  of  value. 

1C6.  The  Largest  Mule  in  the  World.— If  the  following  statement  is  cor- 
rectly given,  it  tells  of  the  largest  mule,  probably,  ever  produced.  We 
found  it  in  the  Commercial^  of  Cincinnati,  in  18C0.     It  says : 

"  The  largest  mule  ever  produced  in  the  world  is  now  in  this  city.  It  is  a 
mare  mule,  nineteen  and  a  half  hands  high,  and  weighs  eightee7i  h^tndred 
<  nd  thirty-two 2)ounds.  This  extraordinary  animal  is  the  property  of  Charles 
Frost,  of  AVayne  County,  Ind.,  recently  purchased  near  Lexington,  Ky." 

107.  Mules,  Horses,  OxeUi — We  read  in  almost  every  agricultural  paper, 
'  we  hear  in  most  agricultural  addresses,  and  wc  often  hear  in  conversation, 
that  one  or  the  other  of  these  animals  is  the  one,  and  the  only  one,  tliat 
fanners  should  use,  yet  we  have  never  seen  a  farmer  who  could  say,  "  I 
know."  One  who  has  always  done  liis  farm-work  with  oxen  is  sure  that 
they  are  the  best  in  all  respects  ;  while  fifty  miles  away  he  would  search  a 
hundred  farms  to  find  as  many  yoke  of  oxen,  and  where  he  did  find  them  he 
would  probably  be  told  they  were  only  fit  for  drudgery — that  horses  only 
are  suitable  for  farm-work,  and  their  owners  are  ready  with  loads  of  reasons 
to  substantiate  their  theory.  But  take  another  day's  journey,  and  the  theory 
is  upset  with  mules — mules  liere,  there,  everywhere ;  nothing  but  mules, 
and  nothing  fit  for  a  farm  but  mules,  because  the}^  are  so  strong  and  liardy 
they  never  tire,  and  live  upon  almost  nothing  for  their  daily  rations,  and  are 
the  very  personification  of  life   everlasting. 

Now,  while  the  advocates  of  each  class  of  animals  disagree  so  widely,  how 
are  the  seekers  after  truth  to  satisfy  themselves?  Do  they  look  to  us  for  an 
opinion  ?  We  can  give  it ;  here  it  is.  All  are  best,  and  upon  a  large  farm 
all  would  bo  found  economical  to  keep  for  diflerent  classes  of  work  ;  and  it 
is  our  opinion  that  no  man  who  farms  a  hundred  acres  can  afiTord  to  do  with- 
out oxen,  mules,  and  at  least  one  horse.  If  his  oxen  are  well  trained,  they 
will  travel  as  fast  before  the  plow  and  wagon  as  mules ;  but  the  latter  are  so 
much  more  enduring  in  hot  weather,  at  all  sorts  of  hard  work,  that  their 
services  are  then  particularly  valuable.  Tliey  are  better,  too,  to  go  off  upon 
the  road,  or  to  carry  produce  to  market,  because  they  may  be,  though  nat- 


Seo.  8.]  HORSES  AND  MULES.  117 

urall}'  about  as  slow  as  oxen,  trained  to  travel  homeward  without  a  load  at 
a  round  trot.  For  working  singly  in  the  cultivation  of  crops,  mules  are  far 
superior  to  horses,  and  of  course  can  do  a  great  deal  of  work  that  could  not 
be  done  by  oxen.  We  have  seen  mules  that  were  fair  substitutes  for  saddle- 
horses,  having  one  good  quality,  that  of  sure-footedness.  Tliere  is  one  ob- 
jectitjn  to  mules  on  a  fariYi  where  the  stock  is  generally  pastured :  there  is 
nothing  short  of  a  Mississippi  fence  that  will  hold  them — that  is,  twelve  rails 
high,  and  stake-and-ridered  ;  and  we  have  heard  planters  declare  that  they 
hud  often  known  the  brutes  to  climb  over  such  a  fence  as  that.  In  advising 
a  l^orthern  farmer  to  keep  mules,  we  therefore  advise  him  to  make  his  cal- 
culation to  keep  them  in  a  stable  all  the  time  they  are  out  of  harness. 

168.  Breeding  of  Uorses  and  Mules. — Tliere  are  certain  universal  laws  of 
breeding  which  can  not  be  ignored,  except  at  the  sacrifice  of  all  success.  In 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  a  very  large  strain  of  mules  liave  been  obtained 
by  using  jacks  of  immense  size.  We  recollect  seeing  one  at  R.  Cockrill's, 
near  Nashville,  over  eighteen  hands  high.  We  have  seen  several  mules  of 
that  hight,  and  numerous  ones  of  sixteen  and  seventeen  hands  high.  It  is 
still  a  question  whether  such  large  mules  are  as  economical  as  the  smaller 
sizes,  which  cost  less  at  first  and  cost  less  for  sustenance  ;  and  some  persons 
contend  that  at  ordinary  labor  the  small  mule  will  do  as  much  and  last 
longer. 

In  breeding  either  horses  or  mules,  a  writer  upon  the  subject  says  :  "  If  we 
would  have  sound  stock,  we  mmt  have  coJistitutional  soundne.is  in  both  dam 
and  sire.  There  are  hundreds,  ay,  thousands,  who  will  scour  the  country  and 
compare  the  merits  of  a  dozen  horses — will  give  time  and  money  to  secure 
the  services  of  a  good  stallion — and  all  with  the  expectation  of  procuring  a 
fine  colt  from  a  miserable,  puny,  ill-shaped,  broken-winded,  spavined  old 
mare.  How  often  do  we  hear  it  said,  '  Oli,  she  M-ill  do  to  raise  a  colt 
from ;'  or — after  hard  service  and  cruel  uaage  l^ave  left  a  mere  wreck  of 
what,  away  back  in  the  farmer's  memory,  was  once  a  beast  of  powei",  activ- 
ity, excellent  temper,  and  noble  bearing — 'we  must  now  turn  the  old  mare 
out  to  breed  from.'  The  start  is  wrong,  the  foundation  is  defective — what 
wonder  should  the  structure  tumble  to  the  earth  ? 

"  In  the  mare  we  need  size  and  symmetry  ;  if  there  be  blood,  all  the  bet- 
ter— it  will  tell.  Witliout  the  first  two,  however— even  though  all  the 
blood  that  has  flowed  through  thorough-breds,  from  the  days  of  Godolpliin 
to  the  present,  were  in  her  veins— she  is  utterly  unfit  for  a  breeder.  Many 
animals  possess  some  favorable  peculiarity  which  owners  wish  to  transmit, 
and  though  there  may  be  a  structural  deficiency  in  some  other  part,  the 
mare  is  brought  to  the  breeding  paddock  in  tbe  hope  that  the  desirable 
features  will  be  prominent  in  the  colt,  even  if  it  be  at  the  expense  of  other 
points  of  strength  and  action.  The  breeder  here  commits  an  error.  It 
would  be  better  to  let  the  mare  go,  for  in  the  very  large  majority  of  cases 
the  deficiencies  will  be  transmitted  while  the  excellences  will  not. 

"  In  choosing  a  mare  for  breeding  purposes,  she  should  be  so  formed  in 


118  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

frame,  as  to  be  capable  of  carrying  and  well  nourishing  her  offspring ;  that 
is,  she  should  be  what  is  called  "  roomy."  There  is  a  formation  of  the  hips 
which  is  particularly  unfit  for  breeding  purposes,  and  yet  which  is  some- 
times carefully  selected,  because  it  is  considered  elegant ;  this  is  the  level 
and  straight  hip,  in  which  the  tail  is  set  on  very  high,  and  the  end  of  the 
haunch  bone  is  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  projection  of  the  hip  bono. 
Nearly  the  opposite  form  is  the  more  desirable,  Avhere,  on  examining  the 
pelvis,  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the  haunch  bone  forms  a  considerable  angle  with 
the  sacrum,  and  that  there  is,  as  a  consequence,  plenty  of  room,  not  only  for 
carrying  tlie  foal,  but  for  allowing  it  to  pass  into  the  world.  Both  of  these 
points  are  important,  the  former  evidently  so,  and  the  latter  no  less  so  on 
consideration  ;  because,  if  the  foal  is  injured  in  the  birth,  cither  of  necessity 
or  from  ignorance,  it  will  often  fail  to  recover  its  powers  and  will  remain 
permanently  injured.  Tlie  pelvis,  then,  should  be  wide  and  deeii — that  is  to 
say,  large  and  roomy,  and  there  should  also  be  a  little  more  than  the  average 
length  from  hip  to  the  shoulder,  so  as  to  give  plenty  of  bed  for  the  foal,  as 
well  as  a  good  depth  of  back  ribs,  which  are  necessary  to  give  the  strength 
to  support  this  increased  length.  Beyond  this  roomy  frame,  necessary  as 
the  egg-shell  of  the  foal,  the  mare  only  requires  such  a  shape  and  make  as 
is  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  she  is  intended  for — that  is  to  say,  for  pro- 
ducing colts  of  the  style  and  form  she  is  intended  to  produce.  We  Avill  add, 
that  she  must  have  four  good  legs  under  her,  and  those  legs  standing  on  a 
foundation  of  good,  well-shaped,  large  feet,  open  heeled,  and  by  no  means 
flat-soled.' 

" '  In  healtli,'  says  the  same  writer,  '  the  brood  mare  should  be  as  near 
perfection  as  the  artificial  state  of  the  animal  will  allow  ;  at  all  events,  it  is 
the  most  important  point  of  all,  and  in  every  case  the  marc  should  be  very 
carefully  examined  with  a  view  to  discover  what  deviations  from  a  natural 
state  have  been  entailed  upon  her  by  her  own  labors,  and  what  she  has  in- 
herited from  her  ancestors.  All  accidental  defects,  sucli  as  broken  knees, 
dislocated  hijis,  etc.,  may  be  passed  over;  the  latter,  however,  only  when 
the  stock  from  which  the  mare  is  descended  are  famous  for  standing  their 
work  without  this  frailty  of  sinew  and  ligament.  Spavins,  ring-bones,  large 
splents,  side-bones,  and,  in  fact,  all  bony  enlargements,  are  constitutional 
defects,  and  will  be  almost  sure  to  be  perpetuated,  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  degree  in  which  they  exist  in  the  particular  case.' 

"  Having  said  thus  much  upon  the  requisites  on  the  side  of  the  dam,  let 
us  see  what  should  be  sought  for  in  a  sire.  It  is  maintained  by  all  writers 
upon  this  subject,  that  hlood  should  be  possessed  by  a  stallion  in  an  eminent 
degree  ;  that  the  essential  on  the  part  of  the  sire  is  the  greatest  amount  of 
pure  blood  compatible  with  size,  weight,  and  power  according  to  the  pur- 
poses for  which  we  intend  to  breed.  Our  best  veterinarians  argue  that  tlie 
degree  of  strength  in  the  bone,  sinew,  and  frame  of  a  blooded  horse  is,  in 
proportion  to  extent,  vastly  superior  to  that  contained  by  his  coarser  and 
more  mammoth  brother,  the  English  cart-horse.     The  difference  in  the  form 


Sec.  8.]  HORSES  AND  MULES— BREEDING.  119 

and  texture  of  the  muscular  system,  and  in  the  lesser  tendency  to  form 
flabby,  useless  flesh,  is  also  in  favor  of  blood.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the 
general  constitution  of  the  animal  is  calculated  to  furnish  him  -with  greater 
vitality,  recuperative  energy,  and  physical  power— in  proportion  to  size  and 
weight — and,  as  a  consequence,  quicker  movement,  greater  courage,  and 
better  powers  of  endurance. 

"Herbert,  in  his  'Hints  to  Horse-Keepers,'  gives  his  views  upon  this 
branch  of  our  subject  so  concisely  and  clearly,  that  we  can  not  refrain  from 
quoting  a  paragraph,  as  follows  :  '  To  breed  from  a  small  horse  with  the  hope 
of  getting  a  large  colt ;  from  a  long-backed,  leggy  horse,  with  the  hope  of 
getting  a  short,  compact,  powerful  one  ;  from  a  broken-winded,  or  blind,  or 
flat-footed,  or  spavined,  or  ring-boned,  or  navicular-joint  diseased  horse,  with 
the  hope  of  getting  a  sound  one  ;  from  a  vicious  horse,  a  cowardly  horse — 
what  is  technically  called  a  dunghill — with  the  hope  of  getting  a  kind-tem- 
pered and  brave  one  ;  all  or  any  of  these  would  be  the  hight  of  folly.  The 
blood  sire  (and  the  blood  should  always  be  on  the  sire's  side)  should  be,  for 
the  farmer-breeder's  purposes,  of  medium  hight,  say  15i  hands  high,  short- 
backed,  well  ribbed  up,  short  in  the  saddle-place,  long  below.  He  should 
have  high  withers,  broad  loins,  broad  chest,  a  straight  rump,  the  converse  of 
what  is  often  seen  in  trotters,  and  known  as  the  goose-rump  ;  a  high  and 
muscular,  but  not  beefy  crest ;  a  lean,  bony,  Avell-set-on  head  ;  a  clear,  bright, 
smallish,  well-placed  eye  ;  broad  nostrils  and  small  ears.  His  fore  legs 
should  be  as  long  and  as  muscular  as  possible  above  the  knee,  and  his  hind 
legs  above  the  hock ;  and  as  lean,  short,  and  bony  as  possible  below  those 
joints.  The  bones  can  not  by  any  means  be  too  flat,  too  clear  of  excres- 
cences, or  too  large.  The  sinews  should  be  clear,  straight,  firm,  and  hard  to 
the  touch.  From  such  a  horse,  -where  the  breeder  can  find  one,  and  from  a 
well-chosen  mare  (she  may  be  a  little  larger,  more  bony,  more  roomy,  and 
in  every  way  coarser  than  the  horse,  to  the  advantage  of  the  stock),  sound, 
healthy,  and  well-limbed,  he  may  be  certain,  accidents  and  contingences  set 
aside,  of  raising  an  animal  that  will  be  creditable  to  lain  as  a  scientific  stock- 
breeder, and  profitable  to  him  in  a  pecuniary  sense." 

With  these  general  remarks  upon  what  we  require  in  breeding,  we  think 
we  may  close  the  section  upon  horses.  "We  hope  what  we  have  given  in  re- 
lation to  breeding  horses  will  be  carefully  studied  and  breeds  compared,  and 
that  what  we  have  said  will  be  just  sufficient  to  awaken  an  interest  that  will 
tend  to  the  improvement  of  this  most  faithful  beast  in  the  service  of  man. 
If  we  have  not  got  the  right  breed,  let  us  inquire  where  is  the  deficiency, 
and  amend  it.  Above  all,  let  us  think  what  purpose  we  are  breeding  for, 
and  not  attempt  to  get  an  animal  suitable  for  a  lady's  saddle  from  an  English 
cart-horse  or  the  Norman  diligence. 

^  169.  Horse-Gearing.— If  a  is'ew  Mexican,  or  even  a  full-blood  North  Caro- 
lina mountaineer,  should  appear  in  the  city  of  New  York  with  his  horse 
harnessed,  as  we  have  have  often  seen,  it  would  attract  much  attention,  as 
the  whole  gearing  might  not  have  a  particle  of  leather  or  iron  in  its  compo- 


120  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


sition,  tlie  collar  being  made  of  braided  corn-shucks,  the  hames  of  natural 
crooked  sticks,  the  traces  of  raw  hide,  fastened  to  the  hames  by  a  hole  and 
a  knot,  and  to  the  wiiitHetree  by  a  loop  around  the  end.  Rude  as  this  gear- 
ing is,  it  answers  a  good  purpose,  and  does  not  gall  or  sweat  the  horse  like 
tlie  great  English  collars,  or  like  those  known  in  our  boyhood  as  the  ''  old 
Dutch  collar,"  whicli  was  so  much  like  the  breeching  of  the  same  harness 
that  it  was  rather  difficult  to  tell  which  belonged  forward  and  wiiich  behind. 

The  old  English  collar,  specimens  of  which  may  be  seen  occasionally  in 
this  country,  was  a  most  cumbersome  piece  of  horse-gearing  which  a  sensible 
man  will  not  be  likely  to  copy.  It  is  made  like  our  American  collars,  only 
very  much  heavier,  and  has  attached  to  its  upper  end  as  an  ornament  two 
pieces  of  stiff  sole  leather  as  big  as  the  skirts  of  a  saddle,  with  a  great  deal 
of  ornamental  stitching  around  its  edge.  Some  of  these  collars  weigh  12  to 
15  lbs.,  and  the  hames  are  furnished  with  two  brass  horns  that  stick  up  sev- 
eral inches  above  the  flap. 

The  Scotch  collars  are  also  made  with  a  great  superfluity  of  leather,  and 
are  very  heavy,  though  differing  in  form  from  the  English  collars. 

The  weight  of  a  Scotch  plow  harness  is  given  in  Stephens'  book  of  "Tlie 
Farm"  at  38  lbs.  "We  have  often  seen  a  horse  equally  well  harnessed  to  a 
plow  in  this  country  when  the  whole  gearing  would  not  weigh  half  as  much, 
nor  cost  half  as  much,  as  an  English  collar.  These  English  collars  are  often 
ornamented  with  red  worsted  fringe  and  tassels,  and  give  a  six-horse  team, 
wearing  bells,  a  very  formidable  appearance. 

We  recommend  as  an  improvement  upon  our  own  light,  easy,  and,  we 
think,  handsome  collars — handsome,  because  fitting  for  their  purpose — that 
they  should  be  made  open  at  the  bottom.  "We  drove  one  pair  of  horses  from 
Chicago  to  Xew  Orleans,  and  from  New  Orleans  to  Kew  York,  making 
many  detours,  and  in  all  driving  some  five  thousand  miles  in  one  journey, 
with  a  pair  of  collars  open  at  the  bottom  ;  and  although  out  in  all  sorts  of 
weather,  never  had  a  sore  shoulder  or  even  chafed  oft'  the  hair.  ?f  either  did 
we  use  breeching  in  all  tliat  journey,  yet  we  traveled  over  some  very  rough 
and  mountainous  roads.  AVe  are  satisfied  that  a  horse  will  hold  back  a  light 
carriage  witii  a  good  strong  padded  girt  as  well  as  M'ith  breeching.  Our  plan 
of  a  harness  is  exactly  the  contrast  of  an  English  one.  Theirs  is,  to  use  up 
all  the  leather  and  labor  possible,  and  oui*s  to  use  just  as  little  as  possible. 
We  do  not  believe  in  blinders,  check-reins,  breeching,  nor  heavy  collars. 
The  harness  should  be  made  as  light  as  it  can  be  and  be  strong.  Strength  is 
an  important  particular.  For  a  farm-wagon  or  plow  harness  we  recommend 
ehort  leather  tugs  and  chains  as  preferable  to  long  tugs  or  long  chains. 

170.  Working  Three  Horses  Abreast.— In  the  north  part  of  this  country  it 
is  not  very  common  to  see  three  horses  worked  abreast.  It  is  quite  common 
in  Louisiana,  particularly  in  working  horses  to  carts.  It  is  much  practiced 
in  England,  and  perhaps  would  be  more  so  here  if  farmers  had  proper  gear- 
ing. We  have  seen  it  practiced  sometimes  by  hitching  the  middle  horse  to 
the  center  of  the  swing-bar.     Tiiis  gives  no  chance  of  equalizing  the  draft 


Sko.  8.]  HORSES  AND  HARNDSS.  121 

between  the  three  horses.  The  English  have  what  are  called  compensating 
bars  between  the  swing-bar  (which  we  call  the  double-tree),  and  the  three 
single-trees,  so  that  eacli  horse  maj  be  seen  to  pull  equal  to  the  others. 

These  bars  should  be  made  of  iron,  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  and  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  Two  of  the  bars  are  each  27  inches  long,  and  these 
are  attached,  as  the  single-tree  usually  is,  to  the  ends  of  the  swing-bar,  by  a 
fulcrum  just  one  third  of  the  length  from  the  outer  end.  Then  a  center 
bar,  20  inches  long,  is  attached  by  working  joints  to  the  ends  of  these  out- 
side bars,  and  tlie  single-tree  of  the  center  liorse  is  attached  to  the  center 
of  this  bar,  and  the  single-trees  of  the  outside  horses  are  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  other  bars.  This  equalizes  the  stra.in  upon  all  the  horses,  for  it 
is  impossible  for  one  to  start  ahead  without  imparting  motion  backward  to 
both  of  the  other  liorses. 

The  irons  of  a  single  or  double-tree  should  always  be  made  so  as  to  clasp 
the  wood,  which  should  never  have  a  hole  bored  tlirough  it  to  pull  by. 

171.  Dimensions  of  Double  and  Singlc-TreeSt — Perhaps  every  farmer  knows 
how  to  gear  a  horse,  and  what  are  the  proper  dimensions  of  a  set  of  double 
or  single-trees.  But  there  are  many  persons  who  take  to  farming  in  after- 
life, and  others  who  may  have  occasion  to  make  this  part  of  a  set  of  horse- 
gearing,  and  these  will  be  glad  to  have  the  following  directions  to  refer  to. 

The  bar  of  a  double-tree  should  be  three  feet  nine  inches  long  and  three 
and  a  half  inches  wide  at  the  center,  and  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick,  .and 
it  should  be  made  of  the  strongest  kind  of  wood  that  can  be  procured,  and 
straight  grained  and  free  from  knots.  The  best  wood  we  have  for  tliis  pur- 
pose is  second  growth  white  ash,  such  as  all  of  our  best  hoe  and  shovel 
handles  ai'e  made  of  in  the  United  States. 

A  single-tree  should  be  three  feet  three  inches  long,  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide,  and  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick.  The  irons  of  double  and  single- 
trees may  be  all  made  of  the  same  form  and  strength  ;  that  is,  a  piece  of  the 
very  best  flat  bar  iron,  one  and  three  quarter  inches  wide  and  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  thick,  is  bent  so  as  to  clasp  around  the  back  part,  and  the  ends 
come  about  two  thirds  of  the  width  toward  the  front  edge,  with  half-inch 
holes  through  the  end  and  through  the'  wood.  In  this  hole  a  piece  of  half- 
inch  iron  is  to  be  inserted  by  tapering  the  ends  so  that  they  will  go  through 
the  hole  from  each  way  and  clinch  fast  on  the  flat  iron,  leaving  the  bend 
forward  so  as  to  form  a  loop  in  which  to  put  the  hook  of  the  single-tree,  or 
the  chain,  or  a  loose  ring,  as  may  be  required.  Tliese  irons  can  not  come 
off,  even  if  they  should  get  loose,  and  the  wood  is  not  likely  to  break,  be- 
cause there  is  no  strain  upon  it.  The  strain  is  all  npon  the  irons,  and  when 
the  loop  wears  out,  a  new  one  is  easily  inserted  in  its  place.  The  center  irons 
of  tlie  double  or  single-treos  are  put  on  after  the  same  fashion, the  loop  of  tlie 
round  iron  being  back,  instead  of  forward,  and  both  the  flat  and  round  irons 
for  the  center  may  be  a  little  stronger  than  the  ends. 

This  plan  is  far  better  than  making  the  irons  to  drive  on  like  a  ring,  fast- 
ening them  by  a  few  stub-nails  driven  in  the  end  of  the  single-tree.     Acci- 


122  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [CnAP.  I. 

dents  often  occur  from  the  irons  of  single-trees,  put  on  like  rings,  getting 
loose  and  working  off.  Such  things  seem  always  to  happen  at  the  most  un- 
propitious  times.  We  knew  one  man  well,  who  lost  his  life  in  consequence 
of  just  such  an  accident.  lie  was  crossing  one  of  the  AVcstern  prairies  upon 
a  cold,  stormy  night,  when  the  accident  occurred,  by  which  he  was  unable 
to  proceed,  and,  as  was  sui)posed,  while  getting  his  horses  loose,  that  he 
might  ride  to  the  nearest  house,  some  miles  distant,  lie  became  so  chilled  as 
to  be  unable  to  mount  on  horseback,  and  before  morning  his  horses  left  him 
alone  to  perish — all  in  consequence  of  having  bad  gearing. 

We  have  ourselves  had  some  very  impleasant  experience  in  our  prairie 
traveling,  arising  from  broken  swing-trees,  and  therefore  warn  you  to  make 
them  very  strong — no  matter  about  the  looks.     Utility  is  everything. 

Plowing  with  four  horses,  though  not  much  practiced  in  this  country,  is 
sometimes  necessary,  and,  for  want  of  practice,  but  few  know  how  to  attach 
four  horses  to  a  jilow  so  as  to  work  in  the  easiest  manner. 

The  common  way  is  to  hitch  the  double-tree  of  the  leading  pair  to  a  hook 
in  the  center  of  the  double-tree  of  the  rear  pair.  Tliis  gives  a  dead  pull  to 
the  leaders  without  affecting  the  other  pair.  To  obviate  this,  and  give  a 
compensating  balance  to  both  pair,  the  following  plan  has  been  adopted : 
Attached  to  the  hook  of  the  plow-beam  is  an  iron  pulley,  about  six  inches 
diameter.  The  chain  from  the  first  set  of  double-trees,  instead  of  being 
hooked  to  the  plow-beam,  is  rove  through  this  pulley,  and  the  end  carried 
forward  and  hooked  to  the  forward  double-trees.  The  working  of  this  is, 
that  neither  pair  can  give  a  dead  pull  independent  of  the  other  pair.  If  you 
touch  up  the  hind  pair  so  that  they  start  suddenly  forward,  the  pull  does 
not  give  the  plow  a  jerk,  because  the  chain  yields  around  the  pulley  and 
soon  draws  back  upon  the  leaders,  giving  them  a  hint  to  press  forward,  and 
thus  keep  the  strain  even.  To  prevent  either  pair  from  drawing  too  much 
of  the  chain  through  the  pulley,  you  can  insert  an  open  ring  into  a  link  at  a 
suitable  distance  on  either  side. 

There  is  no  other  plan  that  we  have  ever  seen  in  operation,  so  simple  as 
this  is,  to  give  a  perfect  equilibrium  and  balance  the  forces  of  each  pair  of 
horses.  In  f\ict,  the  whole  four,  by  the  aid  of  the  swing-trees  and  pulley,  are 
all  kept  in  equilibrium. 

It  will  be  w^ell  for  the  hind  pair  of  horses  to  wear  a  common  wagon  neck- 
yoke,  and  pass  the  chain  that  extends  to  the  double-trees  of  the  forward 
horses  through  the  ring,  or  if  that  is  too  high,  through  a  loop  attached  to 
the  ring.  The  chain  is  sometimes  supported  by  a  strap  swinging  between 
the  rear  horses,  each  end  attached  to  a  back  band  on  to  the  hames. 


PLATE    X. 

(Pase  1123.) 

This  picture  speaks  for  itself,  and  does  credit  to  the  artist.  It  is 
one  that  will  interest  moi-e  persons  than  any  other.  The  descrip- 
tions of  these  fowls  will  be  found  in  Section  IX.,  ^  180,  181,  182, 
together  with  several  other  kinds.  Those  here  illustrated  comprise 
most  of  the  best  improved  varieties,  and  quite  as  many  as  any  farmer 
will  care  to  possess.  By  comparing  the  descriptions  with  the  pic- 
tures, it  will  enable  any  one  to  make  a  suitable  selection.  The  de- 
scription of  poultry  fails  to  give  satisfaction  without  pictorial  aid. 
it  is  here  complete.     We  may  well  feel  proud  of  this  picture. 


n  1 


Sbo.  9.] 


POULTRY. 


123 


SECTION  IX.-POULTRY. 

axims  for  Poultry  Keepers,— Tliose  who  expect  to 

be  Buccessful  in  raising  or  managing  poultry,  or 

hope  to  make  it  a  paying  part  of  farm  business, 

sliould  observe  a  few  simple  rules  wliich  will 

save  them  from  much  disappointment  and  trouble. 

1.  It  is  not  advisable  to  keep  large  numbers  of  hens 
together,  or  go  into  the  poultry  business  on  a  large  scale. 
It  is  found  impracticable  and  unprofitable ;  besides,  they 
can  not  be  kept  in  so  healthy  a  condition  as  where  but 
few  are  together. 

2.  It  is  impossible  to  keep  hens  to  advantage  without 
having  a  properly  arranged  house  for  their  accommoda- 
tion. This  is  as  necessary  as  that  a  farmer  should  have 
a  stable  for  his  cattle  or  a  dwelling  for  his  family. 

3.  In  connection  with  the  house,  a  poultry-yard  should  be  provided,  wliich 
should  contain  a  grass-plot,  gravel,  some  quantities  of  slacked  lime,  and  dry 
ashes. 

4.  Tlie  inside  of  the  poultry-house  should  be  whitewashed  twice  a  year,  or 
'oftener,  which  will  serve  to  keep  it  free  from  vermin,  and  the  hens  will  be 
kept  in  better  condition. 

5.  Pure  water,  in  sufiicient  quantities,  must  be  provided  several  times  a 
day,  in  winter  and  in  summer. 

6.  Feed  should  be  given  at  regular  periods.  To  fatten  fowls,  they  must 
not  be  allowed  to  run  at  large. 

These  rules  are  subject  to  variation  imder  certain  circumstances.  A  new 
settler  in  the  woods  would  not  consider  them  applicable.  It  would  be  more 
profitable  to  let  his  poultry  run  at  large.  So  it  is  upon  all  farms  at  some 
seasons,  but  there  are  but  few  farmers  who  would  not  sometimes  find  it  prof- 
itable to  shut  up  all  his  poultry,  the  gallinaceous  portion  of  it  particularly. 
For  this  purpose  a  poultry-yard  will  be  found  always  a  great  convenience, 
if  not  a  great  profit.  It  should  be  so  constructed  that  its  first  cost  will  not 
be  money  unprofitably  spent.  Many  persons  have  found  it  profitable  to 
have  a  tolerably  large  inclosure  for  poultry,  and  plant  that  with  plum-trees. 
It  is  asserted  that  curculio  insects  never  disturb  plums  upon  such  trees.  It 
is  our  opinion  that  it  would  be  found  very  profitable  to  have  a  portable 
poultry  house  and  yard,  which  could  be  conveniently  moved  from  place  to 
place,  keeping  it  upon  one  spot  one  year,  and  upon  another  the  next.  By 
this  means  some  bad  brier-patches  would  be  subdued,  and  some  poor  spots 
cheaply  enriched. 

If  poultry  are  kept  in  a  yard,  the  ground  should  be  often  dug  up.  If  the 
yard  is  large  enough,  it  may  be  plowed.     It  is  a  good  way  to  have  a  large 


124  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


yard  in  two  parts,  and  plow  and  eow  grain  in  one,  and  when  it  gets  large 
enough  for  the  hens  to  eat,  turn  them  in  and  plow  and  sow  the  other. 

Ileus  that  run  at  large  arc  often  very  troublesome,  sometimes  doing 
''more  mischief  than  their  necks  are  worth."  The  following  device  is  for 
such  mischievous  pests. 

173.  Shoeing  UenSi — "  Ve  observe  a  recent  notice,  in  some  paper,  of  the 
practice  of  making  woolen  shoes  (or  rather  boots),  to  jjrevent  hens  from 
scratching.  A  flock  of  fifty  fowls,  like  our  own,  would  require  considerable 
labor  in  the  manufacture  of  a  hmidred  woolen  boots,  which  might  be  worn 
through  in  a  short  time  and  need  renewing.  It  is  much  better,  we  think,  to 
procure  a  breed  that  will  not  scratch.  There  is  another  point  of  import- 
ance— that  is,  to  keep  the  animals  well  fed  during  the  season  when  scratch- 
ing is  most  feared." 

One  man  says:  "I  keep  from  thirty  to  fifty  of  the  white  Shanghae — a 
very  quiet,  well-behaved,  and  profitable  fowl — and  adopt  the  most  econom- 
ical mode,  namely,  regular  feeding  with  grain ;  and  although  there  is  no 
barrier  between  their  ordinary  range  and  the  kitchen  garden,  they  do  not 
scratch  yearly  enough  to  do  twenty-five  cents'  damage." 

174.  Number  of  Hens  to  Keep,  and  Time  to  Sell. — A  correspondent  of  the 
Illinois  Prairie  Farmer  says:  "We  have  kept  as  many  as  150  fowls,  and 
fed  them  three  pecks  of  shelled  corn  daily.  But  our  experience  has  been, 
tliat  we  could  get  more  than  half  as  many  eggs  from  twenty-five  fowls  as 
we  could  from  one  hundred.  "\Ve  have  carried  chicks  the  size  of  quails  to' 
market  and  found  them  ready  sale  at  twenty-five  cents  each.  We  might 
have  kept  them  four  months  longer,  and  found  them  dull  sale  at  a  dime 
apiece." 

175.  Feeding  Hens  Meat. — We  have  been  advised  to  feed  plenty  of  meat  to 
our  hens,  if  we  wanted  them  to  lay  steadily.  Now  there  is  a  time  to  feed 
meat  and  a  time  not  to  feed  it.  When  the  temperature  is  low  and  the 
ground  is  frozen,  feed  meat,  but  when  the  weather  is  warm,  or  even  mod- 
crate,  if  the  chickens  can  scratch  the  ground  and  find  worms  and  insects, 
Ihoy  need  no  meat.  The  insects  and  worms  furnish  meat  sufficient,  and  too 
much  in  many  cases,  causing  them  to  lay  eggs  without  any  shell.  They 
should  then  have  plenty  of  lime  or  old  mortar,  gravel,  etc. 

Young  chickens  generally  do  best  in  coops,  raised  some  inches  from  the 
ground,  until  they  arc  six  or  eight  weeks  old ;  if  they  droop  after  this,  the 
next  hour  of  warm  sunshine  will  bring  them  up  again.  A.  correspondent 
says,  the  last  time  he  tried  to  raise  them  on  the  ground,  he  lost  59  out  of 
60.  He  has  often  raised  60  or  70  at  a  tiine  since  without  losing  one,  simply 
by  cooping  them  away  from  the  ground  until  six  weeks  old. 

A  writer  in  the  English  Agricultural  Gazette  recommends  that  a  piece  of 
iron  be  kept  constantly  in  the  water  to  which  fowls  have  access.  Iron  rust, 
he  says,  is  an  excellent  tonic.  A  roll  of  brimstone  is  also  recommended  to 
be  kept  in  the  water. 

17G.  How  to  Keep  Hens  Shut  up. — It  is  one  of  the  most  important  matters 


Sec.  9.]  POULTRY.  125 

abont  poultry  keeping,  particularly  to  small  farinei-s  and  villagers,  to  know 
how  to  keep  liens  in  confinement.  It  is  very  convenient  for  many  persons 
who  could  not  allow  them  to  run  at  lai'ge  to  annoy  themselves  and  neigh- 
bors, to  keep  enough  to  supply  the  family  witli  fresh  eggs,  and  pe.haps  a 
few  chickens. 

As  conlinement  is  an  unnatural  condition  for  fowls,  it  is  often  an  un- 
healthy condition.  The  question  is,  can  they  be  kept  shut  up  in  close  quar- 
ters and  keep  healthy?  If  large  numbers  are  together,  they  are  very  apt  to 
get  a  disease  which  makes  them  lose  their  feathers.  Sometimes  they  pull 
them  off  of  one  another.  Great  attention  should  bo  paid  to  cleanliness, 
where  fowls  are  shut  up.  Lime  for  the  hens  to  oat — limo  scattered  over  the 
floor — lime  used  as  whitewash,  should  never  be  neglected.  The  following 
rules  are  very  good : 

1st.  Do  not  keep  more  than  ten  hens  confined  in  one  small  yard.  They 
will  be  more  profitable  than  fifty.  If  you  wish  to  keep  a  large  number,  have 
several  places  for  tliem. 

2d.  Do  not  confine  them  in  a  damp  or  shaded  place,  but  in  a  dry  one, 
Avhere  they  can  have  both  shade  and  sunshine.     The  latter  is  very  important. 

3d.  As  they  can  not  remove  from  the  filth  that  accumulates,  it  should  be 
removed  from  them.  There  is  no  permanent  success  in  keeping  fowls  in 
confinement  without  the  utmost  neatness.  Their  droppings  should  be  d  lily 
removed  from  the  roosting-place,  and  the  yard  should  be  well  littered  with 
fresh  straw,  tan,  or  other  material,  as  often  as  is  necessary. 

4th.  The  hen  is  omnivorous — that  is,  she  eats  almost  everything ;  insects, 
flesh,  grain,  and  fruit  are  taken  with  avidity.  All  attempts,  therefore,  to 
confine  hens  to  a  single  article  of  diet  will  fail.  Give  them  a  good  su])ply 
of  grain  and  butchers'  scraps,  boiled  potatoes,  sour  milk,  and  the  refuse  of 
the  kitchen,  and  during  the  summer  months  an  occasional  taste  of  fruit,  and, 
in  addition,  egg-shells  and  03'ster-shells  crushed  ;  or,  if  you  can  not  get 
these,  pound  up  the  bone's  that  always  collect  about  3'ards.  It  is  wonderful 
with  Avhat  avidity  fowls,  especially  M-hen  confined,  will  eat  broken  bones. 

5tli.  Pleniy  of  clean  water  is  always  necessary.  Stagnant  or  filthy  wa*er 
will  not  do.  It  alone  is  sufiicieut  to  cause  disease.  Running  water  is  be:rt, 
but  clean,  fresh  water  will  answer. 

6th.  Exercise  is  quite  an  important  part  of  the  plan.  Turn  them  out  an 
hour  before  sunset  to  pick  up  insects,  gravel,  and  other  substances,  and  it 
will  quicken  their  circulation  and  add  much  to  their  powers  of  resisting  dis- 
ease. We  have  heard  a  poultry  keeper  say,  who  followed  these  rules,  that 
with  him  the  balance-sheet  gave  a  large  profit. 

Although  the  above  remarks  are  applicable  principally  to  residents  of 
towns  or  villages,  yet  wc  would  like  to  add  a  word  for  the  benefit  of  farmeis. 
How  few  of  them  keep  poultry  at  a  profit !  Indeed,  as  generally  kept  about 
the  farm,  with  free  range  of  the  barn,  grain,  and  often  ])ortions  of  the  house, 
they  are  of  no  profit,  and  very  often  arc  an  almost  intolerable  nuisance. 

177.  The  Food  of  Fowls. — This  is  a  very  important  question.      A  great 


126  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


many  expedients  have  been  resorted  to  in  order  to  cheapen  the  food  of  fowls. 
Cliiindlers'  greaves  arc  hargely  used  by  parties  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
to  fatten  poultry  for  market.  These  are  good  for  an  occasional  feeding,  I)ut 
for  exclusive  food  we  have  our  doubts,  and  think  others  will,  after  reading 
the  following  extract: 

178.  Arc  Fowls  Wholesome  which  are  Fed  on  Putrid  Meat?— Such  is  tlie 
question  considered  by  Dr.  Uuchosnc  in  the  January  number  of  the  A7inal€s 
d- Hygiene  PuhUquc. 

It  is  well  known  that  man  can  not  indulge  in  putrid  meat  with  impunity, 
and  numerous  cases  are  on  record  where  accidents  have  occurred  from  this 
kind  of  food.  Little  is  known,  however,  of  the  cflects  produced  by  the  flesh 
of  animals  otherwise  in  good  health,  but  nourished  with  flesli  in  a  state  of 
j)utrefaction.  Certain  animals  can  undoubtedly  be  nourished  on  such  putrid 
nuittcrs  ;  but  it  is  important,  in  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  to  determine  the 
modifications  wliicli  the  exclusive  use  of  putrid  viands  may  produce  in  the 
quality  and  the  preservability  of  fowls  destined  for  the  market. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  complaint  against  a  farmer  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Paris,  Dr.  Duchesne  visited  liis  establishment  on  a  warm  day  in  July,  and 
toward  the  afternoon.  The  food  of  the  poultry  he  found  to  consist  of  flesh 
in  a  state  of  putrid  decomposition,  which  had  been  obtained  from  the 
slaughter-houses  of  Paris.  The  fat  is  first  removed  by  cooking,  and  bran  is 
added;  and  this  mixture  is  given  morning  and  evening  to  the  fowls,  who 
iiglit  for  it  with  avidity.  A  very  fetid  odor  came  from  the  barrels  in  M-hich 
llio  food  was  contained,  from  the  vessels  where  it  was  supplied  to  the  fowls, 
and  also  from  the  ground  round  about  them.  The  fowls,  however,  appeared 
to  be  in  perfect  health.  Dr.  Duchesne  supplied  himself  with  three  eggs  laid 
tiiat  day,  and  also  with  a  fowl  and  duck  of  a  year  old,  which  were  killed 
before  him.  In  three  hours'  time  the  poultry  gave  out  a  very  strong  odor, 
and  the  intestines  were  so  offensive  that  they  had  to  be  removed  to  a  dis- 
tance. Decomposition  rapidly  set  in.  Tiic  fowl,  at  the  end  of  twenty  hours 
after  being  cooked,  had  an  unpleasant,  strong  taste,  and  the  duck,  at  the  end 
of  twenty-four  hours,  was  in  such  a  state  that  it  could  not  be  eaten.  Next 
da}',  when  the  flesh  was  cold,  and  the  smell  abated,  portions  of  the  duck 
were  partaken  of  by  the  servants.  The  eggs,  too,  were  found,  if  kept  a  rea- 
sonable time,  to  become  very  unpalatable.  In  fine,  it  was  shown  that 
though  fowls  nourished  in  this  way  were  apparently  healthy,  and  could  be 
eaten  at  a  pinch  without  great  inconvenience,  yet  that  it  was  most  probable 
that  the  continued  use  of  such  articles  of  diet  would  be  attended  with  danger. 
The  Council  of  Health  at  once  interdicted  the  sale  of  fowls  fed  in  this  ob- 
jectionable manner. 

Dr.  Duchesne  continued  his  inquiries  at  the  great  knackery  of  Aubcrvil- 
liers,  where  pigs  and  fowls  are  fed  in  great  numbers  on  flesh,  raw  and 
cooked,  and  where  similar  animals  arc  reared  on  a  mixed  food,  consisting  of 
flesh  and  grain.  The  results  of  his  observations  arc  embodied  in  the  follow- 
ing conclusions: 


Sko.  9.]  POULTRY.  127 

1.  Fowls  and  pigs  may  be  fed  on  sound  flesh,  raw  and  cooked  ;  on  flesh, 
raw  and  cooked,  of  animals  affected  with  contagious  diseases,  as  glanders, 
malignant  pustule,  hydrophobia,  etc. ;  and  even  on  flesh,  raw  or  cooked,  in 
a  very  advanced  state  of  putrefaction,  without  any  alteration  in  their  health. 

2.  Cliickens  are  feared  with  difficulty  if  their  food  be  restricted  to  flesh, 
raw  or  cooked,  even  when  sound  ;  and  a  larger  number  of  them  perish  than 
when  fed  on  ordinary  kinds  of  food. 

3.  The  eggs  of  fowls  thus  nourished  are  as  palatable  as  the  eggs  of  fowls 
nourished  in  the  common  way.  The  shell,  however,  is  thinner  and  more 
easily  broken. 

4.  The  flesh  of  fowls  and  pigs  nourished  on  flesh  raw  or  cooked,  is  softer, 
more  diflicult  to  preserve,  and  the  fat  is  yello-iv  and  more  diffluent. 

5.  The  doctor  has  still  doubts  as  to  the  absolute  wholesomeness  of  fowls 
and  pigs  fed  on  animals  dying  of  glanders,  etc.,  and  recommends  that  the 
use  of  the  flesh  of  such  animals  should  be  prohibited  for  the  rearing  of  fowls 
and  pigs. 

6.  The  use  of  flesh  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  for  similar  purposes,  should 
be  absolutely  prohibited  as  unwholesome. 

7.  Fowls  should  not  be  fed  too  long  or  too  abundantly'  on  worms,  cater- 
pillars, beetles,  etc.,  as  such  food  communicates  a  strong  taste  to  the  flesh. 

8.  The  continued  use  of  flesh,  otherwise  healthy,  and  either  raw  or  cooked, 
ultimately  injures  the  growth  of  the  fowls  and  the  quality  of  their  flesh. 

9.  The  best  method  of  rearing  undoubtedly  is,  to  give  flesh  but  once  a 
day,  and  to  finish  with  a  meal  of  grain. 

10.  For  market  use,  the  use  of  flesh  should  be  stopped,  and  the  fowls  re- 
stricted for  some  time  to  the  use  of  a  vegetalde  diet. 

179.  (Iioice  of  a  CocU. — In  breeding,  the  choice  of  a  cock  is  a  very  import- 
ant matter.  The  following  arc  some  of  the  "  points"  insisted  upon  by 
poultry  fanciers : 

It  is  accounted  that  he  has  every  requisite  quality,  when  he  is  of  good 
size,  carries  his  head  high,  has  a  quick  and  animated  look,  a  strong,  shrill 
voice,  the  bill  thick  and  short,  the  comb  a  fine  red,  and  in  a  manner  var- 
nished ;  a  membraneous  wattle  of  a  large  size,  and  colored  the  same  as  the 
comb,  the  breast  broad,  the  wings  strong,  the  thighs  very  muscular,  the  legs 
thick,  the  claws  with  nails  rather  bent,  and  with  a  very  keen  point ;  when 
he  is  free  in  his  motions,  crows  often,  and  scratches  the  earth  with  vigor  and 
is  constantly  in  search  of  worms— not  so  much  for  himself  as  his  mates— 
when  he  is  spirited,  ardent,  and  clever  in  caressing  them,  quick  in  defending 
them,  attentive  in  soliciting  them  to  eat,  in  keeping  them  together  in  the 
day,  and  assembling  them  at  night. 

There  are  some  cocks,  which,  by  being  too  high  mettled,  are  snappish  and 
quarrelsome.  The  way  to  quiet  the  turbulent  ones  is  plain  :  their  foot  must 
be  put  through  a  leather,  in  a  round  shape ;  they  become  as  quiet  as  men 
who  are  fettered  at  their  hands,  feet,  and  neck. 

180.  The  Varieties  of  Common  Fowls.— As  to  the  variety  to  be  chosen,  that 


128  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  L 

must  be  left  to  the  fancy  of  those  who  arc  to  raise  the  fowls.  In  a  farmer's 
family,  this  will  generally  be  the  female  portion  of  it,  and  the  gudcwife  or 
children  who  take  the  fowls  under  their  charge,  should  be  consulted.  At 
least  the  different  varieties  should  be  made  known  to  them,  by  placing  in 
their  hands  some  good  treatise  upon  poultry.  Several  volumes  have  been 
published,  with  portraits  and  full  descriptions,  and  how  to  conduct  the 
business  of  poultry  raising  on  a  large  or  small  scale.  "We  can  not  give  this 
information  in  full ;  we  will  only  name  the  several  sorts  which  are  to  be 
found  among  poultry  fanciers  in  this  country,  with  short  descriptions,  and  re- 
fer readers,  for  comparison  of  size  and  form,  to  the  beautiful  engraved  illus- 
trations of  varieties,  found  in  standard  English  works  on  Domestic  Poultry. 

181.  The  Shan^hae  and  China  Breed. — A  few  years  ago  a  good  many 
people  in  this  country,  afflicted  with  the  "  hen  fever,"  went  into  ecstasies  over 
tlie  Shanghae,  or  China,  breed  of  fowls,  some  of  which  are  enormously  large. 
Cocks  are  spoken  of  as  being  twenty-eight  inches  high.  The  wings  are 
short,  and  placed  high  upon  the  body.  The  tail  is  short,  with  a  thick  clump 
of  feathers  over  the  root  of  tlie  tail  feathers.  The  cocks  have  large  combs 
aiul  wattles ;  the  hens  are  seldom  large.  The  legs  are  feathered.  The  eggs 
are  not  large  in  proportion  over  the  size  of  eggs  of  our  old-style  fowls  ;  the 
color  is  nankeen,  and  the  ends  rather  blunt. 

Those  who  breed  Shanghae  fowls  consider  the  flesh  very  good,  and  the 
full-grown  bodies  of  cocks  weigh  eight  or  ten  pounds,  and  pullets  si.x  or 
eiglit  pounds.  There  are  varieties  of  colors  aniong  the  Shanghaes — some 
ht'ing  pure  white  ;  others,  a  reddish  brown,  etc. 

The  variety  known  as  Cochin-China  fowls  differ  very  much  in  quality, 
habits,  and  general  appearance  from  the  Shanghaes,  to  whicli  they  are  closely 
relaied.  Their  eggs  are  nearly  the  same  shape,  size,  and  color.  Tlie  main 
difference  is  in  the  somewhat  deeper  and  fuller  breast,  aild  being  generally 
smooth-legged.  They  also  have  the  same  liollow,  harsh  voice,  when  crow- 
ing, in  their  peculiar  sonorous  tone,  long  drawn  out,  and  very  unlike  the 
shrill  ringing  clarion  of  our  old-style  barn-door  cock. 

The  Malay,  or  Chittagong,  is  another  name  of  one  of  the  varieties  of  the 
China  breed  of  fowls,  which  are  supposed  to  be  larger  than  the  Cochins ; 
the  size,  by  weight,  accorded  to  some  of  them  seems  enormous. 

We  believe  the  variety  called  Malay  fowls  are  considered  identical  with 
the  variety  called  Chittagong.  Tiie  full-grown  Malay  cock  is  said  to  weigh 
12  lbs.,  and  the  hens  8  to  10  lbs.  They  are  of  all  shades  of  color,  and  have 
small,  thick  combs  and  small  wattles,  and  no  top-knot ;  tlie  legs  not  feath- 
ered. Their  eggs  are  larger  than  those  of  the  other  large  varieties.  The 
crow  of  the  Malay  cock  is  loud  and  harsh,  but  terminates  abruptly. 

182.  Ornamental  Varieties  of  Fowls> — As  the  China  breed,  which  we  have 
described,  can  not  be  said  to  be  ornamental  around  a  genteel  farm-hous©  or 
rural  residence,  we  will  name  some  which  are  so,  and  at  the  same  time  are, 
at  least  some  of  them,  very  valuable  for  all  domestic  purposes.  The  general 
appearance  of  the  various  sorts  may  be  judged  from  reading  the  short  notes 


Sec.  9.]  POULTRY.  129 

wliicli  we  append.  The  most  oraamental  thing  about  a  yard  full  of  fowls 
is  to  have  them  all  of  one  variety  ;  for  instance,  Dominiques,  all  looking  so 
much  alike  that  individuals  would  be  hardly  distinguishable. 

The  Pheasant-Malay  is  the  name  given  to  a  variety  of  imported  fowls, 
wliich  are  esteemed  by  some  as  quite  desirable,  particularly  as  ornamental 
stock.  They  are  called  good  layers,  good  sitters,  and  good  mothers.  The 
cocks  have  black  tails,  and  black  on  the  neck  and  wings.  Full-sized  eggs 
v\-eigh  two  ounces  each.  The  newly  hatched  chicks  are  yellow,  with  a  black 
mark  down  the  back.  Some  of  the  hens  are  described  as  of  a  pheasant 
color,  with  long  velvety  black  necks. 

Gudderland  fowls  is  the  name  of  another  variety  ;  they  are  jet  black  in 
the  plumage,  without  combs,  and  small  wattles  ;  bodies  short  and  plump ; 
legs  long  and  feathered ;  eggs  large,  white,  oval-shaped,  and  rich.  The 
hens  are  not  esteemed  good  layers  nor  sitters.  This  variety  comes  from  the 
north  of  Holland. 

The  Dorlcings. — This,  in  our  opinion,  is  one  of,  if  not  the,  best  varieties  we 
have  in  this  country  for  the  every-day  purposes  of  farmers.  It  is  the  sort 
mostly  used  for  caponizing  in  England.  There  are  white,  gray,  and  brown 
Dorkings.  The  legs  are  white  or  flesh-colored,  smooth,  and  terminate  in 
Jive  toes.  They  feed  well,  to  a  good  size,  and  the  flesh  is  considered  partic- 
ularly delicate.  The  cock's  comb  is  large  and  erect,  and  deep  serrated,  free 
from  top-knot ;  wattles,  large.  They  are  noted  for  hardiness  ;  are  prolific, 
and  chickens  easily  raised.  The  eggs  are  large,  pure  white,  very  round,  and 
nearly  equal  in  size  at  the  ends.  The  chicks  are  brownish  yellow,  with  a 
broad  stripe  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  a  narrower  one  on  each  side  ; 
feet  and  legs  yellow. 

Black  Spajiisk  is  the  name  of  a  variety  of  very  ornamental  as  well  as 
useful  fowls.  The  plumage  is  glossy  black ;  the  combs  of  both  cocks  and 
hens  large  and  red ;  and  their  general  appearance  spirited  and  handsome. 
They  have  a  singular  mark,  which  distinguishes  the  variety — it  is  a  white 
mark  on  each  cheek,  not  of  feathers,  but  a  fleshy  substance,  which  in  the 
cocks  is  very  conspicuous.  The  hens  are  great  layers,  but  not  inclined  to 
sit.  Tlie  eggs  are  large  and  white,  and  so  is  their  skin  and  flesh,  which  is 
tender  and  juicy.  The  chicks  are  black,  with  a  white  spot  on  the  breast, 
and  are  long  in  getting  feathered  ;  so  none  but  early  spring  chickens  should 
be  attempted,  and  these  must  be  obtained  by  setting  hens  of  another  variety 
upon  the  Spanish  eggs. 

Game  Fowls. — There  are  several  distinctly  marked  sorts  of  game  fowls — ■ 
black,  white,  gray,  and  brown,  all  having  the  same  general  cliaracteristies, 
the  most  marked  of  which  is  pugnaciousness.  The  general  size  is  3^  to  5i 
lbs.  Tiie  eggs  are  smaller  than  the  eggs  of  the  most  common  fowls,  uni- 
formly shaped,  and  cook  rich  and  delicate.  In  form  the  game  fowl  is  tlio 
handsomest  of  the  race.  The  head  is  thin  and  long  ;  eyes  large  and  full ; 
beak  stout  and  crooked  ;  long  neck  ;  body  compact,  short,  and  round  in  the 
breast ;    thighs  thick,  stout,  handsome,  taper-sliaped ;   legs  long  and  thick 

9 


130  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

and  colored  like  the  beak;  feet  thin,  broad,  strong,  with  very  long  claws. 
Tlie  cock  walks  with  a  proud,  defiant  courage,  and  appears  always  ready  for 
a  fight.  It  is  a  good  variety  to  breed  from  for  domestic  purposes,  if  care  is 
taken  not  to  allow  cocks  of  any  other  sort  upon  the  premises,  and  not  to 
allow  cocks  ever  to  be  pitted  against  each  other. 

The  Mexicans  appear  to  have  a  variety  of  game  fowls  quite  distinct  from 
the  English  varieties.  It  was  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1S44, 
by  General  "Waddy  Thompson,  of  South  Carolina.  The  cocks  and  hens  have 
but  few  marks  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  The  original  stock  are 
pheasant-colored,  and  in  some  of  those  bred  iu  South  Carolina,  black  tail 
feathei-s,  and  a  tendency  to  gray  or  light  j-ellow  j^lumage.  This  variety  are 
great  fighters ;  they  have  strong,  muscular  frames,  and  are  quick  and  firm 
in  action.  The  cocks  have  large  lustrous  eyes  and  strong  bills  and  upright 
combs.  The  hens  are  good  layers  and  sitters,  and  good  nurses.  This  is  the 
breed  of  game-cocks  patronized  by  General  Santa  Anna,  who  was  the  great- 
est cock-fighter  iu  Mexico. 

The  Java  fowl  is  a  very  large  variety,  of  black  color,  said  to  be  found, 
though  probably  not  pure,  on  Long  Island,  and  around  Philadelphia.  They 
are  sometimes  called  Saddle-backs,  on  account  of  being  so  bi'oad  across  the 
rump. 

The  Jersey  Blue  is  the  name  of  a  variety  quite  common  in  New  Jersey, 
the  excellence  of  which  is  so  great,  that  anything  particularly  good  is  figura- 
tively spoken  of  as  "  one  of  the  old  blue  hen's  chickens."  The  color  is  light 
blue,  sometimes  approaching  a  dun ;  legs  generally  dark,  and  sometimes 
lightly  feathered.     Cocks  weigli  7  to  9  lbs. ;  and  hens,  6  to  8  lbs. 

The  Poland  foivh  take  their  name,  not  from  Poland,  but  from  a  resem- 
blance to  the  tuft  of  white  feathers  worn  by  Polish  soldiei-s.  They  are 
glossy  black,  except  the  top-knot,  which  resembles  a  full,  white  rose.  Like 
the  Black  Spanish,  the  Polauds  are  great  layers  and  bad  sitters.  The  skin 
and  flesh  are  wliite,  and  good  for  the  table.  The  cocks  weigh  4  to  4}  lbs.,  and 
hens,  3  to  3i  lbs.  Their  form  is  plump,  and  legs  not  very  long,  being  well- 
proportioned  and  liandsonic-shajjed,  and  they  are  ])articularly  ornamental 
to  a  country  seat.  The  eggs  are  of  good  size^  and  white,  but  though  abun- 
dant, are  not  as  rich  as  some  others. 

Another  variety  of  the  so-called  Poland  fowls  arc  white,  with  black  top- 
knots ;  and  another  sort  are  gold-spangled.  These  are  exceedingly  orna- 
mental ;  the  crest  being  large,  golden,  and  brown ;  legs,  light  blue,  and 
toes  partially  webbed. 

The  Silver  Polands  are  spangled  with  silver  instead  of  gold,  and  the  hens 
are  the  most  ornamental.     Even  the  chicks  of  this  variety  are  pretty. 

The  Poland  variety  of  fowls  are  only  fit  for  neat  places,  where  they  can 
run  upon  grassy  yards  or  lawns.  In  dirty  pens  the  crest  becomes  loaded 
with  dirt,  and  blinds  the  jjoor  birds.  Where  they  can  run  at  large  around 
the  house,  even  if  the  hens  were  not,  as  they  are,  such  good  layers,  they 
might  well  be  kept  for  ornament  alone. 


Sko.  9.]  POULTRY.  131 

The  Spangled  Haniburg  fowls  are  another  ornamental  variety,  witli  top- 
knots and  beautiful  plumage,  both  gold  and  silver  spangled.  The  weight 
of  male  birds  is  about  4i  or  5  lbs.,  aud  the  hens,  3  or  Sj  lbs.  The  cock 
stands  twenty  inches  high,  and  heu  eighteen  inches. 

The  Bolton  Gray  is  another  ornamental  variety,  and  also  a  very  useful 
one,  the  heus  being  excellent  layers.  They  are  said  to  have  come  from 
Holland  to  Bolton,  England.  Tlio  color  is  remarkable  ;  the  ground  work 
pure  white,  delicately  penciled  with  black  over  the  body.  The  neck  is 
white,  and  heads  surmounted  with  large,  red,  serrated  combs.  The  weight 
of  cocks  may  be  4  to  4i  lbs.,  and  hens,  3  to  3j  lbs.  They  belong  to  the 
small-sized  varieties,  but  are  the  most  perfect  patterns  of  neatness  and  sym- 
metrical beauty  of  the  domestic  fowl  family.  The  chicks  are  white,  except 
a  dark  streak  on  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck,  which  seems  curious,  as, 
when  grown,  the  necks  are  white  and  bodie?  marked  with  black.  The 
cliicks  are  rather  hard  to  raise.  The  eggs  are  small,  tapering  at  one  end, 
and  pure  white. 

The  Sill-y  fowls  are  also  classed  among  the  ornamental,  and  comprise  sev- 
eral varieties,  originating  in  India.  Some  have  white  plumage,  with  dark 
skin  and  bones.  The  combs  of  some  are  black,  with  black  plumage  and 
black  bones  ;  and  the  feathers  are  so  unlike  feathers,  the  hens  get.tlie  name 
of  silky.     They  are  not  considered  a  valuable  bird. 

The  Frizzled  fowls  is  another  variety,  but  not  one  that  we  can  recommend 
any  one  to  cultivate.  This  sort  may  be  known  by  the  description  given  to 
us  when  wc  first  saw  any  of  the  kind  in  our  boyhood,  and  asked  the  reason 
of  their  singular  appearance,  and  were  told  that  the  chickens  got  turned  in 
the  shell  in  an  earthquake,  which  upset  things  generally  and  turned  the 
chickens'  fcvitliers  wrong  end  foremost.  That  is  the  appearance  of  the  pure 
breed.  Every  feather  looks  as  though  it  had  been  curled  and  turned  wrong 
end  foremost  with  a  pair  of  sucli  curling-tongs  as  the  girls  used  to  frizzle 
their  hair  with  in  olden  time.  To  onr  mind,  the  Frizzles  are  ugly  beasts, 
not  worth  raising  on  account  of  any  good  qualities,  and  only  to  be  indulged 
in  by  those  who  can  afford  to  keep  curiosities. 

The  Cuclioofowl  is  a  variety  found  in  some  English  farm-yards,  and  per- 
haps in  this  countiy.  It  has  a  barred  plumage,  somewhat  resembling  the 
breast  of  a  cuckoo.  The  general  color  is  a  slate  blue,  tinged  with  white  ;  the 
comb  is  small ;  the  iris  of  tlie  eyes,  bright  orange  ;  feet  and  legs,  light  flesh 
color;  so  that  it  will  be  seen  that  the  breed  is  rather  an  ornamental  one. 
The  birds  grow  to  a  large  size  ;  the  eggs  are  very  white,  smooth,  and  about 
two  ounces  weight. 

The  Blue  Dun  fowls  originated  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  and  are  rather  an 
ornamental  variety,  under  size,  slender  made,  with  higli,  deeply  serrated, 
single  combs.  Sometimes  the  Blue  Dun  cock  is  gold  or  scarlet  spangled, 
and  very  pretty.  The  hens  are  good  layers,  and  make  good  pets.  The 
cocks  are  rather  gamy.  The  hens  are  good  mothers,  and  the  chicks  are  real 
little  curiosities.     This  variety  is  esteemed  for  the  table. 


132 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


[Chap.  I. 


The  Large-Crested  fowl  is  another  old  Eiif^lish  ornamental  variety,  tlic  crest 
boin£;  larj^er  than  the  Polands,  and  the  fowls  of  various  colors,  some  of  them 
very  brilliant  white — more  dazzling  than  the  white  Guinea  fowl,  which  gives 
them  and  the  homestead  where  they  are  kept  a  very  lively  appearance. 
When  dressed  for  market,  their  ajjpearance  is  very  clean  and  attractive. 
Tlicir  general  good  fjiialities  make  them  favorites  upon  many  a  farm  in 
England. 

The  BantamH  are  also  rated  among  the  ornamental  fowls.  Some  of  them 
arc  really  so.  The  Sebrights  have  beautiful  plumage  of  a  delicate  speckled 
dark  and  golden  color.  There  are  also  black,  white,  and  nankeen  colored 
bantams.  Tlieir  model  is  perfect  and  plumage  beautiful,  and  of  only  about 
a  pound  average  M-eight  for  the  hens,  and  one  and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a 
half  pounds  for  cocks.  They  are  great  pets  with  many  persons  in  England, 
and  are  held  at  fabidous  prices.  The  bantams  are  good  layers,  and  good 
sitters,  and  good  mothers.  Some  of  the  cocks  are  very  gamy.  We  de- 
cidedly approve  of  keeping  bantams  as  ornaments  of  the  farm-yard.  And 
we  recommend  that  the  feather-legged  variety  be  avoided,  as  they  are  not 
60  neat  in  muddy  weather  in  their  appearance  as  the  naked-legged  sort. 
The  color  is  a  mere  matter  of  taste. 

Tiie  Dominique  fowl  is  not  only  an  ornament.al  variety,  but  a  veiy  good 
one  for  evcry-day  purposes  on  the  farm.  The  true  color  is  a  peculiar  ar- 
rangement of  white  and  blue,  that  gives  a  sort  of  greenish  tint  to  the 
plumage.  The  combs  are  double  ;  the  wattles  small ;  tlie  legs  white  or  yel- 
low. The  Dominiques  are  hardy  ;  above  medium  size  ;  very  domestic  ;  and 
the  hens  are  good  layers,  and  most  excellent  sitters  and  mothers  ;  the  eggs 
good  size  and  quality,  and  the  birds  excellent  for  the  table. 

There  are  many  other  sorts  of  ornamental  fowls  not  entirely  worthy  of 
recommendation  for  domestication  in  this  country — among  which  is  the 
Bankiva  cock,  from  the  East  Indies,  of  the  bantam  order,  but  twice  as  large 
as  the  common  bantams. 

The  Forlccd-Tail  cock  is  another  India  variety,  something  like  the  Bankiva 
cock.     This  is  a  wild  sort  in  Java. 

Sonerat''s  wild  code  is  also  an  Indian  variety,  which  lias  been  attempt- 
ed to  be  domesticated  on  account  of  its  beautiful  plumage,  whicli  is  a  deep 
gray,  tinged  with  lighter  gray  on  the  edges,  with  deep  green  tails ;  beak, 
legs,  and  feet  yellow. 

183.  Chicken  CoopSt — "  Anybody  knows  how  to  make  a  chicken  coop."  No 
he  don't.  Not  one  farmer  in  ten  can  make  a  decent  chicken  coop.  Conse- 
quently, old  barrels  and  boxes  are  substituted.  They  may  be  "good  enough  ;" 
they  are  not  ornamental,  and  for  ornamental  poultry  you  should  have  orna- 
mental coops.  To  make  a  convenient,  light  coop,  take  half  or  three-eighth- 
inch  boards,  six  inches  wide,  and  nail  them  upon  posts  exactly  like  siding 
on  a  house,  if  that  is  the  way  your  house  and  farm  buildings  arc  sided,  so  as 
to  have  a  uniformity.  If  buildings  are  boarded  up  and  down  with  battens, 
make  coops  in  the  same  way.     Board  three  sideA-lose,  and  the  other  side  fix 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  133 

■with  slats  two  inclics  wide  and  two  inclies  apart,  with  extra  slats  that  can  be 
shoved  in  between,  being  held  in  place  by  a  bar  in  front  at  top,  and  one  at 
bottom.  One  of  the  other  slats  should  also  be  made  movable,  so  it  can 
be  raised  to  allow  the  hen  to  go  in  and  out.  If  the  coop  id  double,  which  we 
prefer,  make  a  movable  slat  for  each  room.  The  dimensions  of  a  double 
coop  may  be  two  feet  long,  one  and  a  half  feet  wide,  one  and  a  half  feet 
high  on  the  back,  and  two  feet  in  front,  with  a  close  partition  in  the  middle. 
Make  the  roof  of  live  pieces  of  boards — one  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  mid- 
dle, nailed  fast,  and  two  others  hinged  and  buttoned  down  on  the  others,  so 
as  to  make  openings  about  six  inches  wide  into  the  coops.  One  room  is  for 
the  nest  'and  one  for  the  brood.  If  two  liens  are  very  docile,  they  may  oc- 
cupy one  coop.  Outside  of  the  front  slats  nail  a  little  trough,  one  foot  long, 
to  serve  both  rooms  for  water,  which  will  be  comeatable  outside  and  in. 
These  are  the  dimensions  of  a  coop  of  the  smallest  size,  which  will  be  so 
light  that  a  child  can  move  it  from  place  to  place.  It  should  have  a  floor ; 
and  if  rats  are  troublesome,  it  can  be  set  up  from  the  ground,  particularly  at 
night.  The  dimensions  in  length  may  be  increased  as  much  as  desired.  Set 
it  face  to  the  sun,  and  in  case  of  storm,  or  in  cold  nights,  close  all  the  slats, 
leaving  open  a  hole  in  each  end,  high  up,  about  two  inches  square  or  round, 
for  ventilation.  If  you  wish  to  raise  your  chickens  without  a  mother,  line 
one  room  of  the  coop  with  old  carpet,  and  put  a  board,  covered  with  woolly 
sheep-skin,  about  six  or  eight  inches  square,  in  one  corner,  just  high  enough 
for  tiie  chicks  to  creep  under,  and  look  well  to  them  for  a  few  days,  and  they 
will  do  better  than  with  a  bad  mother.  As  they  grow  large  enough  to  go 
out  of  doors,  let  them  in  a.small  yard,  in  front  of  the  coop,  to  scratch  and 
bask  in  the  sun.  The  best  fence  for  such  a  yard  is  wove-wire,  one  and  a 
half  or  two  feet  high.  With  nice,  warm,  dry  coops,  early  chickens  can  be 
raised  almost  as  sure  as  late  ones,  and  where  grown  for  sale,  will  generally 
sell  for  as  much  when  half  grown  as  late  ones  will  full  grown. 

Stoves  in  Chicken- Houses. — It  has  been  found  profitable,  in  raising  early 
chickens,  to  use  artificial  warmth.  A  small,  Avarm  room,  warmed  in  cold 
weather  by  a  stove,  so  as  to  keep  the  temperature  at  about  55  degrees, 
will  allow  you  to  set  your  hens  in  January  or  February,  and  get  chickens 
which  will  sell,  when  the  size  of  quails  (say  75  cents  a  pair),  for  as  much  as 
old  fowls.  These  warm-house  chickens  must  not  be  allowed  to  run  out  in 
the  cold  or  wet  grass,  but  will  be  benefited  by  allowing  them  to  run  out  in 
the  sun.  If  we  made  a  business  of  raising  poultry  for  market,  we  would  set 
hens  in  a  stove-room  all  winter.  A  tun  of  coal,  costing  say  six  dollars, 
would  wami  a  room  all  winter,  large  enough  to  raise  two  or  three  hundred 
chickens,  which  would  sell  in  the  city  markets,  certainly  at  twenty-five  cents 
apiece,  when  the  size  of  quails. 

18i.  Set  Hens  Earlyt — It  is  a  great  object  to  set  bene  as  early  as  possible 
in  spring,  as  early  chickens  will  begin  to  lay  in  October,  and  give  eggs  in 
November  and  December.  Be  careful  to  give  your  early  sitters  a  warm, 
dry  nest.     After  the  hen  has  been  sitting  ten  days,  examine  the  eggs  to  see 


134 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


[CnAP.  I. 


if  all  are  gooJ,  and  throw  out  the  bad  ones.  To  tell  wliich  are  good,  hold 
an  egg  up  to  a  hole  or  crevice  of  a  dark  room,  and  look  at  it,  and  if  all  below 
the  vacuum  in  the  butt  is  dark-colored  opaque,  it  is  in  a  fair  wa}'  to  liatch. 
If  it  is  light-colored  and  yellowish,  so  that  the  sunlight  can  be  seen  through 
it,  you  may  throw  it  out  at  once  ;  and  if  all  are  so,  you  can  dismiss  the  old 
hen  with  your  thanks  for  her  good  intentions. 

"  Double  eggs"  rarely  hatch,  and  when  they  do,  arc  just  as  likely  to  pro- 
duce two  distinct  chickens  as  a  Siamese  one. 

Nests  should  be  made  shallow.  If  boxes  are  used,  not  over  live  inches 
deep. 

185.  Periods  of  Incubation. — A  common  fowl  hen  sits  20  days ;  a  Guinea 
fowl  lieu,  251  days;  a  duck,  26  days;  a  turkey  hen,  27  days;  a  goose,  29 
days  ;  a  musk  duck,  32  or  33  days  ;  a  pea-hen,  27  to  29  days. 

To  hatch  healthy  chicks  in  these  periods,  tlie  birds  must  have  good  warm 
nests  in  a  sheltered  situation.  Chickens  have  been  hatched  in  nineteen 
days,  and  the  period  has  been  prolonged  to  twenty-seven  days. 

180.  Weights  of  Various  Breeds  of  Fowls  aad  other  Poultry: 


Lbs.  Oz. 

Black  Polish  cock,  three  years  old 5 

"     hen,  "  "      " 3 

"     piiUet 2 

Golden  Polish  cock 5 

"     hen 3 

Another  hen 3 

Golden  Polish  pullet 2 

Malay  hen 3 

Creole  (Silver  Hamburgh)  hen 3 

Black  Nondescript  hen 4 

Globe-crested  Polish  hen 3 

Silver  Polish  hen 3 

Garae-cock 4 

"      hen 3 

Young  Blue  Dun  cock 3 

Blue  Dun  hen 3 

Large  Dun  Hybrid  hen 3 

Pheasant-Malay  cocks,   two  years    old, 

average  each 7 

"    cockerel,  five  months  old 7 

"     hen 5 

"    pullet,  seventeen  months  old 5 

"     (crossed  with  Dorking  hen),  four 

years  old 5      8 

Speckled  Surrey  hen,  two  years  old 5     12 

Spanish  hen 5      0 

Two  Dorking  cocks,  each 7      0 

"    hens 6      8 

"       "      6    12 

Cock  turkey,  two  years  and  a  half  old. .  17     12 

Hen        "      one  year  and  a  half  old ... .  10      0 


Turkey  cock,  sixteen  months  old IG 

"       hen,  three  or  four  ye.ir8  old  ....     8 


Mu.sk  dr.ikc  (molting) 9 

White  China  gander,  si.x  years  old  ....  12 

White  China  goose 11 

Common   China  goose,    Cynoides,   she 

years  old 10 

Cochin-China  cock,  about  sixteen  months 

old,  molting 0 

Cochin-China  hen,      "         "  "..4 

Malay  cock,  about  sixteen  months  old  .  6 

"     hen,       "          "            "        "  . .  4 

Pheasant-jVIaftvy  cock 5 

"            "      hen,  molting 3 

Game-cockerel,  about  five  months  old  .  4 
Golden  Hamburgh  cockerel,  just  arrived 
from  a  long  journey,  about  five 

months  old 3 

"      pullet,             "            "          "  2 
Cochin-China  cockerel,  six  months  old.  4 
Another,                             "         "         "  .  4 
Silver  Hamburgh  cockerel,  after  travel- 
ing, .about  live  months  old 3 

"      pullet,         "        "            "        "  2 

Black  Polish  hen,  molting 3 

Golden  Hamburgh,     "       2 

Andalusian  cockerel,  four  months  old  .  3 

pullet,       "          "          "  ..  2 

Black  Spanish  cockerel          "          "  . .  2 

"     pullet,                "         "          "  . .  2 

Silver  Polish  cockerel,  four  months  and 

a  half  old 

Golden  Poland  pullet,  about  five  months 

old 

White-crested  Golden  Poland  pullet,  " 


8 
4 

14 


3  0 

2  3 

3  8 
2  Gi 
2  11 
2  11 

2  Mi 


187.  Capons  and  Po.ulardeSi — These  are  terms  applied  to  emasculated  cocks 
and  pullets.  Every  person  who  makes  a  business  of  poultry  raising  to 
supply  a  city  market,  sliould  learn  the  art  of  making  capons  and  poulardcs, 
because  they  will  always  sell  for  nearly  twice  as  much  as  other  fowls. 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  135 

The  instnuiients  used  to  perform  the  operation  are  few  and  simple,  and 
inexpensive,  and  tlie  art  easily  learned. 

A  set  of  first-class  caponizing  instruments  is  included  in  tlie  following 
list :  a  scalpel,  62^^  cents  ;  silver  retractor,  $1  50  ;  spring  forceps,  874  cents  ; 
spoon,  with  hook,  75  cents  ;  double  silver  canula,  §1  75  ;  total,  $5  50. 

A  nnich  cheaper  set  of  instruments  would  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

The  proper  age  for  caponizing  chickens  is  from  one  to  three  months.  The 
cock  is  confined  upon  a  table  by  weights  upon  the  M-ings  and  legs,  with  the 
right  side  up  ;  the  feathers  are  then  plucked  off  a  spot  on  the  right  side  near 
the  hip  joint,  about  an  inch  across,  where  the  incision  is  to  be  made,  by 
which  the  parts  are  exposed  that  are  to  be  removed.  The  operation  takes 
but  a  few  minutes  for  a  skillful  operator. 

18S.  Pea-Fow!s. — Of  all  the  ornamental  poultry  ever  kept  on  a  place,  the 
pea-fowls  take  the  lead,  and  well  they  miglit,  for  they  are  the  most  useless, 
and  a  very  expensive  luxury.  They  will  not  bear  confinement ;  will  not 
even  roost  in  a  liouse,  but  occupy  the  tops  of  the  highest  buildings  or  tall 
trees.  And  for  mischief,  from  which  they  can  not  be  restrained,  they  excel 
all  the  feathered  tribe.  They  are  cunning  beyond  belief.  They  will  watch 
opportunities  to  visit  the  garden  and  steal  fruit,  and  be  out  before  they  are 
suspected.  Driving  them  out  with  all  possible  marks  of  ill-treatment  has 
no  effect  upon  them,  as  it  does  upon  other  poultry.  The  pea-fowls  will  bear 
a  repetition  of  abuse  every  day,  and  every  day  return  to  their  thieving.  So 
no  one  who  has  a  garden  and  lawn  in  one  inclosure  should  attempt  to  keep 
pea-fowl ;  nor  where  there  is  any  chance  for  them  to  get  into  mischief. 

A  gardenless  mansion  may,  and  should  have  numbers  of  pea-fowls.  A 
single  pair  makes  but  little  show,  while  a  flock  makes  a  most  dazzling, 
splendid  appearance.  Peahens  are  two  or  three  years  in  coming  to  maturity. 
They  then  lay  four  to  seven  eggs,  whicli  require  twenty-seven  to  twenty-nine 
days'  incubation.  Peahens  always  steal  their  nests,  and  their  eggs  must 
never  be  touched,  if  you  wish  the  hen  to  incubate  them.  Tliey  may  be  taken 
and  incubated  under  a  common  f  )wl,  or,  better,  under  a  turkey,  and  then  the 
peahen  may  find  another  sly  place  and  lay  again.  The  peacock  has  the  . 
reputation  of  being  a  bad  father,  and  killing  his  own  progeny.  Therefore 
the  hen  hides  from  him  as  well  as  from  men. 

189.  Turkeys. — Every  farmer  can  and  should  keep  turkeys,  and  as  there 
arc  several  varieties,  he  should  get  the  best  and  keep  no  other. 

Turkeys  are  less  mischievOTis  than  most  other  poultry,  and  in  some  cases 
tlicy  are  of  great  assistance  to  the  farmer  in  destroying  insects.  The  tobacco 
planters  keep  turkeys  purposely  to  assist  them  in  ridding  the  plants  of  the 
destructive  worms. 

The  turkey  is  a  much  more  recent  introduction  to  the  poultry^-yard  than 
the  other  varieties.  It  is  said  that  the  black  sort  was  carried  from  its  na- 
tive wilds  of  America  to  England,  and  that  the  American  stock  has  been 
all  drawn  from  the  M'oods,  and  that  the  difi'erent  sorls  have  come  from  a 
Southern  and  Northern  race.      We  think,   though,  that  it  has  come  from 


136  DOMESTIC  A^^MALS.  [Chap.  I. 

mixing  the  black  wild  variety  with  a  white  or  party-colored  one  imported 
from  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  We  prefer  the  pure  black  breed,  for  it 
gives  us  the  largest  and  hardiest  birds,  and  we  think,  also,  the  handsomest. 
The  pure  whi;e  turkey,  it  is  true,  is  quite  ornamental,  but  it  is  not  as  hardy 
a  sort  as  the  black.  As  for  yellow  or  party-colored  turkeys,  we  would  not 
have  them  on  a  place  a  moment  longer  than  necessary  to  fatten,  kill,  and 
eat  them. 

The  wild  hen  turkey  is  wild  in  the  extreme,  while  the  tame  one  is  so  do- 
mestic that  you  may  rob  her  secret  nest  every  day  of  the  new-laid  egg,  yet 
she  will  return  again  and  again  until  she  has  finished  her  season,  and  then 
commence  her  period  of  incubation  upon  the  empty  nest.  Now,  if  you  have 
a  nest  prepared  under  cover,  with  the  eggs  in  it,  you  may  bring  home  the 
hen  and  put  her  gently  upon  her  eggs,  and  she  will  manifest  great  satisfac- 
tion, and  after  carefully  examining  and  placing  them  all  right,  will  sit  upon 
them  as  though  the  nest  was  all  her  own.  Thirteen  eggs  are  enough  for  an 
ordinary-sized  turkey,  and  if  she  has  a  good  nest  she  will  cover  that  number, 
60  as  to  give  all  a  fair  chance  to  hatch.  It  is  not  necessary  to  turn  the  eggs, 
as  some  persons  do — the  hen  attends  to  that — nor  look  at  them  until  about 
the  time  the  four  weeks  are  up,  when  it  will  be  well  to  remove  the  chicks  as 
they  come  out,  or  else  take  out  all  the  shells  and  rotten  eggs,  if  there  are 
any,  to  give  the  chicks  room,  for  they  generally  are  better  oft' in  a  good  nest 
than  out  of  it.  Shut  the  hen  in  a  coop,  where  the  chicks  can  bask  in  the 
sun,  and  not  get  in  the  wet  grass.  You  need  not  feed  much  the  first  day  ;  a 
few  bread  crumbs  will  answer.  Tlien  give  all  they  will  cat  of  hard-boiled 
egg,  chopped  fine  ;  chopped  meat,  fat  and  lean  ;  curds,  boiled  rice  or  hom- 
iny, with  cress,  lettuce,  and  green  onions.  Don't  stuff  them  with  pepper- 
corns. The  idea  that  that  is  necessary  is  all  stufi".  Liver,  boiled  and  chopped 
up,  is  good  food ;  so  is  barley  meal  and  suet.  Melt  the  suet  and  pour  over 
the  meal  and  mix,  and  then  crumb  up  when  cold.  Many  green  things  may 
be  chopped  up  and  mixed  with  milk  and  water  and  meal.  Don't  try  to  cut 
up  feed  very  fine.  The  young  turkeys,  you  will  find,  can  swallow  big 
lumps.  After  ten  days  you  may  let  the  hen  run,  if  the  weather  is  fine.  In 
bad  weather  they  arc  apt  to  take  cold,  and  cramp,  and  die.  Care  and  high 
feeding  arc  all  that  are  needed  to  raise  turkeys. 

We  knew  a  woman  in  Louisiana  who  raised  fifteen  hundred  out  of  sixteen 
hundred  hatched.  She  had  an  old  negro  woman  and  a  boy  to  attend  to  the 
Avants  of  the  turkeys,  and  in  wet,  chilly  weather  the  young  broods  were  all 
gathered  into  a  log-cabin,  warmed  by  a  generous  wood  fire. 

We  have  also  before  us  another  example  of  successful  turkey  raising  by  a 
woman,  that  is  worthy  of  attention  by  some  other  fiirmcrs'  wives,  who  may 
go  and  do  likewise.  Lydia  Eldridge,  of  Andover,  Mass.,  writes  her  expe- 
rience in  raising  turkeys,  under  date  of  Dec.  25,  1858  : 

"  Last  spring  my  husband  jnirchased  a  farm  in  this  town,  and  I  obtained 
one  turkey,  and  she  laid  2-1  eggs,  liatched  them  all  out  at  one  litter,  and  I 
raised  them  all.    Yesterday  we  dressed  the  last  of  them.     The  united  weight 


Sko.  9.]  POULTRY.  137 

of  the  whole,  when  dressed,  was  212i  lbs. ;  198  lbs.  were  sold  for  a  shilling 
a  pound,  New  England  currency,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  $33.  The 
whole  number  at  that  price  would  have  amounted  to  $3.5  41.  Now  I  think 
that  is  doing  quite  well,  and  if  anybody  among  your  army  of  readers  can  do 
better  than  that,  I  think  they  deserve  a  premium ;  but  until  that  is  done,  I 
think  I  can  claim  the  palm." 

And,  in  our  ojjinion,  she  is  fairly  entitled  to  it.  We  hope,  however,  that 
some  other  woman  will  try  to  win  it  from  her  by  fair  conapetition  in  this  ap- 
propriate field  of  woman's  labor. 

And  here  is  another  of  the  same  sort,  which  should  tend  to  encourage 
other  women  to  attempt  the  same  plan  to  make  a  little  "  pin  [feather] 
money."  It  is  to  encourage  others  that  we  collect  and  publish  these 
facts. 

"  J.  E.  Alton,  of  Quinsigamond,  Mass.,  writes  us  that  Mrs.  M.  Bennett,  of 
Auburn,  Mass.,  had  a  three-fourths  wild  turkey,  of  very  large  size,  which 
laid  11  eggs,  all  of  which  she  hatched  and  raised.  At  six  months  old  the 
united  weight  of  the  eleven  was  220  lbs.  Some  of  the  male  birds  weighed 
34  lbs.,  and  the  lightest  hens  17  lbs.  One  male  sold  for  $7,  and  the  whole 
for  §55." 

These,  however,  are  fancy  prices ;  but  at  the  steady  market  prices  of 
dressed  turkeys,  which  will  average  10  cents  a  pound  wholesale,  in  New 
York,  and  considerably  more  for  choice  birds,  the  raising  and  fatting  of 
turkeys  is  a  profitable  branch  of  farming. 

It  is  true  that  young  turkeys,  from  the  time  they  are  old  enough  to  turn 
out  to  range  for  themselves,  are  voracious  eaters,  and  would  desti-oy  some 
crops,  and  so  would  swine,  if  permitted  to  run  at  large.  The  farmer  finds  it 
profitable  to  keep  a  lot  for  swine,  and  so  would  he  to  devote  a  whole  field  to 
turkeys  ;  and  if  he  will  do  that,  where  they  can  forage  for  themselves,  they 
will  need  very  little  attention,  and  will  not  be  likely  to  get  into  much  mis- 
chief. If  rightly  managed,  a  flock  of  turkeys  will  do  more  good  than  harni 
on  a  farm,  for  they  are  great  destroyers  of  insects.  It  will  be  found  profit- 
able to  plant  cabbages,  turnips,  bagas,  peas,  oats,  wheat,  and  clover  pur- 
posely for  the  turkeys  to  feed  upon.  This  can  be  managed  on  a  small  scale 
to  advantage  by  using  a  movable  fence.  We  have  no  doubt  about  the  fact 
that  a  turkey  farm  would  be  as  profitable  as  a  sheep  farm,  or  a  milk  farm, 
or  a  beef  or  pork-making  farm.  In  all  new  sections  of  country,  where  mast 
is  abundant,  turkeys  will  fatten  upon  it  entirely ;  and  in  all  sections  where 
field  feeding  is  practiced,  there  is  no  better  stock  to  run  in  a  corn-field  than 
turkeys.  Even  where  corn  is  worth  a  dollar  a  bushel,  it  has  been  found 
profitable  to  feed  it  to  turkeys  to  fetten  them  for  market.  One  considerable 
item  in  the  account  in  all  the  old  States  would  be  the  value  of  the  manure 
made  from  such  feeding. 

The  most  important  fact  in  turkey  raising  is  not  to  overstock  yourself,  for 
then  your  flock  of  turkeys  will  become  pests  to  yourself  and  neighbors — a 
set  of  marauding,  piratical  thieves. 


138  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  1. 


A  writer  in  the  Germantown  Telegraj)h  furnishes  that  journal  with  the  fol- 
lowing statement : 

"  Much  has  been  published  of  late  in  our  agricultural  journals  respecting 
the  alimentary  j)roperties  of  charcoal.  It  has  been  repeatedly  asserted  that 
domestic  fowls  may  be  fattened  on  it  without  any  other  food,  and  that,  to-, 
in  a  shorter  time  tlian  on  the  most  nutritive  grain.  I  made  an  experiment, 
and  must  say  that  the  result  surprised  rae,  as  I  had  always  been  rather 
skeptical.  Four  turkeys  were  confined  in  a  pen,  and  fed  on  meal,  boiled  po- 
tatoes, and  oats.  Four  others  of  the  same  breed  were  at  the  same  time  con- 
lined  in  another  pen  and  fed  with  tlie  same  articles,  but  with  one  pint  of 
tinely  pidverized  charcoal  mixed  daily  with  their  meal  and  potatoes.  Tliey 
also  had  a  plentiful  supply  of  broken  charcoal  in  their  pen.  Tlie  eight  were 
killed  on  the  same  day,  and  there  was  a  difierence  of  one  and  a  half  pounds 
each  in  favor  of  the  fowls  that  had  been  supplied  with  charcoal,  they  being 
much  the  fattest,  and  their  meat  greatly  superior  in  point  of  tenderness  and 
flavor." 

Ii.  II.  Avery,  of  TVampsville,  Madison  County,  X.  Y.,  is  entitled  to  the 
first  prize  of  honor  for  improvement  in  the  breed  of  turkeys.  From  a  cross 
of  the  American  wild  turkey,  made  fourteen  years  ago  npon  the  best  domes- 
ticated birds  of  pure  black  color  that  could  be  obtained,  and  by  careful  at- 
tention to  breeding  since  that  time,  he  has  suceeodod  in  producing  a  male 
bird  of  superlative  beauty,  of  glossy  black  plumage,  which,  at  two  and  a 
half  years  old,  weighed  3i  lbs.  alive ;  and  a  female  bird,  two  years  old, 
weighing  20i  lbs.  alive  ;  and  a  female  bird,  one  year  old,  dressed  ready  f  >r 
the  spit,  15i  lbs.  weight ;  and  as  the  stock  has  been  continuously  improving 
both  in  size,  beauty  of  form,  and  plumage  for  years,  it  is  impossible  to 
determine  any  limit.  lie  has  lately  procured  a  pair  of  pure  wild  birds  from 
Canada  for  the  purpose  of  infusing  a  new  strain  of  wild  blood  into  his  stock 
whenever  he  sees  a  chance  to  improve.  The  ordinary  weight  of  male  tur- 
keys, two  years  old,  as  they  are  ])repared  for  the  market,  will  not  exceed  15 
lbs.,  and  a  female  of  8  lbs.  is  accounted  a  very  good  one. 

Just  after  the  election  of  Mr.  Buchanan,  a  cock  turkey  from  Mr.  Avery's 
farm,  that  weighed  35  lbs.,  was  bouglit  at  $1  a  pound,  and  sent  to  the  Pres- 
ident to  serve  as  one  of  the  members  of  his  (kitchen)  cabinet ;  and  another 
of  still  larger  size  was  presented  to  President  Lincoln. 

Turkeys  grow  big  in  Illinois,  according  to  a  correspondent  who  writes 
from  Stebbinsville,  who  says  that  28  to  36  lbs.  is  not  an  nncommon  weight 
for  a  wild  turkey,  and  one  old  gobbler  that  he  shot  weighed  41  lbs.,  and  spread 
a  tail  over  nine  feet  around  the  circle.  He  thinks  some  of  the  brag  "  im- 
provers of  the  breed"  had  better  send  for  some  of  the  Illinois  M'ild  stock  for 
a  cross  upon  the  biggest  in  all  Yaiikeedom. 

B.  F.  Langworthy,  of  Alfred  Center,  objects  to  our  directions  to  scald  tur- 
keys.    He  says : 

"  Scalded  turkeys  and  chickens  sell  about  two  cents  a  pound  less  in  Bos- 
ton than  those  picked  dry — do  not  look  as  well,  and  certainly  will  not  keep 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  139 

as  long,  nor  jjlease  the  customer  as  mucli ;  while  the  advance  price  will 
amply  pay  for  the  difference  of  time  in  dressing." 

On  the  contrary,  in  Kew  York,  dry-picked  poultry  does  not  sell  as  well  as 
that  wliicli  is  scalded. 

190.  The  Guinea-Fowl. — A  union  of  two  breeds  of  fowls  is  seen  in  some 
measure  unite  1  in  the  Guinea-fowl.  It  appears  to  have  some  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  tlie  turkey  and  the  pheasant.  Its  head  is  bare  like  the  turkey  ; 
its  body  and  plumage,  and  general  form  and  appearance,  somewhat  like  the 
pheasant.  Tiie  plumage  of  the  most  common  sort  in  this  country  is  of  a 
bluish  ground,  delicately  spotted  with  white.  The  wing  feathers  are  nearly 
white.  There  are  also  fowls  of  this  family  entirely  white.  The  greatest  ob- 
jection to  the  Guinea-fowl  is  the  almost  continual  noise  they  make,  which  to 
some  is  intolerable.  It  is  about  as  musical  as  the  sharp  squeak  of  a  grind- 
stone or  old  cart.  The  noise  is,  however,  tolerated  for  their  good  cpialities, 
which  are  not  a  few.  Their  noise  tends  to  keep  off  hawks  and  other  pests 
of  the  poultry-yard.  They  are  very  ornamental,  and  give  a  place  a  lively, 
pleasant  appearance.  Their  flesh  is  pretty  good  for  the  table ;  they  are 
good  layers,  and  their  eggs  are  large,  and  rich,  and  good  for  cookery,  but 
not  so  good  as  common  hens'  eggs  for  the  table. 

The  young  chicks  are  hardy,  and  very  pretty.  There  is  no  prettier  sight 
in  connection  with  poultry  than  a  fine  Guinea-hen  with  her  brood.  The 
lien  sits  a  month,  and  nine  eggs  are  enough  for  her  to  cover.  The  eggs  may 
be  hatched  under  a  common  hen,  but  a  good  sitter  must  be  selected,  because 
the  time  is  longer  than  her  own.  Hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine,  bread 
crumbs,  chopped  meat  or  suet,  are  good  food  for  young  chicks.  Some  per- 
sons procure  maggots  on  purpose  to  feed  chicks.  Any  kind  of  small  worms 
are  devoured  greedily  by  the  young  Guineas,  which  are  real  cormorants. 
They  will  eat  a  dozen  times  a-day,  and  a  full  supply  of  food  is  one  of  the 
great  secrets  of  success  in  raising  these  as  well  as  turkeys. 

There  is  no  domestic  hen  that  gives  such  a  bountiful  supply  of  eggs  all  the 
year  round  as  a  Guinea-hen  ;  consequently  they  are  not  good  sitters,  and 
other  hens  have  to  be  used  when  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  stock  rapidly. 

191.  DuekSi — Wherever  suitable  conveniences  exist  for  keeping  ducks, 
they  are  not  only  ornamental  to  the  farm,  but  profitable.  Some  of  the  vari- 
eties are  particularly  ornamental — the  little  "Wood  duck  the  most  so  of  all. 
The  Pintail  duck  is  a  very  neat-looking  bird.  The  Aylesbury  sort  are  pure 
white.  The  plumage  of  the  drakes  of  some  of  tlie  wild  sorts  which  have 
been  domesticated,  is  very  beautiful.  A  few  ornamental  ducks  might  be 
kept  upon  almost  every  farm,  and  furnished  with  artificial  water.  "We 
would  never  raise  but  a  single  brood  or  two  a  year,  except  we  had  natural 
water.  A  drake  and  pair  of  ducks,  with  their  progeny,  would  cost  but 
little,  and  the  amount  of  good  they  would  do  is  incalculable.  They  are 
great  destroyers  of  slugs,  snails,  worms,  and  all  larvae ;  and  if  you  should 
see  an  old  duck  pitch  into  a  nest  of  young  mice,  you  would  learn  what  good 
she  can  do  in  that  way  of  ridding  the  farm  of  pests. 


14:0  DOMESTIC  ANIMAI^.  [Chap.  I. 

Ducks'  eggs  are  not  esteemed  for  the  table,  but  are  ia  cookery.  The  birds 
when  well  fatted  are  always  salable,  or  good  for  liome  consumption,  and 
pay  as  well  for  the  com  they  eat  as  anything  in  the  poultry-yard. 

In  selecting  a  variety  of  ducks,  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  bred 
must  be  considered.  If  for  ornament,  select  the  prettiest.  If  for  scaven- 
gers, we  would  use  the  common  gray  duck  and  drake  with  green  head. 

The  best  white  duck  is  the  Aylesbury.  It  has  yellow  legs  and  feet  and 
flesh-colored  bill.  White  ducks  should  never  be  kept  except  where  water 
and  grass  are  both  abundant.  In  the  water  or  on  a  lawn  they  are  pretty. 
In  a  muddy  yard  they  are  not  so. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  colors,  but  we  recommend  you  to  confine  yous 
to  ii  single  color,  whether  -white,  black,  gray,  blue,  or  slate.  Tlie  featheis 
of  ducks  are  as  good  as  geese  featliers,  and  some  housewives  pluck  them  in 
the  same  way. 

The  duck  sits  thirty  days  ;  and  the  hen  should  be  confined  an  equal  length 
of  time,  where  the  ducklets  can  go  out,  and  into  natural  ov  artificial  water. 
You  can  not  feed  them  too  much,  and  they  are  no  way  dainty.  Wiicn 
large  enough,  give  them  a  wide  range,  bringing  them  home  at  night.  The 
best  food  for  grown  ducks  is  Indian  corn,  and  tlie  best  ducks  for  the  table 
are  domesticated  wild  ones,  fatted  on  corn,  or  wild  ones  that  have  had  a 
full  range  in  corn-fields.  Beech-mast  also  makes  the  flesh  of  wild  ducks 
excellent. 

192.  GecsCi — As  geese  are  generally  kept  by  farmers,  they  are  neither 
profitable  nor  ornamental,  but,  on  the  contrary,  an  unmitigated  nuisance, 
Ijcfouling  grass  and  water,  door-yards  and  roadsides,  and  always  poking 
their  heads  through  holes  into  mischief 

Geese  never  slionld  be  kept  upon  or  about  any  f;xrm,  except  in  a  lot 
appropriated  to  their  particular  use.  A  man  who  would  turn  out  a  flock  of 
geese  upon  the  public  highway  to  pirate  their  living,  we  would  not  trust 
about  our  hen-roost  of  a  dark  night. 

If  geese  are  kept  on  a  large  scale,  where  water  is  good,  and  pastured  like 
any  other  stock,  and  finally  fatted  for  market,  upon  the  same  principle  that 
pigs  are  fed  and  fatted,  we  will  insure  the  largest  profit  from  tlie  geese, 
particularly  if  the  best  breeds  are  selected. 

Tiie  Chinese  or  IIong-Kong  geese  and  the  Bremen  geese  arc  much  larger 
varieties  tlian  tlie  brocd  common  in  this  country.  The  Bremen  geese  have 
pure  wliite  plumage,  witli  clean  yellow  legs  and  bills.  They  attain  to 
great  weight  and  age — twenty  or  thirty  years,  and  as  many  pounds.  The 
flesh  of  a  young,  fat  Bremen  goose  is  esteemed  above  all  the  domesticated 
ti'ibe,  and  the  feathers  are  salable  at  the  very  highest  rates. 

This  breed  is  very  prolific,  laying  twelve  or  fifteen  eggs  a  year,  and  tlie 
goose  are  good  sitters  and  nurses.  Tliey  are  somewhat  inclined  to  commence 
laying  too  early  in  the  season.  To  prevent  this,  shut  the  whole  flock  in  a 
dark  room,  about  the  twentieth  of  February,  and  feed  and  water  once  a  day, 
and  allow  them  an  hour  out  once  a  week  to  wash  and  have  a  rim.     In  a  few 


PLATE    Xr* 

(Page  140.) 

Here  is  another  picture,  more  beautiful,  if  possible,  than  ISlo.  X. 
It  comprises  some  of  the  most  ornamental,  and  some  of  the  most 
substantially  useful  birds  that  help  to  adorn  our  landscape.  Many 
who  read  this  book  will  have  no  opportunity  to  see  the  graceful 
swans  that  adorn  the  ponds  in  Central  Park,  New  York.  Let  them 
study  these  hfe-pictures.  The  peacock  is  more  common,  yet  many 
will  get  their  first  idea  of  its  appearance  from  this  picture.  The 
Hong-Kong  goose  is  also  rare,  and  so  are  some  of  the  ducks,  and  in 
many  places  the  Guinea  fowls  arc  unknown.  The  turltey  is  com- 
mon, still  his  likeness  adds  to  the  beauty  of  this  scene. 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  141 

days  after  they  are  let  out  of  jail,  tlic  geese  will  make  nests  and  begin  their 
Avork. 

The  e"ggs  should  be  removed  carefully  every  day,  and  deposited  in  cotton 
in  a  dry,  temperate  room.  Tlien  when  all  your  flock  are  ready  to  sit,  which 
they  will  be  about  the  same  day,  have  capacious  nests  filled  with  chaffed 
straw,  in  which  place  twelve  eggs  for  each  goose.  Where  a  good  many 
geese  are  kept,  it  will  pay  to  have  an  attendant,  who  should  be  careful  to 
allow  only  one  sitter  to  leave  tlie  nest  at  one  time.  When  one  comes  off, 
sliut  the  doors  of  the  other  boxes  till  she  returns.  Tiiis  will  prevent  con- 
fusion of  getting  on  the  wrong  nests.  By  attention,  nearly  all  the  goslings 
of  a  large  flock  may  be  brought  out  in  one  day. 

Goslings  should  be  left  in  the  nest  twenty-four  hours  after  the}'  hatch,  par- 
ticularly if  the  weather  is  rough ;  and  as  they  are  tender  animals,  they  should 
be  carefully  nursed  for  a  month,  allowing  them  a  small  pool  of  water  to 
bathe  in,  and  plenty  of  green  grass.  The  whole  anscr  family  belong  to  the 
graziers.     It  is  not  necessary  to  feed  goslings  on  much  grain. 

The  white  China  goose  is  as  pure  white  as  the  Bremen,  and  should  not 
be  mistaken  for  that — -the  Bremen  is  preferable. 

Tiie  Brent  and  Sandwich  Island  goose  are  both  very  small  varieties,  well 
suited  to  situations  on  the  salt  water. 

Tlie  Berwick  goose  is  said  to  be  a  great  weed-eater. 

The  Canadian  or  wild  goose  variety  are  quite  ornamental  upon  a  well- 
watered  location.  This  breed  are  greater  worm  and  insect  eaters  tiian  any 
other  variety  of  the  anser  family.  The  hens  do  not  lay  until  two  years  old 
in  their  domesticated  state. 

193.  SwanSi — This  variety  of  ornamental  birds  has  been  but  little  culti- 
vated in  this  country.  Tiio  greatest  collection  is  at  the  New  York  Central 
Park.  This  bird,  of  all  others,  puts  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  landscape 
inclosing  a  still  lake  oi-  pond. 

There  are  white  and  black  swans ;  both  are  magnificent,  but  the  white 
ones  are  the  most  showy  on  the  water,  where  they  float  by  the  hour  as  still 
as  the  water  beneath  them.  Although  domestic  and  tame,  swans  are  apt  to 
go  astray— to  prevent  which  the  last  joint  of  one  wing  is  skillfully  dissee  el. 
They  are  weed-feeders,  but  in  places  wliere  they  are  generally  kept  they  re- 
quire feeding.  Their  feed  is  most  abundant  in  foul,  shallow  water,  and  they 
are  often  seen  abroad  at  night  in  pursuit  of  food.  Besides  vegetables,  they 
eat  minute  insects  found  in  the  water,  and  probably  fish-spawn. 

The  hen  birds  are  very  curious  about  their  nests,  and  will  select  them,  if 
possible,  in  some  low  bushy  islet  or  headland,  and  under  favorable  circum- 
stances will  liatch  eight  or  nine  young  cygnets — the  name  which  young  swans 
are  known  by.  The  male  birds  allow  no  intruders  about  tlie  nests  or  young. 
A  man  would  find  a  terrible  antagonist  if  attacked  by  a  swan  while  swimming. 

The  cygnets,  when  fixt,  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  upon  the  table, 
stuflPed  with  the  lean  part  of  a  round  of  beef,  seasoned  merely  with  cayenne 
pepper  and  salt,  and  served  with  ricli  gravy  and  currant  jelly. 


j        142  DOiTESTIO  AimiALS.  [Chap.  I. 

{  19A.  The  Pleasures  of  Poultry  Raising.— Besides  the  profit  of  a  wcU-con- 

I  i  ducted  i)oultrv  business,  there  is  an  actual  pleasure  attending  it  over  that 
of  keeping  any  other  kind  of  domeslic  animals.  Although  the  aim' appears 
always  to  be  profit,  we  think  if  those  wlio  can  keep  poultry  would  look  at  it 
in  another  point  of  view,  they  would  be  better  satisfied  if  it  did  not  always 
putj.  One  advocates  having  u  lawn  and  a  flower  garden  attached  to  his 
house,  saying  that  it  will  give  new  life  and  beauty  to  all  around,  and 
exert  a  beautiful  and  ennobling  influence  upon  every  member  of  the  house- 
hold, and  even  visitors  and  passers-by  will  catch  from  it  a  sweet  spirit  of 
love  and  good-will  ;  but  the  cpiestion  with  the  calculating  and  careful  farmer 
is,  'Will  it  pay  f  So  with  every  improvement  upon  his  house  and  around 
his  farm  ;  if  lie  does  not  see  a  prospect  ahead  of  a  return  in  hard  money  for 
his  outlay  of  time  and  his  work,  the  close-calculating  man  sots  it  down  as 
being  a  thing  that  won't  pay,  and  consequently  abandons  it  entirely. 

It  is  just  so  in  regard  to  poultry.  Nothing  is  kept  for  ornament ;  yet  we 
have  already  shown  that  several  varieties  are  not  only  ornamental,  but  prof- 
itable. But  setting  all  other  considerations  aside,  we  would  keep  poultry 
just  for  the  pleasure  attending  the  sight  of  the  birds,  particularly  the  dear 
little  chicks.  Quoting  from  a  sensible  writer  npou  this  subject,  wc  adopt 
his  words : 

"  One  of  my  neighbors  says  it  will  pay  to  keep  just  as  many  hens  as  will 
get  their  living  around  the  barn  througli  the  winter  ;  but  he  tliinks  it  will  not 
pay  to  keep  them  if  they  have  to  be  fed.  I  will  own  that  I  have  a  few  notions 
in  common  M-ith  all  poultry  fanciers ;  I  look  somewluit  to  the  profit,  but  make 
it  a  i">oint  of  secondary  importance.  Farmers,  in  general,  who  keep  hens,  are 
more  troubled  with  them  than  with  any  other  one  thing  upon  their  farms, 
considering  tlie  amount  of  work  which  they  do.  They  are  always  scratch- 
ing in  the  garden,  digging  up  corn,  or  committing  other  depredations  which 
keep  the  farmer  and  his  girls  running  to  keep  them  out  of  mischief." 

Of  course  they  arc,  because  they  must  scratch  for  a  living.  If  you  don't 
want  hens  in  mischief,  feed  them  ;  and  at  times  M-hen  it  is  really  necessary, 
shut  them  in  a  poultrj'-yard  and  feed  them,  and  adopt  this  simple  ride  for 
feeding  fowls,  known  to  most  housewives  in  tlie  countr}'  who  have  charge 
of  the  poultry,  but  it  may  be  useful  to  amateurs,  and  as  it  is  very  short,  wc 
print  it.  Here  it  is:  Don't  feed  too  much.  That  is  all ;  though  we  may 
add  that  food  should  never  be  given  to  fowls  unless  they  are  hungry  enough 
to  "run  crazy"'  after  it ;  and  just  as  soon  as  they  stop  running  crazy,  you 
stop  throwing  feed,  and  never — no,  never — leave  feed  lying  by  your  fowls 
"  for  them  to  eat  at  leisure."  This  same  rule  does  pretty  well  for  all  other 
domestic  animals — children  included. 

If  you  don't  feed  your  hens,  and  let  them  run  in  the  garden,  and  they 
scratch,  don't  swear.  It  is  natural  for  them  to  scratch,  and  altliough  they  do 
mischief,  they  also  do  good.  Then,  don't  set  the  dog  ujion  them ;  it  only 
makes  matters  worse.  There  is  a  cure  for  your  trouble :  build  a  yard  in 
which  to  shut  the  hens  when  they  are  troublesome  in  the  garden,  and  train 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  143 

them  60  that  thej  will  follow  you  like  a  dog,  and  then  just  at  niglit  take 
them  out  on  a  walk  and  see  what  an  immense  number  of  hurtful  insects 
they  will  destroy.  Your  hens  are  the  most  profitable  stock  you  have  if  you 
treat  them  rightly.  Don't  swear  at  them ;  keep  your  temper  and  build  a 
poultry -yard,  but  don't  keep  it  always  closed.  It  is  better  for  you,  and  the 
hens  too,  to  let  them  run  at  lai-ge  at  all  times  when"  they  are  not  liable  to 
do  mischief. 

We  know  of  nothing  around  a  country  residence  which  gives  the  whole 
such  a  delightful  and  pleasant  aspect  as  all  kinds  of  poultry.  IIow  Down- 
ing loved  them  when  he  wrote  :  "  With  proper  conveniences  for  managing 
them,  they  are  among  the  most  agreeable,  profitable,  and  useful  objects  in 
country  life.  To  children  especially,  fowls  are  objects  of  exceeding  interest, 
and  form  an  almost  necessary  part  of  the  means  of  developing  the  moral  and 
industrial  energies  of  a  country  household."  Oh,  who  would  be  without 
them?  What  country  resident  would  neglect  to  have  a  noble  collection  of 
hens,  ducks,  and  turkeys — with  right  modes  to  keep  and  manage  them — to 
give  a  lively  aspect  to  the  scenery  of  his  home,  and  impart  beauty  to  the 
whole  i^lace  ?  The  merry  cackle  of  the  "  old  yellow  hen"  in  the  beautiful 
spring-time  ;  the  love  and  kind  protection  manifested  for  her  brood  of  youno', 
and  then  to  see  them  huddle  together  under  her  wing  !  The  shrill  sound  of 
the  cock  as  he  proclaims  the  dawn  of  morning!  Oh,  who  would  not  keep 
poultry,  even  if  it  dithit  pay  ?    We  would  not  keep 

Shaiifjhaes. — These  Chinese  monstrosities,  on  the  contrary,  we  recommend 
every  one  to  get  rid  of  as  soon  as  possible.  Tiiey  have  had  their  day,  and 
in  spite  of  their  crowing,  Barnum's  showing,  and  their  owners'  blowing,  they 
are  about  blown  out.  It  begins  to  be  found  out  that  10  lbs.  of  meat  can  be 
produced  upon  two  pairs  of  legs  just  as  cheaply,  and  of  much  better  quality, 
than  upon  one  pair.  No  Shanghae,  Cochiu-China,  Chittagong,  or  any  other 
imported  breed  of  fowls  has  ever  been,  or  will  ever  be,  more  esteemed  on 
all  accounts  than  the  old  yellow-legged  Dominique,  a  domestic,  handsome, 
and  good-sized  fowl. 

A  particular  friend,  candid  and  intelligent,  said  to  us  lately :  "  I  have 
tried  almost  all  varieties  of  hens,  and  have  settled  upon  the  Black  Spanish, 
or  crosses  of  them  upon  the  old  stock,  such  as  I  can  pick  ujj  in  market  at 
fifty  cents  a  pair.  I  have  also  tried  the  experiment  of  keeping  hens  in  the 
city  and  the  cost  of  eggs.  I  keep  them  in  a  house  at  the  back  of  the  yard, 
letting  them  out  for  exercise  just  before  roosting  time,  feeding  them  on 
scraps  from  the  kitchen,  potatoes,  meat,  etc.,  and  corn,  and  find  my  eco-s 
cost  just  three  cents  a  dozen  on  an  average  through  the  year." 

Another  one,  alluding  to  the  fact  of  feeding  poultry  upon  dead  horses  at  a 
great  poultry  establishment  near  Paris,  said  :  "  The  less  hens  I  keep,  I  think 
the  better  for  me.  I  have  fed  dead  horses  and  all  sorts  of  food,  but  I  can't 
make  it  profitable  to  myself,  or  neighbors  either."  Of  course  not.  Tlie  last 
words  tell  the  reason  ;  he  lets  them  run  at  large,  Jialf  fed. 

195.  Uen-Roosts  and  Poultry  Vermiu.— The  poles  or  ladders  should  be 


141  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

such  that  tliey  can  be  whitewashed  thoroughly  every  June,  and  the  whole 
licn-liouse  slmuld  undergo  the  same  operation.  Poultry  that  are  lonsy 
ehouUl  have  wood-ashes  to  wallow  in,  and  a  few  handfuls  of  flour  of  sulphur 
etirred  in  among  them  makes  them  much  more  efficient.  Good  ashes  will 
effect  a  cure,  however.  The  fowls  should  have  also  dry  earth  or  a  dusty 
road,  for  it  will  be  found  that  they  will  \isually  alternate  from  one  to  the 
other.  The  best  means  for  supplying  lime  to  hens  is  to  crack  up  fresh 
oyster-shells  with  a  hammer  or  a  sledge.  Nests  never  should  be  made  or 
allowed  in  the  room  where  fowls  roost.  Keep  it  clean  of  all  trash,  straw, 
or  nest-boxes.     Have  them  in  another  apartment. 

A  poulti-y  raiser  asks  us  to  tell  him  how  to  get  rid  of  the  great  nui- 
sance of  lice  u])on  poultry.  lie  says  he  feeds  well,  and  gives  the  hens  the 
range  of  a  grass  lot,  and  has  used  turpentine  sprinkled  in  the  nests,  and 
applied  blue  vitriol  mixed  with  grease  to  their  bodies,  and  anointed  tlicm 
with  lamp  oil,  and  yet  they  are  infested.  The  breed  is  that  called  Black 
Spanish,  but  t])at,  we  think,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  difficulty,  which  is 
so  great  that  he  is  ready,  if  there  is  no  remedy,  to  sacrifice  his  hens  and  buy 
his  eggs  and  chickens.  In  a  case  like  this,  we  should  endeavor  to  purify 
the  roost  of  ever^'thing  that  could  give  shelter  to  an  insect,  and  perhai^s 
abandon  the  old  roost  altogether,  and  take  care  that  the  hens  had  a  wallow- 
ing-box,  well  supplied  with  dry  wood-ashes,  renewed  by  a  little  addition 
every  day  or  two,  and  feed  sulphur  occasionally  in  the  food,  and  have  a 
constant  supply  of  lime  for  the  hens,  and  keep  them  fat;  and  if  all  these 
would  not  preserve  them  free  of  lice,  we  would  abandon  the  business. 

We  have  received  several  letters  upon  the  important  subject  noticed  under 
this  head,  giving  "infallible"  remedies  to  rid  poultry  of  lice.  The  following 
looks  as  if  it  might  be  a  "  dead  shot :" 

"  I  have  had  the  care  of  a  poultry -yard  for  a  number  of  years.  During 
that  time  a  continual  war  of  extermination  was  waged,  and  many  expedients 
were  resorted  to,  but  never  did  anything,  in  a  single  instance,  prove  a  safe- 
guard until  tobacco  was  tried.  This  weed,  in  my  case,  has  never  failed  in 
answering  all  practical  purposes  ;  and  this  fact  goes  far  to  show  that  it  was 
intended  to  act  out  higher  and  nobler  ones  than  are  commonly  assigned  to  it. 
Tlie  fine-cut  is  the  best  kind,  and  in  using  it  spread  it  thickly  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  nests,  scatter  it  upon  the  floor,  and  suspend  large  leaves  about  the 
different  parts  of  the  house.  This,  used  in  connection  with  your  directions, 
will  put  the  enemy  to  flight,  and  with  it  will  disappear  all  the  annoyances 
your  subscriber  complains  of." 

Another  letter  says :  "  Sprinkle  Scotch  snufl"  plentifully  on  the  fowls,  so 
it  will  reach  the  sk!n,  and  I'll  warrant  that  the  vermin  will  be  more  scarce 
than  even  money  in  these  'tight  times.'  As  you  say,  'the  roost  must  be 
kept  clean  ;'  also  lime  must  be  sprinkled  on  it  to  destroy  the  efi"ect  of  the 
ammonia  arising  from  their  manure." 

Another  says  :  "  All  the  remedies  named  are  not  equal  to  onions,  chopped 
fine  and  mixed  with  their  food  every  day  for  a  week.     This  will  exterminate 


Sec.  9.]  POULTRY.  145 

tlicin  entirely  from  the  hens ;  and  if  tlie  roosts  and  pea  he  washed  witli  onion 
water,  they  will  trouble  your  hens  no  more." 

Another  writer  says,  hens  that  roost  upon  sassafras  poles  are  never 
troubled  with  lice. 

Now  all  these  facts  are  worth  knowing,  as  the  vermin  some  years  are  un- 
commonly numerous,  and  will  eat  more  poultry  than  the  people  will,  unless 
we  can  head  them  oif  with  some  of  the  remedies  named. 

196.  Water  your  Door-Yard  Fowls.— Fill  a  bottle  with  water  and  place  it 
bottom  up  through  a  hole  in  a  board,  so  that  its  nose  shall  be  inserted  into  a 
saucer,  or  any  shallow,  open  vessel.  As  the  fowls  exhaust  the  water  from 
the  shallow  vessel,  the  bottle  will  pay  out  new  supplies. 

197.  Mode  of  Killing  Fowls. — A  favorite  mode  of  killing  fowls  with  some 
persons  is  sticking  an  awl  in  the  neck.  They  say  that  the  blood  adds  to  the 
good  looks  and  value  of  all  sorts  of  poultry. 

198.  Corn-Fed  Geese — Value  of  Corn. — The  following  detail  of  an  experi- 
ment in  feeding  corn  to  geese,  by  Rufus  Brown,  of  Chelsea,  Orange  County, 
Vt.,  is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  all  farmers,  and  goes  to  prove  that  corn 
may  be  as  profitably  fed  to  poultry  as  pigs.     Mr.  Brown  writes  : 

"  In  answer  to  your  question,  '  Does  anybody  know  anything  about  any- 
thing ?'  I  answer.  Yes.  I  know  how  much  ten  quarts  of  corn  is  worth.  On 
the  22d  of  November  I  shut  up  a  flock  of  goslings,  which,  allowing  the 
usual  shrinkage  for  dressing,  would  not  have  dressed  over  six  pounds  per 
head,  and  would  have  been  called  scalawags,  and  sold  accordingly  at  six  to 
seven  cents  per  pound.  Taking  the  maximum  (seven  cents),  they  would 
have  brought  42  cents  each,  dressed,  at  the  time  mentioned.  They  were  put 
in  a  warm,  well-littered  stable,  allowing  three  to  four  square  feet  of  room  for 
each,  and  kept  constantly  furnished  Avith  corn  in  the  kernel  and  plenty  of 
water;  this  constituted  their  entire  feed.  They  M-ere  thus  kept  till  Dec.  9  ; 
they  had  then  consumed  10  quarts  each  ;  when,  after  allowing  them  one  day 
of  fasting,  they  were  dressed  according  to  the  custom  practiced  from  boyhood, 
and  Avhich  I  respectfully  recommend  to  others,  viz. :  after  life  had  become 
extinct  they  were  carefully  scalded  by  immersing  head  first  in  boiling  water, 
and  allowed  to  remain  about  one  minute,  and  then  taken  out  head  first  and 
allowed  to  drain,  and  then  covered  in  a  thick  woolen  blanket  and  allowed 
to  remain  about  five  minutes;  then  carefully  picked  clean;  then  the  intes- 
tines were  drawn,  their  legs  tied  together  and  laid  upon  their  backs  on 
boards  in  a  cool  place,  with  their  necks  turned  imder  and  laid  close  to- 
gether to  keep  the  wings  close  to  their  sides.  They  were  then  considered 
choice,  and  sold  readily  to  the  dealer  at  lOi  cents  per  lb.,  and  averaged 
10  lbs.,  amounting  to  $1  05  each.  Deduct  42  cents,  and  tiiis  leaves  63  cents 
for  the  10  quarts  of  corn,  the  market-price  of  which,  at  the  time  of  feeding, 
was  75  cents  a  bushel. 

199.  Prices  of  Poultry. — At  the  time  of  the  great  "  poultry  show"  at  Bar- 
num's  Museum,  in  1857,  there  was  an  auction  sale,  and  the  following  prices 
were  realized,  and  although  fancy  birds  brought  fancy  prices  upon  the  more 


146  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


common  sort  there  was  a  dead  loss  upon  the  cost  in  England  of  about  an 
average  of  7  per  cent.     Tlie  following  are  decidedly  among  the  fancies  : 

1  pair  of  white  swans,  $100 ;  1  white  female  swan,  $50 ;  1  black  female 
swan,  $60  ;  1  pair  of  black  swans,  $99 ;  1  pair  of  Japanese  peacocks,  $100  ; 
1  pair  of  Barnacle  geese,  $40  ;  3  lioop-bill  ducks,  $75  ;  1  pair  of  golden 
plieasants,  $18 ;  4  pair  of  English  pheasants,  at  $10,  $11,  and  $15  per  pair ; 
3  male  golden  pheasants,  at  $5,  $8  50,  and  $12  50  oacii ;  3  male  silver 
plieasants,  at  $10,  $10  50,  and  $16  each ;  1  pair  of  Call  ducks,  $15  ;  1  shel- 
drake duck,  $10 ;  3  spoon-bill  ducks,  $15  ;  1  pair  of  pin-tail  ducks,  $19 ; 
1  pair  of  widgeon  ducks,  $12  ;  1  pair  of  widgeon  ducks,  $7;  3  widgeon 
ducks,  $9. 

But  the  climax  of  fanc}'  prices  was  reached  in  the  sale  of  one  pair  of  Man- 
darin ducks  for  $150.  This  was  a  beautiful  pair  of  very  rare  birds,  and  we 
hope  will  remain  rare — that  is,  that  no  more  will  ever  be  imported  at  that 
price.  It  was  said  that  they  cost  75  guineas  in  England.  Mr.  Barnum 
ofl'ered  $35  advance  upon  the  purcliaser's  bargain.  They  are  about  the  size 
of  our  common  wood  duck,  and  of  just  about  equal  beauty.  It  is  certainly 
somewhat  extraordinary  that,  with  money  "tight"  with  most  people,  any 
one  can  find  loose  change  enough  to  buy  ducks  at  $150  a  pair. 

Tlie  sales  of  Slianghaes,  and  birds  in  tliat  line,  went  off  at  what  the  o\^Tier 
called  "sickly  prices."     The  following  indicate  the  prevailing  rates : 

1  pair  of  gray  Dorkings,  $10 ;  3  gray  Dorkings,  $15  ;  6  Sebright  bantams, 
in  two  lots,  $5  each  ;  2  Sebright  bantams,  hens,  $2  each  ;  3  Golden  bantams, 
$1  67  each ;  3  English  bantams,  $1  25  each  ;  3  English  bantams,  $2  37 
each  ;  4  Bramahpootras,  1  cock  and  3  hens,  $2  50  each  ;  1  Poland  hen, 
$1  25  ;  1  Bolton  Gray  hen,  $1  25  ;  1  pair  of  Golden  Ilamburghs,  $2  25  ;  1 
pair  of  black  Spanish  fowls,  $10 ;  1  pair  of  black  Spanish  fowls,  $5  50 ;  2 
black  Shanghae  hens,  $3. 

Turkeys. — 1  pair  of  beautiful  white  turkeys,  $5. 

Geese. — 2  pair  of  Barnacle  geese,  $12  and  $14;  2  pair  of  Egyptian  geese, 
$10  and  $16. 

200.  Consumption  of  Poultry  in  New  York. — To  give  some  idea  of  the 
quantity  of  poultry  consumed  in  New  York,  we  give  the  following  extracts 
from  an  article  published  about  Christmas,  1857  : 

"  On  Dec.  23d  the  American  Express  Company  had  three  car-loads  to 
deliver  from  their  depot  in  Duane  Street,  and  about  11  tuns  received  from 
Albany  by  the  steamer.  On  Dec.  24th  their  receipts  are  stated  in  round 
numbers  at  40  tuns,  making  about  80  tuns  received  in  two  days  by  only  one 
transportation  line. 

"  This  Company's  freight  was  nearly  all  from  this  State  and  Vermont, 
with  a  little  from  western  Pennsylvania,  and  a  very  small  portion  from 
Ohio.  A  large  quantity  also  came  from  the  river  counties  by  steamers  and 
barges  on  the  Hudson,  as  the  mildness  of  the  winter  has  enabled  them  to 
keep  running.  Western  New  York  also  sent  in  great  quantities  by  the  Erie 
Railroad,  while  every  New  Jersey  railroad  and  numerous  wagons  brought 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  147 

vast  quantities  from  tliat  State,  and  some  from  Pennsylvania.     A  great  deal 
also  came  from  Long  Island,  and  considerable  from  Connecticut. 

*'  Tlie  Messrs.  Beatt^',  who  make  a  business  of  feeding  poultry,  had  on  sale 
at  once  by  a  commission-house,  two  days  before  Christmas,  four  tuns,  all  pre- 
pared upon  their  own  premises,  and  some  of  the  turkeys  were  as  handsome 
birds  as  we  ever  saw,  and  sold  for  $3  and  $3  50  each." 

Mr.  White,  of  Chautauqua  County,  another  great  poultry  feeder  and  packer, 
had  as  much  more.  It  is  really  a  blessing,  both  to  producer  and  consumer, 
to  have  such  men  as  those  engaged  in  the  business.  The  farmer  particu- 
larly reaps  a  decided  advantage,  because  euch  skillful  poulterers  can  and  do 
give  them  more  for  their  birds  than  they  would  get  if  killed  by  themselves 
and  sent  to  market  in  the  rough  condition  that  much  of  the  poultry  comes 
into  this  market.  For  instance,  we  noticed,  while  one  commission-house  was 
selling  well-prepared  geese  at  13  cents,  a  lot  of  geese,  side  by  side  of  these, 
were  offered  and  refused  at  6i  cents,  the  fault  being  that  they  were  not  well 
fatted,  and  were  picked  dry  and  roughly  packed. 

Another  lot  of  well-fatted  poultry,  well  packed,  and  received  in  good  con- 
dition from  Vermont,  the  owner  was  fully  convinced  would  have  netted  him 
from  one  to  two  cents  a  pound  more  if  he  had  followed  the  directions  given 
in  No.  201,  for  killing  and  preparing  poultry  for  market. 

Relative  to  the  effect  of  the  weather  upon  the  business  of  fatting  poultry 
and  some  other  facts,  we  are  indebted  to  the  Messrs.  Beatty  for  the  follow- 
ing.   They  say : 

'•  Owing  to  the  lateness  of  the  season,  turkeys  did  not  grow  sufficiently  to 
fat  well  for  the  early  market.  It  is  unprofitable  to  feed  these  birds  to  fatten 
them  until  they  get  their  growtli ;  and  in  such  warm  weather  as  we  have 
had  this  season  they  do  not  fatten  well,  being  inclined  to  wander.  To  fat 
turkeys  well  and  cheaply  we  must  have  cold  weatlier.  It  is  owing  to  this, 
and  having  to  feed  a  longer  time,  tliat  we  have  not  been  as  successful  as  last 
year ;  and  it  was  so  warm  when  our  Christmas  lot  was  dressed,  consisting 
of  four  tuns,  that  with  all  our  appliances  it  required  not  only  experienced 
skill,  but  great  care  to  preserve  the  wliole  in  good  order  till  ready  for  ship- 
ment. The  fault  with  that  lot  [alluding  to  one  then  unpacking]  is,  that  the 
birds  were  packed  before  all  tiie  animal  heat  was  out  of  them.  Tliis  must 
be  carefully  guarded  against  in  sucli  weather  as  we  have  liad  this  season. 

"It  has  been  very  difficult  for  farmers  to  raise  turkeys  the  past  summer 
on  account  of  cold  and  wet,  so  that  the  stock  in  the  country  is  probably  not 
more  tiian  half  as  large  as  it  was  last  year,  and  that  is  the  only  reason  that 
the  price,  notwithstanding  the  monc}'  pressure,  has  kept  up  so  well.  We 
/lave  fed  this  year  1,000  turkeys  in  one  lot  together,  having  had  in  all  1,300, 
and  between  200  and  300  geese,  with  other  poultry  in  proportion.  We  use, 
and  recommend  to  others,  to  feed  good,  sound  Indian  corn,  and  with  it  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  charcoal,  which  we  consider  indispensable.  It  promotes  health 
and  improves  the  quality  of  the  flesh." 

Will  all  poultry-raisers   remember  this  important  fact,  which  alone  is 


148  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  1. 

worth  more  to  them  than  all  we  shall  ever  receive  for  preparing  this  volume 
of  valuable  information  ? 

201.  Preparing  Poultry  for  Market. — "We  have  repeatedly  published  di- 
rections for  preparing  poultry  for  market,  and  we  can  not  make  a  more 
valuable  finish  to  this  section  upon  poultry  than  by  giving  in  brief  such 
directions  as  all  must  rigidly  follow,  who  send  such  farm  produce  to  the 
great  market  of  New  York.  The  professional  poultry  feeders  and  packers 
need  no  instructions,  but  many  farmers  do.  Many  of  them  have  already 
saved  a  handsome  pcr-centagc  on  the  value  of  their  poultry  by  giving  it  a 
proper  preparation,  and  others  may. 

As  a  preliminary  rule,  and  make  it  unalterable,  never  kill  a  bird  unless 
it  is  fat.  Kever  cut  ofl"  the  head  of  a  turkey  or  goose,  but  hang  them  by  the 
heels  where  they  can  not  bruise  themselves  in  the  death-struggle,  and  stick 
them  with  a  small  knife  and  bleed  them  to  death.  Ducks  and  common 
fowls,  if  decapitated,  should  be  held  or  tied  and  hung  up  to  bleed  to  death. 
Never  kill  your  birds  until  quite  fat;  you  will  lose  in  price,  in  reputation, 
and  in  weight.  Never  strangle  them,  so  as  to  leave  the  blood  in.  Tlic  hot 
plan  is  to  tie  all  kinds  of  birds  to  a  line  drawn  from  post  to  post  or  tree  to 
tree,  and  stick  them  just  in  the  forward  end  of  the  neck,  either  with  a  broad- 
bladed  awl  or  a  penknife.  It  is  imdoubtedly  the  best  mode  of  killing.  If 
the  head  is  cut  off,  the  skin  recedes,  and  the  neck-bone  looks  repulsive.  To 
obtain  the  best  prices,  the  birds  must  look  good  as  well  as  be  good. 

There  is  an  exception,  however,  to  the  <ibove  recommendation  about  stick- 
ing, for  some  dealers  prefer  the  birds  with  heads  on,  and  some  do  not.  In 
some  towns  it  is  always  customary  to  cut  off  all  the  heads.  When  this  is  to 
be  done,  draw  the  skin  back  from  the  head  as  far  as  possible,  so  that  when 
you  cut  off  the  head,  which  should  be  done  close  to  it,  there  will  be  somo 
loose  skin  to  draw  over  the  end  of  the  neck  bone,  where  it  should  be  tied 
close.  We  doubt  whether  it  is  not  worth  while  to  pay  freight  upon  heads. 
It  is  worth  while  to  pay  freight  on  the  intestines,  because  the  meat  can  not 
be  kept  sweet  long  after  they  are  drawn  and  the  air  admitted  inside  of  the 
body.     Therefore,  never  draw  a  bird. 

It  is  a  practice  of  some  of  the  best  poultrymen,  while  the  birds  are  bleed- 
ing, to  hold  them  firmly  by  one  hand,  and  pliick  the  feathers  with  the  other, 
as  they  come  out  easily  while  the  fowls  are  warm.  This  treatment  is  only 
for  turkeys  and  common  fowls.  Tiiey  are  then  ready  for  scalding.  Take 
hold  of  the  legs,  and  i)lnnge  the  bi)dy  in  quick  succession,  two  or  three 
times,  in  boiling  water.  This  should  be  done  in  a  warm  room,  and  the  birds 
hung  upon  a  line  to  pick  clean,  taking  care  not  to  tear  the  skin.  Geese  and 
ducks  are  plunged  two  or  three  times  in  boiling  water,  drawing  them  out  by 
the  head,  and  then  wrapped  in  a  woolen  blanket  to  steam  ten  minutes. 
Take  them  on  your  lap  to  pick.  Do  not  scald  the  legs,  nor  heat  the  bodies 
of  birds  against  the  sides  of  the  kettle.  After  the  birds  are  neatly  picked, 
they^are  put  throngli  the  plnn)j)ing  process.  This  gives  them  a  finish,  and 
increases  their  value  in  market. 


Seo.  9.]  POULTRY.  149 

The  rule  for  "  plumping"  is  to  dip  the  birds  about  two  seconds  into  water 
nearly  or  quite  boiling  hot,  and  then  at  once  into  cold  water  about  the  same 
length  of  time.  Some  think  the  hot  plunge  sufficient  witliout  the  cold.  Tlie 
neatest  poultry-dressers  use  both  the  hot  and  cold  plunge.  The  poultry 
should  be  entirely  cold,  but  not  frozen  before  being  packed.  If  poultry 
reaches  market  sound,  without  freezing,  it  will  sell  all  the  better. 

After  plumping,  hang  or  lay  the  birds  where  they  will  dry,  and  then 
remove  them  to  the  cooling-room,  laying  the  bodies  nicely  arranged  upon 
clean  boards  in  a  cold  room  till  perfectly  cool,  but  not  frozen,  and  then  pack 
in  bo.xes,  with  clean  rye  straw,  about  300  or  400  lbs.  in  a  box,  filled  full ; 
mark  the  contents  on  a  paper  inside,  and  on  the  lid  outside,  and  direct  it  to 
your  commission-merchant  plainly,  and  send  it  by  express,  and  one  invoice 
by  mail,  and  place  another  in  one  of  the  boxes,  if  there  is  more  than  one, 
and  mark  on  that,  invoice,  and  then  it  will  be  opened  first,  and  the  merchant 
knows  whence  it  comes,  and  what  the  consignment  consists  of.  It  is  also  a 
good  plan  to  mark  the  contents  of  each  box  outside,  thus:  In  box 

iVo.  1—12  turkeys,  1-14  lbs. ;  20  geese,  160  lbs. ;  50  spring  chickens,  125  lbs. 

JVo.  2—100  fowls,  300  lbs. ;  24  ducks,  96  lbs. 

This  lot  will  pack  in  two  square  dry-goods  boxes.  If  clean  hand-threshed 
rye  straw  can  not  be  had,  wheat  or  oat  s'raw  will  answer,  if  clean  and  free 
from  dust.  Place  a  layer  of  straw  at  the  bottom  of  the  box,  then  alternate 
layere  of  poultry  and  straw — taking  care  to  stow  snugly,  backs  upward, 
filling  vacancies  with  straw,  and  filling  the  package  so  that  tlie  cover  will 
draw  down  snugly  upon  the  contents.  Couimon  dry-goods  boxes,  holding 
not  over  300  lbs.,  are  the  best  packages. 

Never  kill  your  birds  on  a  damp  day,  nor  pack  them,  if  you  can  avoid  it, 
except  in  a  clear,  cold,  dry  atmosphere ;  and  try  to  avoid  night-work,  when 
you  are  tired  and  your  help  sleepy,  and  all  of  you  careless. 

No  matter  how  light  j-our  boxes  are,  they  must  look  clean,  or  your  poultry 
will  not  sell  at  first  prices.  In  packing,  press  the  wings  close,  and  ^ress 
the  bird  down  hard  on  the  breast,  the  legs  extending  back,  and  fill  each 
course  full,  and  then  lay  on  straw  and  another  course  of  birds.  Nail  tight, 
but  don't  let  a  nail  project  inward  to  tear  the  birds. 

Give  your  name  and  residence  in  full  on  the  bill  in  the  box  and  on  the 
invoice  by  mail.  Don't  think  because  you  know  in  what  State  you  live,  that 
everybody  else  will  know  it  if  you  name  the  town. 

Never  pack  in  barrels  if  you  can  get  good  dry-goods  boxes,  as  the  rolling 
of  barrels  injures  the  poultry,  where  it  is  likely  to  be  much  handled,  unless 
very  closely  packed.  Besides,  it  does  not  pack  to  as  good  advantage  to  the 
shape  of  the  birds  as  it  does  in  boxes.  Small  lots  may  be  packed  in  "shoe 
or  hat  boxes,"  but  they  must  be  carefully  hooped,  and  so  should  be  all  boxes. 
Don't  use  a  rough,  black  board  for  a  cover ;  you  had  better  spend  an  hour 
to  plane  it.  Don't  acknoM^lodge,  by  sending  unplaned  boards,  that  you 
don't  own  a  plane.  It  is  bad  economy  to  use  heavy  packages,  or  have  any 
waste  room,  because  freight  is  charged  by  the  pound,  and  for  long  distances 


150  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 


the  express  charges  may  amount  to  four  or  five  cents  a  pound,  and  all  the 

weight  of  tliebox  counts  ctiusilly  with  the  contents. 

It  is  a  practice  with  some — and  a  very  foolish  practice  it  is— to  stuff  fowls 
just  before  tliey  are  killed,  thinking  to  sell  corn  at  the  price  of  meat.  Better 
give  no  food  for  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  killing.  Food  in  the  crop  is 
liable  to  sour,  and  always  injures  the  sale,  for  it  looks  to  purchasers  as  though 
there  was  a  design  to  cheat. 

You  may  pick  turkeys  and  fowls  dry  if  you  will  not  tear  the  skin,  and 
then  scald  them  afterward  by  dipping  them  suddenly  in  and  out  of  boiling 
water.  Geese  and  ducks  must  always  be  scalded.  Do  not  scald  tlie  legs  too 
much,  whether  you  pick  iirst  or  afterward.  Be  careful  of  that.  You  must 
pick  them  clean,  and  the  after-scalding  makes  them  look  plump  and  good. 
"Well-packed  boxes  of  well  prepared  birds  will  keep  sweet  a  long  time  in 
cool  weather,  and  may  be  transported  by  express  from  Ohio  for  three  cents 
a  pound  ;  from  Chicago  and  most  of  Illinois  for  five  cents  ;  from  Iowa  for 
six  or  six  and  a  half  cents,  and  arriving  in  good  order,  will  be  sold  at  good 
prices,  and  your  money  remitted  to  you,  less  10  per  cent.  Now,  following 
these  directions,  and  getting  these  prices,  if  it  is  better  for  you  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  farmers  to  send  j'our  poultry  East- 
ward for  sale,  you  know  how  to  do  it ;  and  if  it  opens  to  you  a  new  and  im- 
proved market,  it  will  bo  worth  more  to  you  than  the  whole  cost  of  this 
volume  upon  every  box  of  poultry  sold.  In  fact,  these  directions,  given  in 
part  heretofore  to  the  public,  have  been  the  means  of  saving  great  sums  of 
money  to  the  poultry  producers. 

After  boxes  are  packed,  if  there  is  any  chance  of  not  getting  them  imme- 
diately into  market,  or  if  a  change  in  prices  makes  it  desirable  to  liold  back, 
it  will  be  a  good  plan  to  place  them  v>-here  the  contents  will  freeze  solid ; 
then  they  will  stand  a  long  spell  of  warm  weather,  such  as  makes  badly- 
packed  poultry  slimy.  If  you  could  be  sure  of  cold  Aveather,  so  that  the 
birdi would  lemain  frozen,  very  little  straw  would  be  requisite  in  packing; 
but  as  a  general  thing,  a  liberal  allowance  of  straw  will  more  than  pay  its 
cost  of  transportation  in  keeping  the  birds  in  good  order. 

When  packages  are  frozen  before  shipment,  it  will  be  well  to  advise  con- 
signees of  the  fact,  as  we  have  known  a  thaw  to  come  on  gradually,  until 
very  warm,  and  have  then  seen  packages  opened  in  perfect  order  that  were 
frozen  up  two  or  three  montlis  before.  In  fact,  we  knew  one  such  that  got 
mislaid  and  covered  with  empty  boxes  in  a  cellar,  that  kept  sweet  till  it  was 
accidentally  discovered  in  May. 

Water  for  scalding  any  kind  of  poultry  should  be  as  near  to  the  boiling 
point  as  possible,  without  actually  boiling;  the  bird  being  held  by  the  legs, 
sliould  be  immersed  and  lifted  up  and  down  in  the  water  tln-ee  limes ;  the 
motion  helps  the  hot  water  to  penetrate  the  plumage  and  take  proper  cfteet 
upon  the  skin.  Continue  to  hold  the  bird  by  the  legs  with  one  hand  while 
])lucking  the  feathers  with  the  other  without  a  moment's  delay  after  taking 
it  out ;  if  skillfully  handled  in  this  way,  the  feathers  and  pin-feathers  may  all 


Sec.  9]  POULTRY.  151 

be  removed  witliout  breaking  tlie  skin.  A  torn  or  broicen  skin  greatly 
injures  tlie  appearance,  and  tlie  price  will  be  lo\v  in  proportion. 

Do  not  send  the  birds  with  tail  and  wing  feathers  in,  unless  it  may  be 
occasionally  in  a  very  handsome  turkey. 

Geese  always  sell  best  the  week  before  Christmas,  and  they  should  always 
bo  stall-fed.  Christmas  prices  are  usually  for  Avell-fed  geese,  such  as  will 
warrant  their  iucreased  production,  since  it  is  contended  by  persons  whose 
opinion  is  entitled  to  great  respect,  that  with  proper  care  and  skill,  upon  a 
farm  well  fitted  for  the  business,  a  tun  of  geese  can  be  made  at  the  same 
cost  as  a  tun  of  beef,  leaving  the  feathers  as  an  excess  of  profit. 

Now  let  all  who  read,  remember  that  common-sense  attention  to  these 
rules,  in  regard  to  preparing  poultry,  will  often  insure  25  per  cent,  higher 
prices  than  poultry  of  the  same  value  originally  will  bring,  if  slovenly  dressed 
and  packed,  and  carelessly  directed  and  stupidly  forwarded,  as  often  hap- 
pens. To  bring  the  highest  market-prices,  poultry  must  be  good  and  well 
bandied. 

202.  Preparing  Game  for  Markets — Wild  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  and  the 
smaller  birds  should  be  packed  in  the  natural  state.  In  cold  weather  they 
may  be  packed  snugly,  backs  up,  with  or  without  clean  straw,  taking  care 
to  keep  the  plumage  as  smooth  as  possible.  If  the  weather  becomes  warm 
daring  the  transit,  straw  between  the  layers  acts  beneficially  as  an  absorbent 
of  moisture.  Birds  should  never  be  drawn,  and  if  mutilated  by  gun-shot, 
the  market  value  will  be  much  reduced. 

Woodcock,  quails,  and  other  small  birds  are  in  cool  weather  sometimes 
each  wrapped  in  paper,  and  packed  in  dry  sawdust.  In  hot  weather  tliey 
may  be  packed  without  the  paper  in  coarse  sawdust  and  ice.  They  seldom 
arrive  in  good  order  if  more  tlian  twenty-fours  on  the  way  in  hot  weather. 

In  venison  it  is  best  to  send  only  the  hind  part  of  the  carcass,  including, 
say,  two  or  three  ribs  Avith  tlie  saddle.  The  skin  should  be  stripped  from 
the  fore  part  and  carefully  M'rapped  about  the  saddle,  thus  keeping  it  clean 
and  in  good  order. 

By  the  "  game  laws"  of  the  State  of  Now  York,  the  killing  of  any  wild 
deer,  partridge,  quail,  woodcock,  or  snipe  during  the  months  of  February, 
March,  April,  May,  June,  and  July  is  prohibited  under  penalty  of  $25  for 
each  offense. 

Common  carriers  or  their  agents  may,  in  the  discharge  of  their  legitimate 
business,  transport  deer  or  game  during  the  inhibited  period  without  viola- 
tion of  the  law;  and  commission  merciiants  and  dealers  are  protected  if  they 
can  show,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court,  that  the  game  in  question  came 
from  any  other  State,  or  foreign  country,  or  that  it  was  not  killed  during  the 
inhibited  period. 

The  taking  of  speckled  or  brook  trout  is  prohibited  between  the  15th  day 
of  September  and  the  loth  day  of  February,  under  the  same  penalties  and 
provisions  as  in  the  case  of  game;  but  the  Cayuga,  Seneca,  Crooked,  and 
Otsego  lakes  are  excepted  from  this  prohibition. 


152  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

203.  Eggs— How  to  Produce  Ihem  in  Winter. — Pork  scraps  or  greaves,  fed 
in  moderate  quantity,  arc  found  to  have  a  marvelous  effect  in  tiic  produc- 
tion of  winter  eggs.  Give  liens  also  sand,  and  gravel,  and  lime,  and  see 
that  they  have  water.  Egg-shells  should  never  he  fed  whole,  hut  thcj'  may 
be  mashed  up  fine  and  mixed  with  feed  to  good  advantage.  Some  hens 
are  much  more  productive  of  eggs  than  others.  Eighty  hens,  hclonging  to 
Capt.  Thos.  A.  Norton,  of  Yarmouth,  Mass.,  have  laid  during  one  year  637 
dozen  eggs.  At  the  average  price  of  eggs,  that  would  be  about  $1  25  for 
each  hen. 

20i.  How  to  Detect  the  Sex  in  Domestic  Fowls'  Eggs. — A  person  who  has 
paid  attention  to  the  subject  declares  that  he  can  tell  the  sex  of  eggs  in  the 
following  manner.     lie  says : 

"I  began  examining  eggs,  classing  them  according  to  the  difference  I 
found  in  the  formation  of  each,  marking  each  class,  and  putting  them  under 
hens  as  soon  as  opportunity  offered ;  when,  iu  less  than  twelve  months,  I 
was  fully  convinced  that  I  had  discovered  either  a  method  or  the  method 
of  foretelling  the  sex  in  the  egg,  which  was  proved  by  ocular  demonstration 
in  the  chickens  produced. 

"  At  the  large  end  of  the  egg  there  is  a  circular  space  or  cavity  containing 
air,  which  country  folks  call  the  '  crown'  of  the  egg ;  its  proper  name  I  know 
not.  When  you  examine  the  egg,  hold  it,  the  large  end  uppermost,  before 
a  candle  or  gaslight,  and  in  looking  through  it  you  will  observe  a  dark  cir- 
cular mark,  something  similar  to  the  moon  when  partially  eclipsed.  This 
dark  circular  mark  is  the  space  filled  with  air  or  '  the  crown'  of  the  egg,  and 
when  in  the  center  it  indicates  that  the  egg  will  produce  a  male. 

"  My  method  of  examining  the  egg  is  as  follows  :  I  make  use  of  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  my  left  hand  as  two  points,  placing  the  small  end  of  the 
egg  on  my  thumb,  my  forefinger  covering  the  large  end  of  it,  and  as  near 
the  center  of  the  end  as  possible.  I  then  place  the  egg  in  this  position 
steadily  before  a  candle  and  gently  turn  it  around  ;  if  the  crown  be  in  the 
center  it  will  be  scarcely  visible,  the  forefinger  nearly  covering  it.  On  the 
contrary,  if  the  crown  be  on  the  side  you  will  only  see  it  on  one  side  of  the 
egg  as  you  turn  it  around."'  There  is  a  little  contrivance,  called  the  ooni- 
scope,  to  detect  bad  eggs.  The  egg  is  placed  iu  a  hole  of  a  box,  and  the 
light  reflects  on  a  mirror  inside  and  tells  unerringly  the  true  condition  of 
the  egg.  A  little  practice  enables  any  one  to  discover  whether  eggs  are 
fresh  or  not. 

205.  Vitality  of  Egss  AlTected  by  Transportation. — It  has  been  stated  upon 
good  authority  that  railroad  transportalion  injures  the  vitality  of  eggs.  That 
pack  them  as  you  will,  if  they  are  carried  any  considerable  distance,  say  100 
miles,  the  continued  shaking  will  shake  the  life  out  of  them.  Traveling  on 
the  Harlem  Road  one  day,  we  met  an  acquaintance  carefully  carrying  a 
small  basket  in  his  hands.  AVe  remarked  that  he  handled  his  basket  as 
carefully  as  though  he  was  carrying  eggs.  "And  so  I  am,"  he  replied  ;  "  I  am 
taking  them  about  a  hundred  miles  to  a  friend,  and  will  insure  every  one  to 


Sec.  9.]  POULTRY.  153 

Iiatcli  out  a  chicken,  so  far  as  transportation  may  aifect  them.  But  I  learned 
this  by  experience.  I  had  a  lot  sent  up  the  road  only  twenty-five  miles,  in 
the  ordinary  way,  and  did  not  get  one  chicken  to  fifty  eggs,  while  out  of 
another  lot,  carried  in  my  hands  in  this  way,  not  one  missed,"  He  said  :  "  As 
a  general  rule,  it  niay  be  set  down  for  fact,  that  eggs  that  have  been  trans- 
ported by  railroad  will  never  bring  forth  chickens."  This  is  important  in- 
formation, and  should  be  well  remembered.  So,  too,  let  it  he  remembered 
that  eggs  intended  for  incubation  can  not  be  too  carefully  handled  in  taking 
them  from  the  nests  and  keeping  them  about  the  house  till  the  hen  is  ready 
to  take  them  in  charge. 

206.  Selling  Eggs  by  Weight. — "We  have  frequently  recommended  that  eggs 
should  always  be  sold  by  weight,  instead  of  by  count.  We  recommended  it 
because  m'c  thought  it  more  fair  both  for  producer  and  consumer  ;  but  really, 
with  the  present  system  of  trade,  we  do  not  see  much  to  encourage  the  change, 
and  nothing  to  encourage  the  production  of  eggs  of  a  large  size  while  small 
ones  sell  at  the  same  price  as  the  largest,  per  dozen  or  hundred,  and  consumers 
are  guilty  of  the  great  foil}'  of  making  no  distinction.  Do  they  ever  think  of 
the  difference  in  weight  ?  Do  they  know  how  niany  eggs  there  should  be 
to  the  pound  ?  The  largest-sized  eggs  of  the  common  barn-door  fowl  weigh 
three  ounces  each,  but  the  average  is  about  ten  to  tlie  pound.  We  inquired 
once  of  a  retail  groceryman,  "  Have  you  any  fresh  eggs?"  "  Yes  ;  there  is  a 
lot  of  fine  ones,  just  in,  all  of  this  State,  in  good  order."  "  At  what  price  ?" 
"  Twelve  cents  a  dozen."  "  May  I  pick  them  out  at  that  ?"  "  Oh,  yes,  cer- 
tainly ;  they  are  all  alike,  good."  Of  this  we  had  no  doubt  as  to  the  good  ; 
but  that  they  were  otherwise  alike,  we  intended  to  prove  that  he  was  mis- 
taken. So  we  picked  out  a  dozen  and  laid  them  in  the  scales,  with  a  1|  lb. 
weight  opposite,  thinking  they  were  just  the  size  that  takes  eight  to  the 
pound,  for  that  is  just  what  good,  fair-sized  hen's-eggs  always  will  average. 
These  were  a  little  heavier,  and  we  added  two  more,  and  balanced  two 
pounds — seven  eggs  to  the  pound.  Then  we  picked  out  of  the  same  cask 
thirteen  more,  and  these  weighed  just  one  pound,  not  quite  100  per  cent, 
dift'erence  whether  you  buy  large  or  small  eggs.  Now,  if  f;xrmers  and  fools 
meet,  is  it  right  that  the  one  should  take  advantage  of  the  other  in  this  way  ? 
or  is  it  right  that  one  man  should  keep  a  brood  of  small  hens,  the  keeping 
of  which  costs  less  than  half  that  of  larger  ones,  and  get  the  same  price  for 
the  eggs  ?  If  honesty  is  the  best  policy  in  all  of  our  dealings,  then  it  is  the 
best  policy  to  sell  eggs  by  the  pound,  and  not  by  the  dozen. 

207.  To  Preserve  Eggs. — We  can  not  vouch  for  the  following.  If  it  is  as 
stated,  it  is  much  more  simple  and  convenient  than  packing  in  lime,  salt, 
etc.  "  Provide  a  small  cupboard,  safe,  or  tier  of  shelves ;  bore  these  shelves 
full  of  holes  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  and  place  the  eggs  in 
them,  point  downward.  They  will  keep  sound  for  several  months.  Other 
modes,  such  as  packing  in  salt,  etc.,  depend  for  their  success  simply  on 
placing  the  points  down  ;  the  shelves  are  more  convenient  and  accessible." 

208.  Eggs  Consumed  in  England. — In  the  statistics  of  British  commerce, 


154  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

the  lionie  production  is  put  down  at  75,000  tuns  annuully,  which  are  valued 
at  $;15,000,000.  The  iniportatiou  of  eggs  for  eight  years,  ending  with  18i7, 
ranged  from  96,000,000  in  18iO,  to  77,500,000  in  18i7,  and  the  importa- 
tions of  the  succeeding  years  are  given  in  the  following  table  : 


Number. 

1848 .• 88.012,58.5 

1849 97,745.849 

1850 105,689,060 


NambCT. 

1852 108,281.253 

1853 133,450,678 

1854 121,966,226 


1851 115,526,246  i  1855 100,005,200 

Tlie  first  six  months  of  1856,  68,062,600.  This  was  nearly  14,000,000  in 
excess  of  the  number  received  in  the  first  six  months  of  1855,  but  not  so 
large  as  in  1854.     The  imports  of  eggs  in  1854  were,  from 

Nnmber.      1  Unmber. 

Belgium 10,415,517    Spain 5,983,161 

France 104,126,918    Channel  Islands 794.400 

Portugal 419,866  |  Other  parts 226,424 

Up  to  the  8th  of  August,  1854,  eggs  were  entered  by  number,  but  since 
that  they  have  been  entered  by  cubic  feet,  internal  measurement.  In  order 
to  reduce  the  whole  to  a  uniform  standard,  200  eggs  are  estimated  to  be 
packed  in  one  cubic  foot.  The  duty  charged  is  8d.  per  cubic  foot  of  eggs 
from  foreign  countries,  and  half  that  duty  from  British  possessions.  In 
the  metropolis  the  egg  trade  is  a  very  important  branch  of  commerce,  giving 
employment  to  sixty  egg  merchants  and  salesmen  on  a  large  scale,  exclusive 
of  the  number  of  shopkeepers  who  sell  eggs.  Tliese  salesmen  distribute  the 
boxes  of  eggs  over  the  various  consuming  localities  in  light  carts. 

The  principal  importation  is  from  France  and  Belgium.  Quantities  of 
Portuguese  eggs  are  occasionally  imported  into  England  by  the  Peninsular 
Mall  steamers.  The  eggs  of  the  Spanish  fowls  being  very  large,  are  much 
esteemed,  and  valued  at  Id.  to  l^d.  each.  Spain  imports  a  certain  quantity 
from  the  French  province  of  Oran,  in  Algeri;i.  Tiio  eggs  of  the  Bedouin 
fowls  are  sold  in  the  European  markets  at  5d.  to  6d.  the  dozen. 

The  supplies  of  eggs  sent  from  Ireland  to  Liverpool,  and  thence  into  the 
manufacturing  districts,  are  enormous,  frequently  exceeding  1,000,000  a 
day.  They  are  packed  with  straw  in  crates,  boxes,  or  hampers.  The  crates 
contain  from  6,(i00  to  8,000  eggs,  the  boxes  about  2,500.  Sometimes  largo 
boxes  contain  13,000  or  more  eggs. 

In  1852,  9,260  tuns  of  Irish  eggs  were  imported  into  Liverpool,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  that  is  not  more  than  one  fifth  of  the  product  of  that  island 

209.  Eg^s  in  France. — M.  Legrand,  a  French  statistical  writer,  estimated 
the  consuniption  of  eggs  in  1835  in  Paris  at  138  per  head  of  all  the  inhab- 
itants, and  in  the  provinces  at  double  that  ratio.  '•  The  consumption  of 
eggs  for  the  whole  kingdom,"  he  observes,  "is  estimated  at  7,231,160,000; 
add  to  this  number  those  exported  and  those  necessary  for  reproduction,  and 
it  will  result  that  7,380,925,000  were  laid  in  France  during  the  year  1835." 

Since  that  time  the  production  has  largely  increased.  M.  Armand  IIus- 
son,  in  his  interesting  book  on  the  "  Consommation"  of  Paris,  just  pub- 


Number.  Av.  pr.  per  1,000. 

1851 129,732,299 42f.  69  centimes. 

18-52 160,000,000 41f.  35  centimes. 

J653 175,000,000 


Sec.  9.]  POULTRY.  155 

lislied,  returns  the  number  of  eggs  consumed  in  the  French  metropolis  at 
175,000,000,  or  175  to  each  head  of  the  population,  worth  about  $1  35. 
The  value  of  the  eggs  consumed  in  Paris  one  year  would  be  also  about 
£300,000 ;  but  probably  three  quarters  of  a  million  sterling  would  be  a 
nearer  estimate  of  tlie  poultry  and  eggs  consumed  annually  in  Paris. 

The  consumption  and  prices  may  be  judged  of  from  the  following  figures: 

Number.  Av.pr.  per  1,000. 

1847 120,940,724 57  francs. 

1848 100,747,222 48f.  40  centimes. 

1849 ll:?,687,732 4Gf.  70  centimes. 

1850 124,597,150 43f.  93  centimes. 

A  number  of  GalignanPs  Ifessenger  says  that,  in  1815,  the  number  of 
eggs  exported  from  France  was  1,700,000 ;  in  1816  it  rose  to  8,000,000. 
six  years  later,  in  1822,  the  number  was  55,000,000 ;  and  99,500,000  in 
1824.  In  1830  the  number  declined  to  55,000,000  ;  then  gradually  increased 
until  1815,  when  it  was  88,200,000,  for  which  an  export  duty  of  114,000 
francs  was  paid.  Nearly  all  these  eggs  go  to  England.  The  yearly  consump- 
tion of  eggs  in  Paris  is  estimated  at  165,000,000,  and  the  total  consumption 
of  all  France  at  9,000,000,000 ;  so  that,  reckoning  eggs  at  a  sou,  this  single 
article  represents  465,000,000  francs. 

210.  The  Egg  Trade  in  this  Country. — Steamboats  and  railways  have  done 
much  to  increase  and  improve  the  trade  in  poultry  and  eggs,  in  butter  and 
milk,  as  well  as  in  carcass  meat  and  fish  of  all  kinds,  for  tlie  supply  of  large 
cities  and  dense  populations  in  Europe  and  America,  situate  far  from  the 
chief  seats  of  production  or  fishing.  The  poultry  dealers  of  New  York 
made  their  ajipearance  on  the  shores  of  the  great  American  lakes  within  a 
few  days  after  the  regular  trains  M'ere  in  motion  on  the  Erie  Railroad. 
Poultry  and  eggs  M'ere  swept  away  by  them  at  an  advance  of  25  to  30  per 
cent,  on  their  ordinary  value,  and  a  decided  stimulus  has  been  given  to  the 
production  of  poultry  and  eggs. 

The  British  American  provinces  are  now  supplying  the  United  States 
towns  with  eggs,  Avhich  are  imported  duty  free  under  the  Eeciprocity  Treaty. 
1,260  dozen  eggs  from  Nova  Scotia  were  entered  very  recently  at  the  Cus- 
tom-house, Boston,  in  one  day.  In  the  season  of  1852,  about  8,000  barrels 
of  eggs,  containing  84  dozen  per  barrel,  were  shipped  from  the  port  of  Mon- 
treal to  the  United  States,  and  sold  at  about  16c.  the  dozen. 

One  merchant  in  Marion  County,  Ohio,  has  shipped  in  one  season  124,950 
dozen  of  eggs,  in  1,785  barrels,  costing,  at  7  cents  a  dozen,  $8,746  50. 

211.  Packing  Eggs  for  Market. — There  is  probably  in  no  one  article  of  the 
same  relative  value  so  much  depreciation  and  loss  from  injudicious  manage- 
ment and  unskillful  packing  as  in  eggs.  This  is  best  illustrated  in  the 
"Western  trade,  especially  during  the  wann  season,  when  the  average  price 
of  AVestern  eggs  rules,  say,  three  to  five  cents  per  dozen  below  those  from  this 
State ;  but  at  the  same  time  we  have  some  Western  marks  that  bring  nearly 
or  quite  as  much  as  the  best  State,  showing  conclusively  that  it  is  entirely 
practicable  to  forward  them  in  prime  order  from  the  far  West.     If  the  fol- 


156  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  [Chap.  I. 

lowing  directions  are  intelligently  carried  out,  there  will  be  very  little  doubt 
of  success. 

Be  sure  (especially  in  tbe  summer  season)  that  your  eggs  arc  not  only 
sound,  but  recently  laid.  Eggs  may  be  "candled"  or  examined  by  the 
"  ooniscope,"  and  repacked  at  the  West ;  but  if  they  are  stale,  though  still 
apparently  sound,  they  will  be  sure  to  reach  this  nuirket  in  bad  order,  or 
will  so  rapidly  change,  on  being  opened,  that  dealers  will  be  sure  to  lose 
money  on  them.  The  motion  of  the  cars  over  such  long  distances  so  mud- 
dles all  eggs,  not  entirely  fresh,  that  they  appear  cloudy  and  stale,  and  will 
soon  spoil,  if  indeed  they  are  not  already  unsalable. 

Use  very  strong,  stiff  barrels,  put  a  little  soft  straw  or  hay  evenly  over 
the  bottom  with  a  stiff  paper  on  the  toj)  of  the  straw,  then  oats  or  cut  straw, 
say,  two  to  three  inches,  then  a  layer  of  eggs,  laid  snugly  together  upon  the 
sides,  evenly  imbedded  in  the  oats,  with  the  ends  toward  but  about  one  inch 
from  the  staves.  Cover  the  layer  with  oats  and  shake  down  gently  but  thor- 
oughly, leaving,  say,  one  inch  of  oats  upon  the  layer  of  eggs  ;  tlius  continue 
shaking  down  thoroughly  with  each  layer  until  the  barrel  is  full.  Place 
about  three  inches  of  oats  over  the  last  layer,  then  a  stiff  paper  and  a 
little  soft  hay  or  straw  next  the  head,  filling  so  high  that  the  head  must  be 
pressed  to  its  place  by  a  lever  or  other  mechanical  power,  that  the  contents 
may  be  held  so  firmly  that  they  can  never  shift  or  loosen  in  the  barrels.  In 
the  winter,  to  guard  against  frost,  use  more  packing,  leaving  the  eggs  farther 
from  the  sides  of  the  barrels.  Use  clean,  bright  oats;  they  are  salable  at 
all  seasons,  though  of  late  merchants  seem  to  ]irefercut  straw.  Mark  plainly 
I  lie  number  of  dozen  and  the  quantity  of  oats  in  each  barrel.  Be  very  ]iar- 
ticular  to  have  the  count  right.  A  good  reputation  for  accuracy  is  very 
valuable. 

One  person  says:  "I  use  a  board  some  six  or  eight  inches  square,  with  a 
loop  or  staple  in  the  center  for  pressing  each  layer  of  oats  firmly  down. 
Tlici'e  will  be  something  gained  by  lifting  and  dropping  the  barrel  square  on 
the  end,  but  not  by  shaking,  as  it  disturbs  the  layers.  When  it  gets  too 
heavy  to  lift,  use  a  board  three  fourths  as  large  as  the  head,  and  get  on  it, 
increasing  your  weight  with  a  spring,  and  on  the  head  driving  it  in.  The 
secret  lies  all  in  packing  the  oats.  Oats  are  better  worth  sending  to  market 
than  hay,  and  just  as  safe.  I  have  sent  ten  barrels  at  a  time  without  losing 
a  single  egg.     You  must  pack  tight.    Remember  that." 


PLATE     XTT. 

This  picture  is  intended  to  be  botli  suggestive  and  instructive. 
First,  it  suggests  to  any  one  who  may  chance  to  open  the  book  at 
this  page,  the  study  of  bee-culture,  and  the  propriety  of  addhig  this 
kind  of  farm-stock  to  tlic  larger  animals  already  owned.  It  is  placed 
here  for  that  purpose.  It  is  to  attract  attention  to  the  subject,  and 
induce  readers  to  turn  over  a  few  pages  and  read  just  enough  to 
whet  the  appetite  for  more  knowledge.  It  is  instructive,  as  it 
shows  the  ditTerent  form  and  size  of  the  three  classes  of  bees,  so 
that  any  one,  after  studying  this  picture,  need  make  no  mistake. 
It  shows  how  a  swai'm  issues  from  a  hive  and  settles  upon  a  limb 
of  a  neighboring  tree,  and  how  fearlessly  the  bee-keej^er  approaches 
the  swarm  and  puts  it  in  the  hive,  which  he  will  cover  up  and  carry 
to  its  place  on  the  stand.  The  author  has  frequently  climbed  to  the 
top  of  a  tree  as  high  as  this  appears,  and  sawed  oil'  the  limb  upon 
which  the  swarm  had  alighted,  and  brought  it  down  a  long  ladder 
to  the  hive,  with  no  protection  to  face  or  hands.  This  picture, 
therefore,  is  intended  to  induce  you  to  keep  bees,  and  as  a  hint  that 
you  can  easily  learn  all  the  art  of  bee-keeping. 


TllK   AlMAur,  TUB     JJCiK^UK.m'KU    A'C    M.lfS     "-Uttlv. 


CHAPTER   II. 
SMALL   ANIMALS    AND    INSECTS. 

SECTION  X-BEES,  AND   THE   PROFITABLE   PRODUCTION   OF  HONEY. 

i^^UR  opening  chapter  was  devnteil  to  a  general  sur- 
^^     vey  of  farm-stock.     This  will  be  tlevotod  to  observ- 
ations upon  bees,  birds,  bugs,  insects,  and  worms  ; 
gs,  cats,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  moles  ;  camels  as  beasts 
burden  ;   goats   of  Cashmere,  their  value  as  farm- 
tock  ;  fish-breeding,  for  domestic  use  or  market ;    ani- 
s  yielding  fur,  and  alpacas,  and  other  small  stock  of  the 

In  the  leading  article  of  this  chapter  we  shall  notice  what 
may  very  appropriately  be  ranked  as  proiitable  stock  upon 
a  farm,  for  the  product  of  the  liive  often  aftbrds  a  consid- 
erable income,  and  it  is  nearly  all  clear  profit.  Eirds, 
although  they  do  not  produce  a  direct  income,  are  among 
the  greatest  helps  to  that  end,  for  they  are  great  destroyers 
of  those  pests,  the  bugs,  insects,  and  worms,  which  we  shall  also  introduce 
into  this  chapter.  Dogs,  as  an  adjunct  of  the  farm,  and  when  only  kept  in 
very  limited  numbers,  are  not,  perhaps,  unprofitable  stock  ;  but  as  they  at 
present  exist,  they  are  pests  of  the  very  worst  kinds.  Cats  are  a  necessity, 
for  without  them  we  should  be  over-run  with  rats  and  mice,  and  so  we  give 
each  a  small  space  in  this  chapter.  Eabbits,  too,  though  small,  must  have  a 
place ;  and  camels,  though  large  enough  to  fill  a  chapter,  like  the  rabbit, 
must  be  contented  with  a  paragraph.  And  the  Cashmere  goat,  the  only  one 
of  any  value  to  farmers,  is  as  yet  so  little  diffused  among  them,  that  we  can 
only  aftbrd  space  to  give  it  a  passing  notice  ;  and  the  alpaca,  an  equally  im- 
portant domestic  animal,  we  must  treat  in  the  same  short-hand  way. 

Fish-breeding  is  of  vast  importance  to  every  farmer  who  has  the  facility 
for  making  a  fish-pond,  and  therefore  we  have  added  it  to  this  second  chapter 
of  animals,  domestic  or  wild,  upon  the  farm.  And  finally,  we  add  fur  ani- 
mals, merely  to  call  the  attention  of  those  who  own  suitable  locations,  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  possible  that  such  animals  may  be  bred  for  their  skins,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  value  of  their  fiesh. 

So  much  by  way  of  introduction.  Now  let  us  take  up  our  subjects,  item 
by  item,  each  under  its  appropriate  head. 

212.  Bees. — History  of  their  Introduction. — It  is  not  quite  certain  whether 
the  honey-bee  is  indigenous  to  America  or  not.     Our  opinion  is  that  it  is. 


158^  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  •  [Chap.  IL 

beciiuse  several  varieties  now  exist  upon  the  continent,  and  certainly  those 
in  (.\iitral  America  appear  to  be  natives,  s>  far  as  it  is  possible  to  trace  their 
history.  It  is  possible  that  the  early  immigrants,  not  finding  bees  in  the 
di^t^icts  first  occupied  by  them,  cither  in  New  England  or  Virginia,  did 
import  them,  though  this  supposition  a}>pears  doubtful  when  we  consider 
th-  length  of  voyages  in  that  age  of  ocean  navigation.  And  it  is  still  further 
aga'nst  the  theory  of  importation,  to  know  that  as  early  as  16-tS — forty  years 
only  after  Captain  John  Smith's  advent — George  Pelton,  of  Yii-ginia,  was  in 
possession  of  a  good  stock  of  honey-bees ;  and  tliey  were  noticed  by  Beverly 
as  a  common  thing  among  the  Virginia  planters  j^revious  to  1720. 

In  1755,  beeswax  was  an  article  of  export  from  Savannah,  Georgia.  It  is 
■impossible  to  state  the  quantity,  because  it  is  combined  with  myrtle-berry 
wax,  and  both  are  set  down  at  9G9  lbs.  Five  years  later  the  quantity  of  both 
is  given  at  3,910  lbs.,  and  in  1770  at  4,058  lbs. 

In  1767,  the  export  tables  show  35  barrels  of  beeswax,  sent  from  the  port 
of  Philadelphia ;  and  only  four  years  later  the  quantity  is  given  as  29,261  lbs. 

The  history  of  Cuba  credits  Florida  with  bees  imported  from  there  in  1764. 

The  above  facts  prove  that  if  there  were  no  honey-bees  in  this  part  of  the 
continent  when  our  forefathers  came  to  it,  their  importations  were  very  suc- 
cessful, and  the  original  stock  was  widely  disseminated,  and  multiplied  with 
great  rapidity,  for  the  census  of  1850  gives  the  annual  product  of  honey  and 
wax  at  14,853,790  lbs :  and  that  at  a  time  when  the  bee-moth  epidemic  had 
greatly  lessened  the  stock  in  the  country,  and  consequently  the  production 
was  not  as  great  as  it  had  been. 

It  is  a  fact,  too,  that  the  immigrants  of  the  Northwestern  Territory  found 
wild  bees  scattered  all  through  the  forests  of  what  is  now  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois. 

As  an  ofi"sct  to  this,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  first  American  settlers  of  California 
found  no  honey-bees  in  that  State,  notwithstanding  the  fact  of  its  early  occu- 
pancy by  the  Spanish  ;  and  the  first  bees  ever  seen  in  that  State  have  been 
carried  there  from  Xcw  York,  by  sea,  since  1850,  and  already  the  stock  of 
bees  has  multiplied  to  an  extent  which  would  populate  the  State  to  as  great  or 
greater  extent  than  the  Atlantic  States  have  been  with  both  wild  and  domes- 
tic stocks,  in  a  far  less  time  than  has  elapsed  since  the  landing  at  Jamestown 
or  Plymouth  rock,  of  tiiose  who  may  have  introduced  the  bee  from  Europe. 

Bee-culture  in  California  has  already  assumed  such  an  importance  that 
associations  of  apiarists  have  been  formed  there,  and  the  exhibition  of  bees  is 
quite  a  feature  at  the  State  fair.  Bees  have  become  so  numerous  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Sacramento,  that  they  have  been  charged  with  extensive 
depredations  upon  the  vineyards,  by  sucking  the  sweets  out  of  the  ripe 
grapes.  Mr.  Harbison,  a  large  bee-keeper,  who  went  from  Pennsylvania 
with  a  large  shipment  of  them,  two  or  three  years  ago,  however,  denies  the 
charge  of  bee^  injuring  the  fruit,  and  asserts  that  he  lias  proved  by  actual 
experiment  that  they  will  only  attack  the  grapes  after  the  skin  has  bui-st  by 
the  pressure  of  the  interior  growth.     Still,  there  arc  many  persons  who  are 


Sko.  10.]     BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  159 

deeply  interested  in  grape-growing  in  that  State,  who  think  tliis  business 
and  bee-keeping  never  can  flourish  together.  It  is  a  matter  that  will  prob- 
ably be  investigated,  since  it  involves  two  so  great  interests,  particularly  in 
California,  where  both  branches  flourish  in  so  remarkable  a  degree  of  health- 
iness. Certainly,  in  no  part  of  the  United  States  has  bee-keeping  given  such 
a  promise  of  success. 

Bees,  although  they  appear  to  thrive  best,  or  at  least  with  but  little  care, 
in  warm  latitudes,  are  not  confined  to  those  regions.  An  article  now  before 
us  gives  an  account  of  the  successful  introduction  of  bees  into  Aroostook 
County,  Maine,  where  the  thermometer  sometimes  freezes,  and  afterward 
the  discovery  of  a  wild  swarm  in  a  hollow  tree,  which  was  removed  to  a 
hive  and  wintered  in  a  dark,  dry  cellar,  where  they  consumed  very  little 
honey.  This  is  a  very  good  way  to  winter  bees  in  all  cold  regions  ;  for  one 
of  the  greatest  difficulties  attending  bee-culture  in  the  most  northern  local- 
ities where  they  are  found,  is  winter  killing,  not  by  freezing  up  in  the  hive, 
though  that  sometimes  occurs,  but  by  the  bees  being  aroused  from  tlicir 
torpid  state  by  a  few  sunny  days,  till  tliey  come  out  of  the  hive  and  are 
overcome  by  cold  before  they  can  return  again,  and  thus  perish.  We  have 
sometimes  lost  great  quantities  in  this  way,  no  farther  north  than  lat.  41°. 

Notwithstanding  bees  appear  to  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  reason, 
and  the  power  of  ratiocination  (a  power  that  many  men  do  not  possess), 
they  are,  like  men  and  women,  very  apt  to  be  caught  by  outside  appear- 
ances, and  venture  forth  from  their  warm  homes  iipon  sunny  wings,  to  meet 
the  chilling  blast  of  the  outside  world,  and  perish. 

Certainly,  many  acts  of  the  honey-bee  seem  to  be  results  of  a  reasoning 
faculty ;  or  is  it  that  undeflned  something  that  mankind  call  instinct  ?  It 
is  indeed  wonderful  that  so  tiny  an  insect  should  possess  a  faculty  scarcely 
possessed  by  man,  of  constructing  its  domicile,  or  rather  store-house,  so  as 
not  to  waste  an  iota  of  material  or  space ;  for  that  is  a  fact,  in  relation  to 
the  honey-bee's  comb.  And  all  their  interior  liousehold  arrangements,  the 
order  of  their  work,  family  government,  and  perfect  order  and  harmony,  are 
such  as  should  make  mankind  blush  at  their  own  inefficiency.  Many  of 
them  should  blush  to  think  such  an  insect  is  so  much  more  industrious  and 
frugal  than  themselves,  and  so  much  more  careful  to  lay  up  winter  stores. 

One  of  the  marks  of  reason,  judgment,  or  instinct  in  the  bee  is  manifested 
in  their  never  leaving  the  hive,  although  ready  to  swarm,  in  a  stormy  day, 
nor  when  a  storm  or  very  high  wind  is  approaching,  which  would  be  likely 
to  blow  away  one  portion  of  the  swarm  from  the  other. 

"When  the  swarm  does  come  forth  it  seems  to  be  all  by  a  given  signal,  and 
the  movement  is  sudden  and  simultaneous,  guided  by  the  call  of  their  queen. 
If  by  any  accident  or  mistake  the  queen  gets  separated,  or  fails  to  cluster 
with  the  swarm,  it  is  idle  to  try  to  hive  them.  They  will  not  take  a  new 
abode  without  a  queen.  Is  it  reason  that  teaches  them  that  they  must  re- 
turn to  the  old  hive,  where  they  can  make  a  new  queen  out  of  the  young 
larvaB  in  the  cells  of  the  old  brood-comb  ? 


160 


SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS. 


[Chap.  IL 


213.  Bee-IliveSi — Tlie  best  hive  is  one  with  movable  supports  for  each 
slieet  of  comb.  Although  hives  of  tliis  kind  may  have  been  patented,  the 
patent  is  not  good  for  anything,  nor  should  it  bar  any  one  from  tlie  use  of 
such  a  hive,  because  the  invention  is  not  new.  Bevan,  an  English  writer 
upon  bees,  described  such  a  liive  many  years  ago,  as  in  use  by  him,  and 
recommended  it  to  others.  More  than  twenty  years  ago,  I  described  a  hive 
for  movable  frames  to  sustain  the  separate  sheets  of  comb,  in  the  Albany 
Cultivator,  and  although  the  plan  might  have  been  patentable,  it  wa^s  dis- 
tinctly stated  that  it  was  not,  nor  would  be  patented,  and  any  one  who  liked 
it  was  recommended  to  use  it.  The  form  of  the  hive  there  recommended 
was  to  hang  the  frames  by  hook-and-eye  hinges  to  the  back  of  the  liive,  so 
that  all  would  swing  like  the  leaves  of  a  book  standing  on  its  end.  The 
front,  or  cover  to  tlie  edge  of  the  leaves,  being  opened,  by  turning  it  around 
to  the  left  hand,  leaf  after  leaf  could  be  swung  around  to  the  riglit,  and  a 
sheet  of  comb  cut  out  of  any  one,  or  the  frame  could  be  lifted  oft'  its  liinges 
and  taken  away,  and  a  new  one  put  in  its  place.  We  thought  the  plan  a 
more  convenient  one  than  lifting  the  frames  out  at  the  top  of  the  hive. 

There  is  an  objection  to  all  movable  frame  hives,  that  they  furnish  har- 
boring-places for  moths.  They  also,  on  the  other  hand,  afford  facilities  for 
searching  after  them,  and  removing  any  infested  comb. 

Bees  are  like  any  other  wild  insect  or  animal  that  has  been  doiucsticatod. 
By  good  treatment  they  can  be  made  very  domestic,  so  that  their  keeper  can 
handle  tliem  about  as  easily  as  any  other  jiets. 

The  next  best  form  of  hive  is  a  square  box,  made  of  planed  boards  one- 
and-a-han  or  full  one-and-a-quarter  inch  stuft',  well  seasoned,  and  tongued, 
and  grooved,  and  firmly  nailed  together,  so  as  to  be  watei'-tight,  and  nearly 
air-tight,  and  well  painted.  A  box  fifteen  inches  deep,  and  twelve  inches 
across  each  Avay,  contains  2,1G0  cubic  inches — ten  in  excess  of  a  bushel. 
Tills  is  a  good  size  and  form  for  a  hive.  It  will  add  much  to  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  liive  to  insert  a  pane  of  glass  in  the  side  opposite  to  the  open- 
ings where  the  bees  enter,  which  should  be  six  (hiee-eighth-inch  holes,  an 
inch  above  the  bottom.  The  glass  should  have  a  tight-fitting  shutter  ;  and 
the  bottom  should  be  screwed  on,  or  hinged  and  fastened  with  a  hook  so 
that  it  could  be  opened.  If  it  is  screwed  on,  make  an  opening  two  inches 
across  in  the  center  of  the  bottom  board,  with  a  close-fitting  shutter  that  you 
can  take  out  occasionally  to  allow  the  bees  to  sweep  out  their  room.  Open 
this  only  in  the  morning,  and  close  it  before  night.  There  will  then  be  no 
entrance  for  tlie  moth  except  through  the  bee  holes,  and  these  the  sentinels 
will  guard.  Bore  four  inch  holes  in  the  top,  and  fit  corks  in  them.  Have 
a  cap  fitted  on  top  to  cover  four  boxes,  five  or  six  inches  square,  made  with 
one  glass  side.  When  the  lower  part  is  filled,  which  you  can  tell  by  observ- 
alion  at  the  glass  in  the  back,  or  by  weighing,  then  open  the  top  holes,  and 
put  on  the  boxes,  open  side  down,  and  shut  the  cap  over  them,  and  the  bees 
will  soon  find  that  they  have  extra  stoi-e-room,  and  go  to  work  and  fill  it 
with  new  comb,  and  fresh  honey,  free  of  bee-bread  or  biood-eomb.     As  soon 


Sec.  10.]      BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  161 

as  a  box  is  full,  take  it  off,  and  put  an  empty  one  in  its  place.  A  stock  of  fifty 
swarms  in  the  spring  will  produce  two  thousand  pounds  of  surplus  honey, 
and  increase  to  a  hundred  swarms  in  the  autumn.  Counting  all  labor  be- 
stowed in  tlie  care  of  a  stock  of  bees,  and  all  expense  of  hives,  etc.,  and  the 
cost  of  honey  is  estimated  at  only  three  to  six  cents  a  pound  ;  varying  with 
locations,  and  favorable  or  unfavorable  seasons.  But  if  it  always  costs  ten 
cents  a  pound,  tlie  bee-keeper  would  find  sale  for  it  at  a  profit. 

214.  Straw  UiveSt — There  are  a  few  bee-keepers  who  still  adhere  to  the 
opinion  that  straw  hives  are  the  best  that  can  be  used.  We  can  not  think 
so.  Their  greatest  advantage  is,  that  they  maintain  a  more  even  tempera- 
ture than  board  hives,  and  are  inexpensive.  They  can  be  manufactured  by 
tlie  winter  fireside,  and  packed  away  for  future  use  in  a  small  space,  one 
within  another.  WJien  wanted  for  use,  a  couple  of  cross-sticks  must  be  put 
in  to  support  the  comb,  as  the  hive  is  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  bowl,  and 
not  as  good  to  support  comb  as  a  straight-sided  box.  It  is  a  good  plan, 
however,  to  use  the  supports  in  all  hives.  They  should  be  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  easily  taken  out,  as  it  would  greatly  facilitate  the  removal  of 
comb.  If  straw  hives  are  used,  they  should  be  made  to  hold  a  bushel,  of 
clean  rye  straw,  tied  very  tightly  together,  so  as  to  make  the  walls  full  an 
inch  and  a  half  thick,  and  smooth  outside  and  in.  Never  use  them  after  tliey 
got  old,  and  never  place  them  whei-e  they  will  get  wet.  If  kept  dry,  the 
bees  winter  in  straw  hives  better  than  board  ones. 

It  lias  been  i-ecommended  to  make  cases  for  board  hives,  to  set  over  them 
in  winter  as  protection  from  the  changes  in  the  weather.  If  this  is  done,  the 
cases  should  be  taken  oif  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  spring  to  prevent  moths 
making  harbors  in  tiiem. 

215.  Patent  Hives. — We  have  never  seen  a  patent  for  a  bee-hive,  nor  "  bee- 
palace,"  that  we  would  give  a  dime  for.  They  are  no  better  than  any  handy 
man  with  tools  can  make  himself.  As  to  "  bee-palaces,"  where  bees  are  to 
live  in  community,  the  thing  is  preposterous.  It  is  founded  upon  wrong 
principles. 

Bee-houses,  whore  collections  of  swarms  in  separate  hives  are  to  be  kept, 
we  have  tried  as  well  as  the  community  system,  and  repudiate  both. 

Movable  comb-hives  may  be  made  without  buying  a  patent,  by  making  a 
chest  of  the  capacity  to  hold  a  bushel,  besides  the  frames,  or  say  15  inches 
square  inside,  and  make  10  frames  of  strips  of  boards  an  inch  and  a  half 
wide,  nailed  together  flatwise  at  the  ends  so  as  to  form  sashes  that  will  set 
in  the  box  and  just  fill  it.  Bore  holes  for  the  entrance  of  the  bees,  through 
the  sides  of  the  box  and  frames.  Tlie  lid  of  the  chest  shuts  tight,  and  may 
be  locked.  When  you  want  to  draw  a  frame,  insert  a  common  wood-screw 
or  two  to  pull  it  out  by.  You  can  tell  as  soon  as  you  lift  it  a  little,  whether 
it  is  full  or  not,  and  if  not,  try  another. 

"We  have  tried  several  patent  hives,  and  if  choosing  between  any  one  of 
them  and  a  "  bee  gum,"  would  take  the  latter  for  all  practical  purposes ; 
not  that  we  would  recommend  farmers  always  to  use  hollow  logs,  though 


162  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  U. 

we  certainly  have  seen  some  most  successful  bee-keeping  where  the  swarms 
were  kept  only  in  tliat  rough  way. 

216.  iVherc  to  Keep  Hives. — Tlie  location  and  mode  of  support  arc  im- 
portant matters  in  placing  bee  hives.  And  here  again,  the  most  "  rough 
and  ready"  way  has  always  appeared  to  be  the  best.  We  have  frequently 
seen  the  hives  standing  about  here  and  there,  without  any  regard  to  order  ; 
some  directly  on  the  ground,  and  some  on  a  flat  stone  or  board  ;  notwith- 
standing such  apparent  disregard  to  all  care,  the  bees  were  doing  better  than 
others  where  every  attention  was  paid  to  them.  We  do  not  advocate  quite 
so  much  negligence,  but  we  do  believe  the  best  situation  for  hives  is  in  an 
open  field,  set  a  rod  or  two  apart,  or,  rather,  suspended  to  stakes.  An 
orchard,  where  the  trees  are  somewhat  scattering,  and  the  grass  short,  or  kept 
short  by  n)o\ving  or  pasturage  of  some  geese,  turkeys,  or  sheep,  is  a  good 
place  for  bee-hives,  one  under  each  tree.  A  hive  may  be  fastened  to  a  tree 
or  post  by  two  hooks  and  staples,  care  being  taken  to  fix  it  so  it  will  be  firm, 
and  not  liable  to  be  shaken  by  wind.  It  may  also  be  fixed  upon  two  stakes 
set  in  the  ground  just  wide  enough  apart  for  the  hive  to  slip  in  between 
them  and  rest  upon  a  block  nailed  upon  each  side  of  the  hive,  notched  on 
the  lower  edge  so  as  to  clasp  the  top  of  the  s'ake  to  prevent  slipping  side- 
wise.  Hives  placed  about  in  the  open  ground  should  have  a  board  laid 
over  the  top,  wide  enough  to  give  some  shade  to  the  hive.  Lay  this  board 
on  four  pebbles,  or  four  nails  driven  in  to  keep  it  half  an  inch  or  an  inch 
from  the  top.  This  shade-board  may  be  held  in  its  place  by  a  screw  or  nail, 
or  a  stone.  The  hive  need  not  be  placed  more  than  six  inches  from  the 
ground.  A  little  strip,  an  inch  wide,  should  be  nailed  on  level  with  the 
entrance  holes,  for  the  bees  to  alight  upon. 

If  hives  are  placed  under  a  shady  tree,  they  will  need  no  other  protection. 
If  placed  close  together,  a  rough  shed  may  be  built  over  a  row  of  hives,  so 
placed  that  it  will  shade  them  from  nine  till  four  o'clock  in  the  day.  A  hive 
should  be  painted  white,  because  that  color  does  not  absorb  the  rays  of  heat 
as  much  as  a  dark  color.  Sometimes  a  hive  becomes  heated  so  as  to  soften 
the  cement,  and  let  the  comb  fall  to  the  bottom. 

217.  Swarming. — The  location  of  bee-hives  should  be  convenient  to  low 
bushes,  such  as  lilacs,  althcas,  or  small  jieach  or  phun  trees,  for  them  to 
light  upon  when  swarming.  We  have  heard  of  clustering  bees  upon  a  large 
woolen  stocking,  stretched  over  the  end  of  a  pole,  and  held  up  in  the  midst 
of  the  swarm  as  they  collected  after  leaving  the  liive.  When  all  have  been 
gathered  in  the  cluster,  it  is  gently  laid  upon  the  table  and  the  pole  with- 
drawn, and  a  hive  set  over  the  bees.  ^Vl"ter  they  go  up  into  the  liive,  the 
stocking  is  taken  away. 

Swarming  is  just  as  natural  for  bees  as  calving  for  cows.  It  increases 
the  stock.  The  process  can  not  be  interfered  with  advantageously,  either  to 
retard  or  increase  the  operation. 

The  owner  of  bees  should  make  them  as  well  acquainted  with  his  person 
as  his  horse  or  dog  is,  and  then  lie  can  handle  them  as  easily. 


Seo.  10.]      BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  163 

It  is  true  there  are  some  persons  with  whom  the  bees  never  will  become 
friendly,  or  allow  of  any  familiarity.  Such  persons  should  never  try  to 
handle  bees.  Others  (the  writer  is  one)  can  handle  them  with  impunity. 
I  have  often  had  them  light  upon  my  face,  and  head,  and  hands,  and  remain 
as  long  as  they  liked,  and  then  go  away  again. 

When  a  swarm  comes  out,  go  immediately  right  into  the  midst  of  it,  and 
do  not  be  alarmed  if  it  should  cluster  upon  your  hat.  Such  things  have  been, 
and  no  harm  come  of  it.  You  must  show  no  excitement ;  be  moderate  and 
calm  in  your  movements,  as  if  surrounded  by  a  flock  of  wild  birds  which 
j-ou  were  afraid  of  scaring  away.  An  excitable  man  will  be  very  apt  to 
alarm  the  bees,  and  an  angry  one  will  be  sure  to  make  them  angry  and 
drive  him  from  the  field. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  bees  leave  the  hive  pre-determined  to  fly  away. 
In  such  eases  it  is  difiicult  to  stop  them.  If  it  is  a  dusty  time,  and  they  are 
gathering  for  flight  so  low  that  you  can  throw  handful  after  liandful  of  dust 
among  them,  you  may  succeed  in  confusing  them  until  the}'  will  alight. 
Swarms  have  been  stopped  on  the  wing  by  firing  a  musket  directly  forward 
of  them,  so  that  both  noise  and  smoke  would  confuse  them.  It  is  idle  to 
fire  after  them,  and  shot  sent  into  the  swarm  may  kill  the  queen  ;  wlien  the 
bees  must  be  returned  to  the  hive,  or  put  into  one  witli  a  piece  of  brood-comb. 

Some  people  make  a  great  noise,  beating  drums,  tin  kettles,  barrels,  or 
blowing  horns,  when  a  swarm  comes  out.  The  philosophy  of  this  is,  that 
the  noise  may  drown  the  voice  of  the  queen,  and  thus  confuse  the  bees, 
when  they  may  alight ;  but,  as  a  general  thing,  noise  will  have  no  more 
effect  toward  stopping  runaway  bees  than  runaway  horses. 

The  very  best  thing  that  we  can  recommend  to  a  new  bee-keeper  is  :  Be 
gentle,  and  keep  yourself  on  familiar  terms  with  your  bees.  Make  them 
familiar  with  your  presence  and  personal  appearance,  and  always  go  among 
them,  as  near  as  possible,  in  the  same  garb ;  and  never  in  a  filthy  garb, 
right  from  the  manure-yard,  perhaps  ;  and  never  in  your  shirt-sleeves,  reek- 
ing with  perspiration.  There  is  nothing  more  offensive  to  bees ;  for  they 
are  as  neat  as  they  are  industrious,  and  never  sweat  anything  out  of  their 
little  bodies  but  clean  white  wax,  of  which  they  build  their  cells. 

Thoroughly  domesticated  bees  seldom  offer  to  fly  away  when  they  swarm, 
if  j-ou  have  conveniences  for  them  to  cluster ;  and  such  bees  are  always 
easily  handled,  so  that  they  can  be  hived  without  difiiculty,  even  by  the 
(/udewifii  or  «hildren,  if  the  gudiirnan  is  awa'. 

If  you  are  afraid  of  stings,  put  on  gloves  and  tie  your  sleeves  down  ;  tuck 
your  pants  in  your  boot-tops ;  put  on  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  with  a  piece  of 
mosquito-netting  over  it,  tucked  in  close  around  your  neck,  and  thus  jiro- 
tected,  the  most  timid  may  go  among  his  own,  or  strange  bees,  which  always 
are  the  most  dangerous. 

If  you  happen  to  go  near  bees,  and  one  comes  at  you,  do  not  fight,  run, 
nor  scream.  "Walk  away  gently,  and  aim  to  get  behind  a  bush,  tree,  fence, 
or  buildinw. 


i  I 


164  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

Place  your  hive  in  the  place  where  it  is  to  stand,  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  swarm  is  in  ;  because  tlie  workers  commence  comb-building  immediately, 
and  moving  disturbs  them,  and  if  only  a  day  or  two  at  work,  moving  may 
break  down  the  comb. 

218.  What  a  Swarm  Consists  of. — A  swarm  of  bees  in  working  order  con- 
sists of  one  queen,  two  or  three  hundred  drones,  and  from  ten  to  fifty 
thousand  workei-s.  The  queen  would  more  properly  be  called  a  mother,  as 
she  is  so,  in  fact,  of  all  the  colony.  The  drones  are  the  males  ;  they  never 
work  nor  fight — they  are  stingless.  The  workers  are  imperfectly  developed 
females.  According  to  T.  B.  Miner,  author  of  a  bee  manual,  the  swarm  in 
the  spring  consists  of  tlie  queen  and  about  two  or  three  thousand  workers, 
and  these  increase  as  soon  as  food  can  be  provided  in  spring,  enough  to  make 
a  new  swarm,  which  goes  off,  led  by  the  old  queen,  while  a  new  one  is  pro- 
A'idcd  for  the  old  colony,  which  also  goes  oft'  sometimes,  with  another  swarm ; 
and  occasionally  a  third  one  is  sent  off,  and  finally,  the  swarm  remaining  con- 
sists of  about  20,000  bees,  and  all  but  two  or  three  thousand  die  off  before 
spring  ;  the  life  of  a  bee  being  calculated  at  only  about  nine  months. 

A  queen-bee  is  so  distinguished  from  other  bees  by  lier  shape,  size,  and 
color,  that  when  you  have  once  learned  how,  you  can  always  distinguish 
her.     So  you  can  by  the  noise  she  makes.     A  queen  is  larger  than  a  worker, 
but  not  as  largo  around  as  a  drone,  though  longer ;  and  the  rings  of  lier 
abdomen  are  less  fully  developed,  and  consequently  not  so  plainly  distin- 
guishable.    In  short,  a  queen  is  more  wasp-like  in  her  form  than  a  drone ; 
and  is  of  a  darker  color,  particularly  upon  the  back  part  of  the  abdomen  ; 
while  on  its  under  side  it  is  of  a  yellowish  hue.     The  wings  of  the  queen,  in 
proportion  to  her  body,  as  compared  to  either  of  the  others,  are  wider,     i   j 
stouter,  and  shorter.     She  is  seldom  on  the  wing ;  only  at  swarming  time,     '   ; 
and  when  she  cohabits  with  the  males.     It  is  supposed  that  she  is  always     :   ■ 
impregnated  during  her  flight,  and  that  impregnation  in  the  fall,  before  the     '   ■ 
drones  are  destroyed,  serves  for  the  eggs  she  will  lay  in  the  spring.     Those 
Avho  have  made  observations  upon  them,  declare  that  a  queen-bee  is  capable 
of  laying  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  eggs  a  day.  i 

Drones  are  idle  fellows ;    their  only  service  being  attendance  upon  the        > 
queen.     Their  life  is  a  very  short  one  ;  generally  from  April  to  August ;  say     j   : 
four  months.     None  are  allowed  to  live  over  winter.     You  must  not  mis-     i   ' 
take  the  slaughter  of  the  drones  for  war  with  other  bees,  which  sometimes 
occurs.  I 

Tlie  workers  are  always  busy  whenever  it  is  possible  for  them  to  carry  on  j 
their  labors.  They  often  l)egin  the  very  hour  they  enter  a  new  hive  to  |  ■ 
build  comb,  and  the  second  day  the  honey  and  pollen  gatherers  begin  to  j  I 
bring  in  their  stores.  To  work  to  advantage  they  must  have  a  good  house,  j  I 
SoiiK'tinies  when  a  swarm  goes  into  a  hollow  tree,  the  labor  is  immense,  to  i  | 
clear  out  and  fit  the  room  for  use.  So  it  is  when  put  into  a  mean,  dirty  hive.  | 
It  rctjuires  a  great  deal  of  labor  sometimes  for  the  bees  to  stop  up  the  cracks  : 
of  an  oil]  liivi!  with  bee-glue — ;>,  substance  gathered  in  the  forest,  and  not        i 


1   i 


Sec.  10.]      BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  165 

made  by  the  bees.     It  is  Iiarder  and  stiffer  when  dry  than  wax,  and  entirely 
unlike  it. 

219.  Weight  of  a  Swarm. — It  is  estimated  that  a  full  swarm  of  bees  should 
weigh  11  to  12  lbs.  Hence  all  excess  over  that  is  honey  and  comb,  so  that 
the  quantity  can  be  ascertained  by  weighing  the  hive,  if  the  weight  of  that 
is  known,  as  it  always  should  be,  and  marked  upon  it  when  new. 

Hives  should  always  be  constructed  with  some  conveniences  for  weighing, 
such  as  a  staple  in  the  top,  if  that  is  a  fixed  one,  or  one  in  each  side,  and 
then  have  a  movable  bail  to  hook  in,  to  attach  to  the  hook  of  the  weighing 
balance. 

220.  Bee-Pasture  and  Bee-Feeding. — It  has  been  a  question  for  a  long  time, 
whether  a  country  could  be  overstocked  with  bees  so  that  their  pasturage 
would  be  short.  In  a  conversation  with  Mr.  Quinby,  one  of  the  greatest 
apiarists  in  the  country,  we  learned  his  opinion  was  that  it  was  next  to 
impossible  to  overstock  any  section  with  bees.  We  find  from  the  "  Bee 
Journal,"  published  in  C4ermany,  that  the  same  opinion  prevails  there.  Mr. 
Dzierzon,  president  of  a  convention  of  apiarists  at  Munich,  says : 

'•  I  have  numerous  accounts  of  apiaries,  in  close  proximity,  of  from  200  to 
300  hives  each.  Ehrenfels  had  1,000  in  three  separate  establishments,  but 
so  close  that  he  could  visit  all  in  half  an  hour's  ride.  In  Kussia  and  Hun- 
gary, apiaries  numbering  from  2,000  to  5,000  are  not  nnfrequent ;  and  we 
know  that  as  many  as  4,000  colonies  are  often  congregated  together  on  the 
lieaths  of  Germany.  Hence  I  think  that  we  need  not  fear  that  any  district 
of  this  country,  so  distinguished  for  abundant  natural  vegetation  and  divers- 
ified culture,  will  very  speedily  become  overstocked,  particularly  after  the 
importance  of  having  stocks  populous  early  in  the  spring  comes  to  be  under- 
stood and  appreciated.  Mr.  Kaden,  one  of  the  oldest  contributors  to  the 
'Bee  Journal,'  says  that  a  district  of  country  can  not  be  overstocked  with 
bees,  and  that  however  numerous  the  colonies,  all  can  procure  sufticient  sus 
tenance,  if  the  surrounding  country  contain  honey-yielding  plants  in  the 
usual  degree  ;  where  utter  barrenness  prevails,  the  case  is  different,  of  course, 
as  well  as  rare. 

"  According  to  statistical  tables,  there  are  600,000  colonies  in  the  province 
of  Lunenburg,  or  111  to  the  square  mile.  The  number  of  square  miles  in 
^  this  country  stocked  even  to  this  extent  are,  I  suspect,  'few  and  far  be- 
tween.' 

"  A  German  writer  alleges  that  the  bees  of  Lunenburg  pay  all  their  taxes, 
and  leave  a  surplus  besides.  The  importance  attached  to  bee-culture  accounts 
in  part  for  the  fact,  that  the  people  of  this  district  (so  barren  that  it  has  been 
c  lUcd  the  '  Arabia  of  Germany')  are  almost  without  an  exception  in  easy 
circumstances. 

"  In  the  province  of  Attica,  Greece,  containing  45  square  miles,  20,000 
colonies  are  kept,  or  one  colony  to  each  inhabitant,  producing  annually  30 
II IS.  of  honey  and  two  of  wax  each.  East  Friesland  (Holland),  containing 
1,200  square  miles,  has  an  average  of  2,000  colonies  to  the  square  mile.     In 


J 


166  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IT. 

1857,  the  yield  of  lioncy  and  wax,  in  the  Empire  of  Austria,  was  estimated 
to  be  worth  over  seven  millions  of  dollai-s  ! !" 

Could  not  still  more  favorable  results  be  obtained  in  this  country,  under 
a  rational  system  of  manajrement  availinj:;  itself  of  the  aid  of  science,  art,  and 
skill  ?  The  island  of  Corsica  produces  about  800  lbs.  of  honey  to  the  square 
mile,  per  annum. 

There  is  no  probability  that  any  section  of  this  country  will  reach  such  a 
state  of  productiveness  in  this  generation.  Yet  we  hope  all  who  read  these 
extracts  will  think  what  an  immense  loss  is  sustained  annually  by  our  neg- 
lect to  employ  harvesters  to  gather  the  great  crop  of  sweets  that  might  be 
saved  if  our  bee  population  were  large  enough  to  gather  it  all. 

Upon  the  subject  of  bee-pasturage,  and  those  plants  from  which  bees  draw 
their  stores  of  honey,  we  tind  some  useful  hints  in  Harbison's  work  on  Bees 
and  Bee-keeping.     He  says  : 

"  The  best  kinds  of  early  pasturage  are  the  alders,  hazel,  and  willows,  some 
of  which  yield  honey  and  others  pollen ;  most  species  of  flowers  yield  both. 
My  observations  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  male  flower  yields  pollen,  and 
the  female  honey  ;  I  have  frequently  seen  bees  gathering  both  honey  and 
pollen  from  the  same  kind  of  flowers  at  the  same  time.  It  can  be  tested  by 
examining  both  the  honey-sack  and  the  baskets  on  the  thigh.  These  trees 
arc  the  first  to  aftord  the  bees  provision  in  the  spring ;  where  these  abound, 
the  bees  advance  earlier  than  elsewhere.  The  soft  maple  {acer  ruhrum) 
yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  honey  very  early,  if  the  weather  is  fine ; 
the  golden  or  yellow  willow  also  yields  supplies  quite  early  ;  peach,  cherry, 
and  pear  trees  put  forth  early  ;  gooseberries,  currants,  strawberries,  etc.,  all 
afford  rich  supplies.  To  close  this  list  of  early  flowers,  the  dandelion  and 
apple  come  forth  in  rich  profusion,  all  of  which  arc  of  the  utmost  importance 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  bees  during  the  season.  If  this  early  pasturage 
fails,  or  if  the  weather  should  be  so  unfavorable  as  to  prevent  the  bees  from 
gathering  a  supply  of  provisions,  they  will  fail  to  rear  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  brood  to  swarm  early  or  to  harvest  the  clover  honey  to  advantage. 

"  It  is  but  seldom,  if  ever,  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hoiu^y  is  gathered 
from  these  early  flowei-s  to  cause  the  bees  to  store  it  in  surplus  boxes,  yet 
enough  is  frequently  obtained  to  fill  up  a  large  portion  of  the  combs  from 
which  the  honey  has  been  consumed  during  the  winter,  and  serves  to  supply  _ 
their  immediate  wants  until  clover  blooms. 

"  The  next  pasturage  comes  from  turnips,  cabbage,  and  the  hard  maple 
{accr  saccharinum),  which  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  honey,  but  lafer 
than  the  soft  maple.  Turnips  produce  a  very  copious  supply  of  both  honey 
and  ])ollen,  and  if  left  standing  in  the  ground  over  winter,  they  bloom  just 
at  a  time  to  fill  the  interval  between  the  fruit-tree  flowers  and  the  clover. 
This  is  also  the  case  with  the  cabbage  family,  all  of  which  yield  large  quan- 
tities of  honey.  A  field  of  either  turnips  or  cabbage  at  this  early  season  is 
of  greater  value  to  the  bees  than  the  same  quantity  of  either  clover  or  buck- 
wheat. 


Sec.  10.]     BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY. 


167 


"  I  would  here  impress  upon  the  minds  of  all  bee-keepers  the  importance 
of  cultivating  a  field  in  turnips  each  year.  In  the  fall  gather  in  all  the  large, 
fine  ones,  either  for  marketing  or  for  feeding  sheep  and  cattle  during  the 
winter,  for  which  they  are  very  valuable,  and  will  well  repay  the  expense  of 
raising  them  ;  enough  small  ones  will  be  left  standing  in  the  ground  over 
winter  to  make  a  rich  field  of  pasturage  for  the  bees  in  the  spring,  leaving 
the  ground  in  fine  condition  for  a  crop  of  buckwheat,  or  to  sow  down  in  wheat 
in  autumn,  or  to  again  put  down  in  turnips. 

"  The  various  kinds  of  blackberries,  and  the  wild  or  bird  cherry  {cerasus 
serotina),  yield  honey,  and  serve  to  supply  to  some  extent  the  interval  above 
referred  to.  We  have  also  a  species  of  kale,  or  wild  turnip,  which  if  sowed 
very  early  in  the  spring  will  commence  to  bloom  toward  the  latter  part  of 
May,  and  is  very  valuable. 

"  Kaspberries  of  all  kinds  yield  an  immense  amount  of  honey,  and  con- 
tinue blooming,  giving  a  succession  of  fresh  flowers,  for  about  three  weeks. 
But  few  if  any  flowers  produce  such  quantities  of  honey  as  the  raspberry,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  flowers. 

"  Catnip,  mother-wort,  hoarhound,  honey-suckles,  and  various  other  kinds 
of  flowers,  put  forth  about  the  same  time  ;  each  would  be  of  great  value,  if 
in  sufficient  quantities. 

"  Then  come  other  early  summer  flowers.  At  the  head  of  this  list  pre-em- 
inently stands  white  clo\'er  {trifolium  repens),  which  is  found  along  the  road- 
sides, in  meadows,  grain-fields,  gardens,  pasture-fields,  in  fac^,  it  may  be  seen 
everywhere.  The  seeds,  which  are  very  abundant  and  very  small,  are 
driven  in  every  direction  by  the  winds  ;  this  has  been  overlooked  by  previous 
writers.  The  heads,  which  contain  the  seed,  are  quite  small  and  very  light ; 
the  stalks  stand  erect  until  winter  sets  in  and  the  ground  is  frozen,  by  which 
time  the  stalk  of  it  has  become  brittle,  and  every  wind  breaks  off  and  rolls 
along  the  ground  a  portion  of  these  little  seed-pods,  until  they  meet  some 
obstruction ;  here  they  will  germinate.  Thus  they  are  scattered  in  every 
direction.  I  have  frequently  seen  them  driven  furiously  on  the  crust  of  a 
shallow  snow,  through  wliich  the  heads  would  project.  The  value  of  this 
clover  is  entirely  underrated  as  a  pasture  for  cattle  or  horses,  as  well  as  bees ; 
it  is  always  selected  by  stock  in  preference  to  the  red  clover.  The  honey 
gathered  from  it  is  of  the  highest  excellence,  both  in  beauty  and  flavor ;  and 
I  believe  in  good  seasons,  all  the  bees,  in  any  neighborhood  where  it 
abounds,  could  not  gather  the  fourth  part,  so  great  is  the  quantity  produced. 

"The  tulip-tree  {linodendroii),  or  poplar,  as  it  is  called  by  some,  by  others 
white  wood,  is  a  great  producer  of  honey.  Nothing  of  the  tree  kind  that  I 
have  ever  seen  exceeds  it ;  the  flowers  expand  in  succession,  are  of  a  bell- 
like shape,  mouth  upward.  In  dry,  warm  weather  I  have  seen  a  teaspoonful 
of  pure  honey  or  saccharine  matter  in  a  single  cup  or  flower.  Bees  work 
upon  it  with  the  same  vigor  they  manifest  when  carrying  honey  from  some 
other  hive,  or  when  it  is  fed  to  them. 

"The  yellow  and  black  locust  trees  yield  large  quantities  of  honey. 


168  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  H. 

"The  linden,  or  bass-wood  {tilia  Amcricanu),  produces  honey  to  a  large 
amount.  All  of  these  varieties  of  trees  should  be  extensively  cultivated, 
both  as  shade  and  ornamental  trees,  as  well  as  for  their  timber  and  the  vast 
(juantities  of  honey  they  yield.  Sumach  also  produces  honey  bountifully  ; 
the  difficulty,  however,  is,  tliat  there  are  but  few  places  where  these  are 
found  in  suflicieiit  quantities  to  be  of  importance.  I  trust  they  will  be 
extensively  cultivated. 

'•  The  common  black  mustard  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  to  culti- 
vate as  a  pasture  for  bees ;  it  is  easily  raised,  by  simply  sowing  it  on  ground 
when  well  plowed  and  pulverized  by  liarrowiiig  smooth,  and  then  brashing 
it  in  witii  a  light  brush  or  very  light  harrow.  It  should  be  sown  early  in 
the  spring,  on  good  ground. 

"  Those  interested  in  bee-keeping  should  give  the  cultivation  of  mustard 
some  attention.  As  a  bee-pasture  it  has  few  superiors,  yielding  both  pollen 
and  honey  in  great  abundance ;  it  begins  to  open  its  flowers  wiien  quite 
young  and  continues  as  the  l)usli  expands,  until  it  becomes  very  large  ;  each 
day  brings  forth  new  blossoms.  A  field  of  mustard  in  full  bloom  is  a  most 
magnificent  sight ;  it  is  like  a  vast  pile  of  golden  flowers ;  tlie  plants  are 
completely  enveloped  with  flowers,  from  the  ground  up  as  high  as  a  man's 
head.  There  is  no  other  plant  that  I  ever  noticed  that  produces  so  many 
flowers  to  any  given  quantity  of  ground,  nor  yields  so  much  honey. 

"  In  almost  any  of  the  Atlantic  States  it  serves  to  fill  the  Interval  tliat  occurs 
between  tlie  closing  of  the  white  clover  and  the  opening  of  the  buckwheat 
flowers,  a  period  of  about  four  weeks,  wliich  is  the  very  best  part  of  the  year 
for  gathering  honey,  as  the  weather  is  generally  warm  and  calm  ;  hence  tlie 
propriety  of  raising  this  crop  to  employ  the  bees  profitably. 

"  The  lionoj'  produced  from  it  resembles  that  yielded  from  the  linden,  both 
in  color  and  taste. 

"  Mignonette,  a  modest,  unpresuming  little  flower,  found  in  all  well- 
assorted  collections,  is  one  of  the  greatest  value  as  a  bee-pasture,  if  grown  in 
sufticient  quantities  to  be  an  object.  It  is  low  growing  and  spreading  in  its 
habits,  similar  to  white  clover,  and  yields  both  honey  and  pollen  ;  it  will 
bloom  continually,  from  the  middle  of  June  until  killed  by  frosts  in  the  fall. 
It  is  easily  raised  in  large  quantities  if  the  ground  is  clear  of  weed  seed, 
])lowed,  and  well  pulverized  by  harrowing  before  sowing.  Sow  thinly  and 
brush  it  in  with  a  light  brush  ;  all  that  is  required  after  this  is  to  pull  out 
any  large-growing  weeds  that  may  chance  to  make  their  appearance  before 
the  mignonette  spreads  over  the  ground  ;  where  it  takes  possession  of  the 
ground,  it  needs  no  further  care.  A  bed  of  these  flowers  will  perfume  the  air 
for  quite  a  distance  around,  so  rich  is  it.  Bees  will  work  on  it  from  daylight 
until  dark  ;  two  or  three  may  be  seen  at  once  on  a  single  head  or  flower. 

"The  cephalanthus  Canadensis,  or  butter-hush,  which  grows  in  swamps, 
and  low,  wet,  marshy  grounds  in  almost  every  part  of  the  United  States, 
preserving  the  same  appearance  wherever  found,  produces  honey  of  the 
highest  excellence.     The  honey  gathered  from  this  shrub  is  of  a  very  light 


Sbo.  10.]     BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  169 

straw  color,  of  a  thick,  heavy  body,  and  very  excellent  flavor.  Bees  thrive 
and  store  honey  very  rapidly  when  they  have  access  to  large  quantities  of 
these  flowers.  The  time  of  blooming  varies  with  different  localities,  but  it 
generally  begins  to  put  forth  flowers  about  the  first  of  July,  and  continues 
for  three  or  four  weeks. 

"  In  all  places  where  buckwheat  is  raised,  it  becomes  an  important  acces- 
sion to  bee-pasturagc.  A  field  of  buckwheat  yields  an  incredible  quantity 
of  honey,  which  perfumes  the  air  for  a  considerable  distance  around.  When 
the  weather  is  favorable,  the  bees  store  honey  from  it  very  rapidly,  faster  at 
times  than  they  can  build  combs  to  receive  it.  I  have  seen  them  fill  pieces 
of  old  combs  laid  close  to  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  with  honey,  and  have 
known  colonies  to  fill  four  boxes  of  honey,  or  about  50  lbs.,  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  buck\Vheat.  This  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  occurrence,  and 
goes  to  show  that  this  honey  harvest  is  one  of  great  importance  to  the  bee- 
keeper. Buckwheat  may  be  sown  about  a  month  earlier  than  usual,  to  fur- 
nish pasturage  to  come  in  about  the  close  of  clover,  to  great  advantage." 

In  relation  to  artificial  feeding  there  are  many  opinions.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  better  food  for  bees  than  brown  sugar,  moistened  with  honey,  such 
as  can  be  bought  at  a  low  price  by  the  barrel  or  gallon  in  any  town.  Add 
just  enough  honey  to  the  sugar  to  make  it  into  a  dough  by  kneading.  Put 
this  feed  in  a  shallow  tray,  with  a  few  straws  on  toj),  and  let  the  bees  take 
their  own  way  and  time  with  it.  It  is  well  to  give  a  little  salt  to  bees,  if 
they  can  not  get  it  conveniently.  The  best  way  is  to  place  a  lump  of  rock- 
salt  near  the  hives,  and  there  let  it  remain  year  after  year. 

A  practical  bee-keeper  says :  "  If  the  season  has  been  nnpropitious,  the 
liives  should  be  carefully  looked  after.  If  any  contain  less  than  20  lbs.  of 
honey,  the  swarm  will  need  to  be  fed  either  with  honey  alone  or  mixed  with 
sugar  diluted  to  the  consistence  of  honey,  poured  on  to  pieces  of  empty 
comb,  and  placed  in  the  hive  in  such  a  manner  that  bees  from  other  hives 
will  not  find  it.  Perhaps  the  best  method  is  to  introduce  the  feed  into  the 
boxes  directly  over  the  bees  ;  but  should  it  be  a  common  box  hive,  it  may 
be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  hive,  where  there  is  a  communication  through 
the  top,  and  {^lacing  a  cap  over  the  whole ;  and  then  gently  raj^ping  on  the 
top  of  the  hive,  the  bees  will  press  up  through  and  find  the  feed.  The  feed- 
ing should  be  done  during  warna  weather." 

221.  New  Food  for  BefS.— The  fact  has  been  discovered  in  France,  that 
bees  will  feed  upon  the  oil-cake  (soaked  in  water)  that  is  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  oil  from  the  Seaaimu/i  Orlentalc,  known  here  as  the  bene  plant,  so 
that  they  can  be  much  easier  wintered  ;  and  it  is  said  the  increase  of  stocks 
is  wonderful  in  comparison  with  those  not  thus  fed. 

The  Flore  dcs  Serres,  from  which  we  borrow  this,  assures  us  that  the  results 
have  been  astonishing,  not  only  in  a  large  increase  of  honey-comb,  but  in 
enabling  the  bees  to  multiply  beyond  all  belief;  nearly  ten  times  the  quantity 
being  bred  in  consequence  of  the  facility  aftbrded  of  obtaining  abundant 
and,  as  it  would  seem,  excellent  nourishment  from  this  unexpected  source. 


170  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

Tlie  experiment  could  be  tried  in  this  country  by  apiarians  planting  the 
bene  seed,  and  bruising  and  soaking  the  seed  of  the  crop,  and  feeding  it  to 
the  swarms  after  the  natural  food  fails. 

One  of  tlic  greatest  troubles  in  bee-lcceping  appears  to  be  the  want  of  suit- 
able food  early  in  the  spring  to  enable  the  swarm  to  prejjare  for  a  new  col- 
ony that  may  go  out  early  enough  in  the  season  to  lay  up,  not  only  their 
own  stores  for  winter,  but  a  surplus  for  their  owner.  Many  swarms  that 
have  an  abundance  of  honey  for  their  own  use  and  to  spare  in  the  spring, 
are  inactive  for  weeks  after  the  spring  has  become  wa,rm  enough  for  them  to 
work,  because  they  have  nothing  to  work  upon.  The  first  business  is  not  to 
gather  honey,  but  pollen,  to  make  bread  for  the  young  bees.  So,  although 
tlie  weather  is  warm  enough,  and  the  bees  lively  enough,  until  the  buds 
afford  pollen,  they  have  nothing  to  work  upon  to  enable  them  to  be  in  season 
with  the  new  brood,  to  produce  early  swarms.  This  is  a  serious  drawback 
in  late  seasons,  and  in  situations  where  pollen-producing  plants  are  not 
plenty. 

Mr.  E.  T.  Sturtevant,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  claims  that  he  has  discovered  a 
remedy  for  this  difficulty,  and  that  he  can  bring  forward  his  bees  some  two 
months  earlier,  and  get  good  swarms  the  first  of  May.  His  plan  is  to  feed 
his  bees  with  unbolted  rye-meal,  strewn  upon  boards  convenient  to  the  hive, 
the  bees  pitching  into  it  at  once  and  working  diligently,  and  in  such  an  earn- 
est way  as  fairly  to  scramble  over  one  another.  It  is  a  liiiit  worthy  tlie 
attention  of  all  bee-keepers. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  bee-keeper  in  Wurtembcrg  discovered  that  bees  ex- 
tracted food  from  carrots  which  had  been  rasped  and  cooked  for  stock,  and 
thereupon  he  boiled  some  to  a  jelly  and  placed  it  near  the  hives,  at  a  time 
when  the  fields  afforded  no  food,  and  he  found  that  they  worked  upon  it  as 
though  the  gaccliarnm  it  contained  was  particularly  agreeable. 

We  suggest  an  experiment  with  carrots  cooked  in  this  way,  by  bee-keepers 
in  this  country.  We  would  also  try  parsneps  ;  and,  where  they  are  grown 
abundantly,  sweet  potatoes.  And  since  we  know  that  bees  are  so  fond  of 
sweet  apples  in  summer,  why  not  keep  them  to  feed  swarms  when  needing 
artificial  feeding  in  winter.  It  may  add  as  much  to  the  health  of  bees  to 
feed  green  food,  as  it  does  to  health  of  other  farm-stock.  Let  the  exiieriment 
be  tried. 

222.  Vfntilation  of  HivcSi — A  great  deal  has  been  said  about  the  necessity, 
on  account  of  ventilation,  of  making  hives  open  at  the  bottom.  In  rejily  to 
this,  let  men  think  that  bees  in  a  wild  state  ]>rosper  M-ell  in  the  hollow  of  a 
tree  wliere  there  is  but  one  small  hole  for  entrance  of  the  bees  or  venlilaiion, 
and  that  open-end  liives,  standing  on  a  bench,  are  often  cemented  fast  to  it, 
and  sometimes  lioles  left,  for  ventilation,  are  sealed  up  as  closely  as  though 
air  was  poison  to  the  inmates  of  tlie  hive. 

If  you  wish  to  ventilate,  bore  a  two-inch  hole  into  the  upper  part  of  the 
large  box,  and  cover  it  on  the  inside  of  the  box  and  on  the  outside  of  the  case 
with  wire  gauze,  fine  enough  to  keep  out  ants  and  other  insects,  for  a  venti- 


Seo.  10.]     BEES,   AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION"  OF  HONEY.  ITl 

lator.  Bore  incli  holes  through  into  both  of  tiie  upper  boxe^,  and  cover  in 
the  same  way. 

Mr.  Quinby  says  tliat  he  regards  •proper  ventilation  as  very  important, 
and  jQt  proper  ventilation  is  very  inipertbcily  understood.  He  also  says : 
"  Any  way  to  get  I'id  of  the  moisture."  Tlie  presumption  is,  that  he  would 
not  freeze  the  bees  at  the  outset  as  one  of  the  ways,  for  that  would  surely 
prevent  moisture  ;  and  if  the  mochts  operandi  of  some  who  give  directions 
how  to  ventilate  should  be  put  in  practice  in  very  cold  situations,  the  bees 
are  just  as  surely  frozen. 

Moisture  accumulating  on  the  inside  walls  of  the  hive  has  caused  the  de- 
struction of  more  strong  colonies  of  bees  than  any  one  other  casualty,  except 
the  fatal  way  of  some  bee-keepers  to  get  rid  of  the  moisture  by  opening  wide 
the  apertures  in  the  top  and  also  in  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  thus  causing 
a  current  of  external  air  to  pass  up  through  the  interior — precisely  the 
method  to  cool  a  hive  in  hot  weathei* — and  also  thus  rendering  the  bees  more 
exposed  and  liable  to  be  frozen  than  they  would  be  situated  on  the  exterior 
of  the  hive.  Proper  ventilation  is  simply  to  give  free  vent  for  the  air  at  the 
top  of  tiie  hive,  and  not  admitting  any  or  but  very  little  air  through  the 
bottom.  Under  all  circumstances  it  is  requisite  to  regulate  the  openings  in 
the  bottom  with  those  in  the  top,  which  amounts  to  about  the  same  thing 
without  the  drawbacks  of  inverting  llie  hive. 

There  is  a  new  form  of  bets-hives,  used  by  J.  L.  Scribner,  of  Montpelier, 
Vt.,  a  successful  producer  of  lioney,  so  much  so  that  he  carries  off  all  prizes 
at  the  county  fair. 

Tliis  hive,  being  made  of  straw,  serves  admirably  for  ventilation.  It  is 
made  of  a  frame  of  square  sticks,  say  one  inch  diameter,  and  in  capacity  12  by 
13  inches,  and  13  inches  in  hight,  with  a  flat  board  roof  projecting  two  inches 
each  way.  The  frame  is  nailed  together  ;  the  lower  girts  are  placed  i  inch 
above  the  bottom  of  the  posts.  The  frame  is  covered  with  straw  sewed 
together,  just  as  it  is  in  straw  hives,  with  a  hoop  at  the  bottom,  made  of 
strips  of  boards  one  inch  thick  and  two  inches  wide  nailed  together.  In  this 
hoop  a  notch  2i  inches  long,  i  inch  deep,  is  cut  for  the  bees.  Plane  all  the 
wood,  and  use  none  but  clean  rye  straw.  On  the  roof,  over  suitable  holes, 
the  boxes  for  storing  honey  are  placed.     It  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Scribner: 

"The  advantages  of  this  hive  over  all  others  that  I  have  used  are  very 
material  in  my  view.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  straw  hives  are  the  best 
to  winter  bees  in  ;  not  altogether  because  they  are  so  much  warme'r,  but 
because  they  will  '  keej)  dry,'  and  the  frost  does  not  accumulate  as  in  board 
hives.  Every  experienced  apiarian  knows  that  in  wooden  hives  there  is  a 
continual  dampness,  arising  in  part  from  the  breath  and  effluvia  of  the  bees. 
Not  so  in  straw  hives.  Straw  being  of  a  dry  and  absorbing  nature,  the 
moisture  is  taken  up.  Now,  I  have  learned  that  straw  hives  are  as  much 
better  in  summer  as  in  winter,  especially  in  the  season  of  breeding,  when  we 
are  subject  to  frequent  and  sudden  changes  of  the  weather,  such  as  damp, 
chilly  nights  and  hot  days.     The  temperature  of  a  straw  hive  is  more  even  ; 


172 


SMAIX  ANIMALS  AJfD  INSECTS. 


[Chap.  II. 


it  does  not  heat  excessively  in  hot  weather  nor  cool  suddenly,  as  do  hoard 
hives.  The  natural  warmth  of  the  bees  is  retained,  which  is  particularly 
conducive  to  their  health  and  prosperity.  Hence  there  should  he  no  uiuue- 
cssari/  ventilation  by  leaving  an  'open  space,'  as  has  been  recommended  by 
some,  'all  around  the  bottom  of  the  hive.'  Especially  in  damp,  chilly 
weather,  bees  will  breed  faster  and  gather  more  honey  in  straw  hives  than 
in  board  hives,  according  to  my  experience.  One  reason  for  their  gathering 
more  honey,  probably,  is  because  the  young  brood  comes  to  maturity  faster, 
consequently  there  are  more  '  laborers  in  the  field'  in  the  early  honey  sea- 
son. This  hive  combines  all  the  real  advantages  of  every  patent  hive  that 
has  come  to  my  knowledge,  while  it  obviates  all  the  objections  and  retains  all 
the  good  qualities  of  '  the  old-fashioned  straw  hives.' 

"  The  less  a  fanner  bothers  himself  with  patent  hives  and  bee-palaces,  and 
the  less  he  tries  to  counteract  nature,  the  better  he  will  be  oflf.  I  am  heartily 
sick  of  'patent  bee-hive?,'  and  it  is  time  to  abandon  them." 

223.  Taking  Honey,  and  How  to  Keep  the  Bees  from  Stin.ging.— When  bees 
are  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  their  stores,  they  immediately  rush  to  the  cells 
and  fill  their  sacks  with  honey,  apparently  to  provide  against  any  contingency 
that  might  arise.  When  in  this  condition,  tliey  are  perfectly  harmless,  never 
volunteer  an  attack;  consequently,  to  tame  bees,  or  render  them  docile  and 
easily  driven  or  handled,  sinq^ly  take  advantage  of  this  peculiar  instinct.  To 
confine  them  closely  to  their  hive,  rap  repeatedly  on  its  sides  for  a  few  min- 
utes; this  alarms  them,  and  they  will  gorge  themselves  with  honey,  when 
tliev  can  be  handled  and  controlled  at  pleasure.  But  we  have  adopted  the 
following  plan,  which  we  find  best  adapted  to  our  use,  and  recommend  it  to 
others,  with  the  assurance  that  it  will  give  satisfaction:  Take  clean  cotton  or 
linen  rags,  sucli  as  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper ;  make  a  nice  roll  of 
these,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  from  six  to  twelve  inches  lung;  wrap 
this  pretty  tight,  either  with  narrow  sti'ips  or  shreds  torn  from  clotli,  or,  what 
is  more  convenient,  use  wrapping  yarn  of  some  kind  ;  prepare  a  number  of 
such  rolls,  and  keep  on  hand  in  some  box,  or  any  dry  place,  near  the  apiary, 
together  with  some  matches.  When  yon  wish  to  open  a  hive  or  perform  any 
operation,  set  fire  to  one  end  of  a  roll  of  rags;  it  makes  quite  a  smoke,  with- 
out any  blaze.  Upon  opening  the  hive,  blow  the  smoke  vigoi-ously  among 
the  bees  for  a  minute  or  two,  which  terrifies  them,  M-ithout  doing  any  perma- 
nent injury;  they  immediately  rush  to  the  cells  and  rill  tlieir  sacks  with 
honey,  when  you  can  proceed  to  lift  out  one  comb  after  another,  and  perform 
any  operation  with  perfect  impunity,  v>-ithout  any  fear  of  being  stung,  unless 
by  those  from  other  hives  near  at  hand.  Should  there  be  some,  liowever, 
that  would  show  signs  of  battle,  blow  a  little  more  smoke  upon  them,  and 
repeat  it  from  time  to  time  until  the  close  of  the  operation.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  honey  season,  when  they  are  rich  and  increased  in  stores,  they 
are  harder  to  control  than  at  any  other  season  of  the  year;  when  this  occuis, 
put  a  small  portion  of  tobacco  or  a  few  grains  of  sulphur  in  your  roll  of 
rags;  this  reudei-s  the  smoke  more  pungent,  and  will  easily  subdue  the 


Sec.  10.]     BEES,   AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY  173 

bees.     Dried  puff-ball  makes  a  smoke  that  subdues  bees  without  injury  to 
them. 

224.  Bee  Moths,and  How  toProtectBecs  from  Them. — ISTumcrous  patents  have 
been  taken  out  to  sell  bee-keepers,  to  keep  the  moths  out  of  the  hives.  All  of 
these  contrivances  fail  in  their  object,  or  else  have  objections  to  them  which 
have  prevented  their  general  introduction.  One  now  before  us  consists  of  a 
set  of  swinging  doors,  just  such  as  we  have  often  seen  at  cat-lioles,  hung  at 
the  top  so  as  to  fiiU  into  place  as  soon  as  pussy  gets  through.  For  the  bees, 
a  small  tin,  about  the  size  of  a  dime,  is  hung  in  the  entrance  hole,  which  the 
bee  can  push  open,  but  tlie  moth  can  not — that  is,  so  says  the  patentee. 

Where  open-end  hives  stand  upon  a  bench,  we  have  seen  moths  prevented 
from  injuring  the  swarm  by  raising  the  hive,  during  the  moth  season,  about 
half  an  inch  from  the  bench.  The  theory  of  tliis  plan  is,  that  the  moth  in- 
serts her  eggs  between  the  bottom  of  the  hive  and  bench,  where  they  hatch, 
and  the  bees  can  not  get  at  the  worms ;  but  if  it  is  raised  up,  there  is  no  op- 
portunity for  the  moth  to  deposit  her  eggs  where  they  will  be  safe. 

A  cheap,  good  moth-trap  is  made  in  the  following  manner:  Take  a  piece 
of  thin  pine  board,  or  a  shingle,  a  few  inches  square,  and  with  your  pocket- 
knife  cut  three-cornered  grooves  on  one  side,  and  lay  it,  grooved  side  down, 
on  the  bench  under  the  hive.  The  moths  will  find  a  secure  place  from  the 
bees,  and  deposit  their  eggs,  wliich  you  will  find,  or  the  worms,  and  destroy, 
by  looking  at  your  traps  every  few  days. 

Mr.  Qiiinby  recommends  the  following  mixture  as  a  moth-trap  :  Sugar  or 
molasses  and  a  little  vinegar  and  water,  making  the  "contrast"  agreeable — 
the  sweet  and  the  sour.  Put  this  in  shallow  dishes,  saucers,  or  tin  baking 
dishes,  and  set  them  among  the  bees  at  evening.  Next  morning,  moths  of 
all  kinds  will  be  found  in  the  liquid,  and  may  then  be  strained  out  and  de- 
stroyed, and  the  mixture  used  the  following  evening. 

225.  Introduction  of  Bees  into  falifornia.— The  honey-bee  is  not  a  native  of 
California.  The  credit  of  introducing  them  is  due  to  a  man  by  the  name  of 
Shelton,  who,  after  doing  mucii  for  the  interest  of  agricultural  improvements 
in  that  State,  lost  his  life,  while  still  a  very  young  man,  by  the  explosion  of 
a  steamboat  boiler  on  the  Sacramento  Eiver.  He  imported,  in  March,  1853, 
the  first  bees  into  California.  He  left  New  York  with  twelve  stands,  or 
hives,  and  arrived  with  but  one ;  from  this  one  about  one  lumdred  and  fifty 
swarms  were  credited  in  1858,  and,  of  course,  have  largely  multiplied  since 
that  time.  There  have  also  been  very  large  exportations  made  by  steamer 
from  New  York.  The  Messrs.  Harbison,  of  Pennsylvania,  have  been  very 
successful  in  shipping  and  selling  swarms,  and  have  also  established  an  ex- 
tensive apiary  at  Sacramento.  The  common  price  of  some  of  the  first  stocks 
sent  to  or  produced  in  California  has  been  fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  a  hive. 
The  Harbisons  made  their  first  shipment,  we  believe,  in  1858-9. 

It  has  been  thought  singular  that  our  people  found  no  bees  in  California, 
when  they  were  so  abundant  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Since  the 
introduction  of  bees  from  New  York,  a  California  jiaper  states  that  several 


174  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

attempts  to  import  bees  from  Mexico  have  failed.  Captain  Macondray  had 
one  or  more  Mexican  swarms,  but  tbey  soon  dwindled  away.  In  1S59,  Mrs. 
Sutter,  daughter-in-law  to  General  Sutter,  had  forty-four  hives  packed  on  the 
backs  of  Indians  to  Acapulco,  and  brought  on  the  steamer  to  San  Francisco; 
two  or  three  weeks  after  their  arrival,  there  remained  but  two  hives  contain- 
ing bees;  they  were  taken  to  San  Jose,  but  in  a  short  time  they  also  died. 

It  also  says,  and  so  does  every  one  we  have  conversed  with  on  the  subject, 
that  California  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  houcy-bcc,  as  the  experience  of  five 
years  fully  demonstrates.  In  San  Jose  Valley,  Sacramento  Valley,  Shasta, 
liidwell's,  Stockton,  Columbia,  and  Napa  they  multiply  rapidly  and  store 
abundance  of  honey.  The  willow  affords  the  first  material  for  pollen.  The 
bees  commence  gathering  it  by  the  1st  of  January  ;  about  the  l.">fh  of  Janu- 
ary it  is  in  bloom,  and  affords  considerable  honey,  though  slightly  bitter. 
The  bees  gather  pollen  and  honey  from  the  willow  till  March.  The  wild 
mustard  aftbrds  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  honey  from  the  1st  of  April  to 
tlie  middle  of  June.  Later  in  the  season,  honey  is  obtained  from  buckwheat 
and  honey-dew. 

Ilouey  made  from  mustard  blossom,  from  which  most  of  the  honey  is 
gathered  in  San  Jose  Valley,  is  excellent,  and  has  sold  in  San  Francisco  at 
from  $1  25  to  $1  50  per  pound.  New  swarms  issue  as  early  as  the  15th  of 
April,  and  the  swarming  season  continues  to  the  16th  of  June. 

226.  StinglfSS  BeeSt — There  is  a  good  deal  said  of  late  about  going  to  Brazil 
after  "  stingless  bees.''  What  is  the  utility-  ?  We  have  a  better  sort  liere, 
and  their  stings  are  in  no  manner  objectionable.  In  fact,  they  arc  advan- 
tageous to  the  apiarian.  They  guard  the  store  from  thieves  of  all  sorts,  and 
tiic}^  arc  much  better  honej'-makers  than  the  South  American  variety,  which 
has  no  sting,  all  of  M"liich  are  of  a  much  smaller  size  than  our  common 
hone3'-bee,  and  some  of  them  make  honey  that  is  sour,  and  others  give  it  a 
bitter  flavor.  This  may  bo  owing  to  the  flowers  it  is  extracted  from,  as  we 
have  known  bees  here  to  make  uneatable  honey. 

Wells,  in  his  cxjilorations  of  Honduras,  gives  the  names  of  fourteen  varie- 
ties of  honey-bees.  Honey  is  very  abundant  and  low  priced.  He  was 
charged  but  ten  cents  a  quart  for  it.  He  says:  "The  bees  are  diminutive, 
and  mostly  stingless.  Swarms  of  them  may  be  seen  every  daj',  M-hen  travel- 
ing in  the  open  country,  hovering  around  some  decayed  tree,  and  but  little 
trouble  is  necessary  to  bear  the  whole  establishment  to  the  nearest  hacienda. 
One  of  the  proprietors  said  he  had  sold  enough,  since  owning  the  estate,  to 
bu}'  all  the  drilling,  7)ianios,  and  articles  of  that  description,  required  at  the 
hacienda." 

The  most  curious  thing  about  most  of  these  bees  is  that  they  do  not  store 
Iioney  like  our  bc-js,  in  combs  of  hexagonal  cells,  but  in  little  sacs,  two  inches 
long,  arranged  in  rows  along  the  sides  of  the  hive.  The  cells  for  the  young 
are  placed  in  tlie  center. 

227.  Italian  Bees. — During  the  year  1860,  a  good  deal  has  been  said  about 
the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  introduction  of  Italian  bees  into  the 


Seo.  10.]     BEES,  AND  THE  PROFITABLE  PRODUCTION  OF  HONEY.  175 


United  States,  and  importations  have  been  made  for  that  purpose.  The  plan 
is  to  breed  queens,  wliich,  after  being  impregnated,  are  introduced  into  com- 
mon hives,  after  removing  the  old  queen. 

A  writer  in  tlie  Country  Gentleman  newspaper  gives  the  following  as  the 
history  of  the  introduction  of  Italian  bees  into  this  country.     He  says: 

"  Mr.  P.  J.  Malum,  of  Pliiladelpliia,  is  mentioned  '  as  being  the  first  to 
land  this  new  variety  on  our  shores.'  As  a  matter  of  history,  I  would  state 
that  this  is  not  so.  For  several  years  past  the  attempt  has  been  made  yearly 
by  Mr.  Richard  Colvin,  of  Baltimore,  Samuel  Wagoner,  of  York,  Pa.,  and 
Rev.  L.  L.  Laiigstroth.  These  attempts  were  unsuccessful,  owing  to  bad 
packing  and  mismanagement  in  transportation,  until  the  autumn  of  1859, 
when  Mr.  Colvin  received  some  Italian  stocks,  and  hoped  to  have  queens 
from  them  for  sale  the  past  season,  but  these  stocks,  unfortunately,  did  not 
survive  the  winter.  Next  in  order  of  date  is  Mr.  Mahan's  importation  from 
Germany,  which  was  successful  on  account  of  his  personal  supervision. 
Sliortly  after  Mr.  Mahan's  importation,  Mr.  S.  B.  Parsons,  of  Flushing,  Long 
Island,  succeeded  in  getting  a  few  swarms  alive  from  Italy.  From  them  he 
has  succeeded,  aided  bj'  several  skillful'  apiarians,  in  raising  a  large  number 
of  queens,  which  have  been  sent  to  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union,  includ- 
ing California,  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Bigelow,  a  successful  apiarian. 

"The  last  successful  importation  was  by  Messrs.  Colvin  and  Wagoner. 
All  the  above  named  are  exerting  themselves  to  multiply  their  stocks  of 
Italian  bees,  and  they  will  doubtless  have  a  demand  for  all  the  queens  and 
stocks  they  can  supply  next  season,  as  the  interest  in  this  new  bee  is  deserv- 
edly increasing.  The  question  will  naturally  arise.  Of  whom  shall  I  pur- 
chase ?  Are  these  importations  equally  reliable,  and  if  so,  have  all  taken 
the  same  pains  and  been  equally  successful  in  keeping  the  breed  pure  ?  I 
Avould  here  remark  that  some  situations  are  more  t\ivorable  for  maintaining 
purity  than  others.  Tlie  Italian  bees  now  in  this  country  are  from  three 
ditferent  sources,  and  every  one  should  decide  for  himself  to  which  stock  he 
should  give  the  preference,  and  if  the  most  reliable  man  and  the  most  reli- 
able bee  can  be  found  working  together. 

"Two  of  the  importations  are  from  Germany,  and  one  from  Italy.  Of  the 
importation  from  Italy  there  can  be  no  reason  to  question  its  purity.  Tlie 
two  importations  from  Germany  are  from  ditferent  breeders.  One  of  the 
importations  fiom  Germany  I  have  the  fullest  confidence  in  from  personal 
inspection ;  and  if  the  other  be  equally  good,  we  are  in  a  fiiir  position  to 
have  the  country  m'cU  supplied  with  pure  stock  in  a  few  years,  provided 
sutficient  interest  is  taken  to  maintain  purity." 

228.  Reasons  for  Keeping  Bees. — -In  this  section  we  have  only  aimed  to  say 
just  enough  to  encourage  every  reader  to  keep  bees,  Avho  has  anything  like 
fair  facilities  for  them  to  obtain  a  supply  of  honey  from  gardens  and  fields, 
which  they  will  do  if  within  a  mile,  and  some  bee-keepers  say  if  within  two 
miles.  But  it  is  not  profitable  to  allow  bees  to  go  so  far,  when  the  bee-keeper 
has  land  upon  which  he  can  grow  bee-food  just  as  well  as  he  can  grow  food 


176 


SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS. 


[Chap.  IL 


for  any  other  farm-stock.  The  fact  that  bees  obtain  a  great  deal  of  food 
from  fruit-trees  should  encourage  farmers  to  cultivate  both  together.  And 
if  he  plants  along  the  roadside  long  rows  of  willows,  maples,  lindens,  pop- 
lars, iic  will  not  only  have  the  advantage  of  them  for  shade  and  ornament, 
but  his  bees,  if  he  has  them — and  if  not,  let  him  be  encouraged  to  get  them — 
M-ill  find  a  great  field  up  in  the  branches,  that  they  can  use  as  pasture. 

The  strongest  reason  tliat  can  be  given  for  keeping  bees  is  this  simple  fact: 
Tlicy  afford  more  clear  profit  than  any  other  stock  ever  kept  on  the  farm, 
and,  generally  speaking,  the  more  labor  is  bestowed  upon  them  in  providing 
good  liives  and  pasture,  the  better  they  pay. 


SECTION  XL-BIRDS. 

eason  and  Reli^^ion  in  Preserving  Birds. — "We  don't 
know  how  much  we  have  written,  said,  and  sung 
to  induce  farmers  not  to  destroy  the  birds,  nor 
allow  them  to  be  destroyed,  because  we  look  upon 
them  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  farm-stock,  and  of 
more  importance  to  the  farmer  than  some  animals  lio 
icps,  at  much  more  expense  than  his  stock  of  birtl?. 
We  say  his  stock,  because  we  consider  the  birds  on  tlie 
trees  just  as  much  the  property  of  him  who  owns  tlio 
trees  as  the  trees  themselves ;  and  he  who  would  steal 
one  would  steal  the  other.  A  man  who  would  come  upon 
my  farm  and  shoot  my  birds,  without  my  permission,  is 
not  one  of  the  noblest  works  of  God.  No  man  who  takes 
reason  for  a  guide,  who  owns  a  farm  in  any  of  the  old 
States,  can  consent  to  have  his  birds  destroyed.  He  certainly  will  not  de- 
stroy them  himself,  after  he  has  taken  time  to  think  upon  the  subject.  It  is 
our  object  to  induce  him  to  think,  and  the  best  place  to  do  so  is  to  go  out 
among  them  in  a  bright  spring  morning,  and  hear  their  music. 

Go  out  among  the  trees  in  the  orchard  or  through  the  grove,  or  look  into 
the  hedge-rows  or  peep  under  the  old  bridge  down  the  lane,  or  go  to  tlic 
barn  ;  go  anywhere,  everywhere,  where  you  will,  and  at  this  season — that  is, 
lovely  May  season — you  will  find  the  birds — busy,  merry,  singing  birds; 
hard  at  work  they  are,  too,  building  their  houses — cradles,  rather — and  all  tlic 
time  keeping  up  a  concert  of  sweet  music.  Various  too  are  their  tastes  in 
selecting  their  sites  for  their  nesting-places,  some  hiding  away  from  man, 
some  coming  up  to  his  very  door,  or,  like  the  martin  and  swallow,  under  his 
roof  and  protection.  Robin-red-breast  almost  invariably  comes  into  the 
orchard,  sometimes  on  the  trees,  sometimes  on  the  fence,  sometimes,  where 
kindly  treated,  under  the  shed  by  the  barn  or  house. 


?J^ 


Seo.  11.]  BreDS.  ■       ,  177 

Tlie  woodpecker — the  same  one  that  -was  tapping  "  the  hollow  beech-tree" 
— makes  holes  in  the  old  apple-trees,  into  which  for  years  afterward  the 
pretty  bluebird  creeps  and  rears  its  annual  brood. 

The  blackbird,  the  most  numerous  of  the  family  of  small  birds,  mostly 
nests  in  the  swamp  ;  except  one  variety,  imitating  the  crow,  that  goes  into 
the  highest  trees,  such  as  the  spruce,  with  a  dark,  thick  top,  where  boys  nor 
small  sliot  can  not  come. 

In  the  meadow  we  find  tlie  sly  nest  of  the  quail  and  lark  and  several 
small  birds  ;  and  in  the  thickest  bushes,  the  home  of  the  brown  thrush.  He 
is  a  natural  musician,  a  sweet  bird  full  of  glee  and  cheerfulness ;  but  the 
merriest  and  most  amusing  of  the  whole  family  is  the  noisy  little  bobolink. 

We  look  upon  birds  as  among  the  essentials  of  a  landscape,  and  would  as 
soon  think  of  chopping  down  tlie  orchard,  shooting  the  turkeys,  and  wring- 
ing the  necks  oif  of  the  barn-yard  fowls,  or  making  mutton  of  the  sheep  or 
giving  the  lambs  to  the  dogs,  as  to  think  of  destroying  the  birds  or  driving 
them  from  the  premises. 

"  Going  a  gunning,"  with  the  murderous  intent  to  kill  such  birds,  ought  to 
consign  a  man  to  the  infamy  that  we  are  apt  to  attach  to  a  savage  or  a  brute 
who  wantonly  kills  the  finest  of  God's  creation. 

Without  birds,  a  country  is  desolate ;  with  them,  it  is  always  cheerful. 
Their  songs  would  enliven  the  heart  of  a  stone,  or  make  a  miser  for  the 
moment  forget  his  money. 

The  association  of  children  with  birds,  when  taught  to  love  them  and  not 
destroy  their  nests,  has  as  direct  and  certain  a  tendency  to  improve  their 
natures  as  the  church  or  family  fireside.  Teach  a  child  that  birds  are  among 
the  good  gifts  of  God  to  man,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  that  the  child  will 
grow  up  to  manhood  without  being  possessed  of  some  of  the  attributes  of  the 
sweet  songsters  of  the  grove. 

And  yet  there  are  parents  who  allo'w  their  children  to  wage  incessant  war 
upon  the  birds,  never  thinking  of  the  injury  they  are  doing  their  young 
minds,  or  how  many  destructive  enemies  they  are  entailing  upon  the  crops  in 
the  shape  of  countless  caterpillars,  grubs,  and  worms. 

We  do  not  know  of  a  higher  Christian  duty  for  a  minister  to  engage  in 
than  an  effort  to  preserve  the  birds  in  his  parish. 

We  would  impress  upon  the  mind  of  every  child  tliat  the  command,  "  thou 
shalt  not  kill,"  meant  these  dear  little  birds  as  well  as  things  of  a  higher 
degree.  Tliou  shalt  not  wantonly  kill  a  single  thing  of  all  creation  that  is 
not  necessary  for  man's  sustenance,  or  that  is  not  detrimental  to  his  interest. 

Children  should  be  taught  not  only  to  love  the  music  of  birds,  but  to  look 
upon  them  as  models  of  beauty  and  affection  to  their  mates  and  to  their 
young.  Instead  of  driving  them  away  from  the  house,  encourage  them  to 
come  and  perch  upon  the  window-sill  and  build  their  nests  under  the  eaves. 

Do  not  tell  us  tliey  destroy  the  small  fruit.  Plant  enough  for  birds  and 
men.  If  they  do  eat  fruit,  tliey  also  eat  worms,  and  you  can  well  afford  to 
give  them  a  few  cherries  and  currants  for  what  they  have  done  for  .you. 


178  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Cnxp.  H. 


Around  the  city  there  is  a  diflBcnlty  in  preserving  the  birds,  because  all 
tlic  groves  arc  infested  with  an  abominable  nuisance  in  the  shape  of  big  boys 
and  prowling  loafere  "  out  for  a  day's  shooting." 

Tliey  ought  to  be  out  for  a  day's  shooting,  and  that  should  be  at  their  own 
idle  carcasses,  with  tine  salt  and  pepper-corns,  and  every  owner  of  laud 
should  be  allowed  by  law  thus  to  salt  and  pepper  any  of  these  idle  vagabonds 
who  come  upon  his  grounds  without  leave  to  doom  the  birds  to  destruction. 

Farmers  !  let  your  motto  be — and  impress  it  upon  all  your  family — Never 
kill  a  bird ! 

In  the  early  settlement  of  this  country,  there  was  such  an  abundance  of 
birds  that  the  people  who  were  striving  to  raise  grain  enough  for  the  support 
of  their  families,  looked  upon  them  as  their  enemies,  because  they  were  nat- 
urally disposed  to  come  in  for  a  share  of  the  crop,  and  some  of  them,  such 
as  the  crow  and  the  large  blackbird,  sometimes  depredated  upon  the  seed, 
by  which  the  crop  was  effectually  cut  off. 

So  a  war  of  extermination  was  declared  without  discrimination  against  all 
birds,  and  it  was  carried  to  such  a  bitter  end  that  the  children  of  the  liret 
settlers  grew  up  with  a  fixed  opinion  that  they  were  doing  a  Christian  duty 
whenever  an  opportunity  offered,  in  destroying  birds  and  birds'  nests,  and 
they  entailed  the  same  disposition  \ipon  their  children  and  their  children's 
children  ;  and  so  the  poor  birds  have  been  almost  exterminated  from  the  face 
of  the  earth  M'ith  scarcely  a  thought  why  or  wherefore,  except  that  they  were 
birds,  and  birds  must  be  destroyed — "  father  says  so."  Upon  that  ipse  dixit 
some  of  the  best  friends  of  the  farmer,  instead  of  his  worst  enemies,  have 
been  almost  annihilated,  while  others  have  come  to  regard  him  as  a  being 
to  be  so  avoided  that  they  make  their  abodes  in  deep  forests,  and  hide  their  j  j 
nests  and  young  from  man  as  carefully  as  man  would  hide  his  young  from  I  i 
a  tiger.  _  _  !   ! 

Experience  teacheth  wisdom ;  and  after  two  hundred  years  of  teaching,     I   j 
the  American  farmer  is  just  beginning  to  learn  that  birds  are  his  best  friends,     j 
He  shot  them  upon  his  plum  and  cherry  trees  because  tlicy  took  a  share  of 
the  fruit,  and  then  came  the  insects  that  the  birds  used  to  prey  upon,  and  the 
days  of  plum-growing  were  over.     So  of  many  other  insects,  real  pests  of  the 
farmer,  everywhere  multiplying  as  the  birds  decrease. 

Not  one  at'  the  species  upon  which  man  has  made  such  unceasing  war,  but 
has  its  use.  Even  the  owl,  although  it  will  cat  chickens,  is  a  great  mouse- 
destroyer  ;  and  the  hated  hawk  is  sometimes  shot  with  a  snake  in  its  bill. 
Crows  should  be  treated  with  as  much  care  about  a  farm  as  domestic  fowls. 
Do  they  pull  up  your  sprouting  corn  sesd  ?  Feed  them  and  they  will  not. 
Sow  corn  broadcast  through  the  field  and  they  will  not  touch  that  which 
yon  have  planted.  Birds  of  all  descriptions  should  be  taught  that  man  is  a 
friend  and  not  an  enemy,  and  tlay  will  return  the  friendship. 

Some  lover  of  birds — and  he  who  is  not  such  is  "fit  for  treasons,  strata- 
gems, and  spoils" — may  demur  to  our  assertion,  that  they  arc  less  influenced 
by  gratitude  than  their  four-footed  fellows.     If  our  assertion  is  incorrect,  »ve 


Seo.  11.]  BIRDS.  179 

shall  be  happy  to  be  set  right,  but  we  believe  that  facts  are  against  tlie  birds ; 
yet  if  this  be  so,  the  circunistanee  is  not  to  their  discredit.  Tliey  are  the 
humorists,  the  musicians,  the  conversationists  of  the  animal  world ;  so  fully 
occupied  in  talking,  singing,  joking,  eating,  and  reai-ing  their  families,  that 
they  have  little  time  to  devote  to  those  immense  beings,  pantalooned  or 
hooped,  whom  they  undoubtedly  regard  from  their  airy  hights  with  a  sort 
of  contempt,  as  they  behold  them  slowly  plodding  along,  confined  to  the  dull 
earth  and  unable  to  take  a  flight  even  equal  to  that  of  one  of  their  newly- 
fledged  oifspring  ;  and  if  they  condescend  to  pick  up  a  few  crumbs  scattered 
by  some  gentle  hand,  they  feel  as  little  of  the  emotion  of  gratitude  to  their 
benefactor,  as  the  squirrel  to  the  chestnut-tree  which  rains  upon  him  his 
winter's  supply.  A  certain  degree  of  brain  development  is  necessary  for  the 
existence  of  this  emotion,  and  birds,  in  this  respect,  are  inferior  to  most  of 
the  quadrupeds  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

Birds  do  not  seem  to  be  as  susceptible  as  quadrupeds  to  kind  treatment, 
and  those  species  which  have  been  domesticated  appear  to  have  lost  what- 
ever "  smartness"  they  may  originally  have  possessed.  The  whole  tribe  df 
domestic  fowls — cocks,  hens,  ducks,  geese,  guinea-fowls,  turkeys,  pea-fowls — 
are  unmitigatedly  stupid — acute  in  nothing  but  picking  up  corn  and  devas- 
tating gardens. 

The  crow  is  one  of  the  birds  that  unthinking  men  destroy,  because  they 
pull  up  a  little  corn  in  the  spring.     Will  you  think  what  else  he  does  ? 

He  consumes  in  the  year  vast  quantities  of  grubs,  worms,  and  noxious 
vermin ;  he  is  a  valuable  scavenger,  and  clears  the  land  of  offensive  masses 
of  deceased  animal  substances ;  he  hunts  the  grain  fields,  and  pulls  out  and 
devours  the  underground  caterpillars,  whenever  he  perceives  the  signs  of 
their  operations,  as  evinced  by  the  wilted  stalks  ;  he  destroys  mice,  young 
rats,  lizards,  and  small  snakes ;  lastly,  he  is  a  volunteer  sentinel  about  the 
farm,  and  drives  tlie  hawk  from  its  inclosure,  thus  preventing  greater  mis- 
chief than  that  of  which  he  himself  is  guilty.  It  is  chiefly  during  seed-time 
and  harvest  that  the  depredations  of  the  crow  are  committed  ;  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year  we  witness  only  his  services,  which  are  so  appreciated 
by  those  who  have  written  of  birds,  that  I  can  not  name  an  ornithologist 
who  does  not  plead  in  his  behalf. 

Frighten  the  crows,  but  do  not  kill  them,  except  one  to  use  to  keep  his 
fellows  otf  your  corn.  Pick  oft'  part  of  his  feathers  and  scatter  them  on  some 
spot  in  the  field  easily  seen,  and  near  by  lay  the  carcass' of  the  dead  crow 
and  you  will  see  his  late  companion  sailing  over  the  field  and  looking  down 
upon  what  has  been  done,  but  very  careful  not  to  light  where  he  too  might 
fall  a  victim.  If  you  can  not  kill  a  crow,  you  may  make  a  veiy  good  show 
of  a  dead  one  with  a  black  hen.  Crows  are  too  valuable  as  vermin-destroy- 
ers on  a  fiirm  to  be  wantonly  destroyed  because  they  pull  up  a  little  corn. 

A  writer  at  Eaton,  N.  Y.,  sends  us  the  following  item  in  favor  of  the  per- 
secuted crow,  which  makes  him  out  not  quite  so  black  as  he  looks — that  is, 
when  seen  by  the  eyes  of  some  of  his  enemies.     He  says : 


180  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  11 

"  For  the  interest  of  the  fanning  portion  of  this  country,  I  eominunicato 
the  following:  Mr.  Alpha  Brown,  an  enterprising  farmer  of  this  town, 
informed  me  that,  having  acted  this  year  upon  the  somewhat  late  suggestion 
of  yours,  of  sowing  corn  broadcast  over  the  planted  ground,  he  experienced 
a  new  result.  Upon  four  acres,  where  heretofore  his  crop  had  been  greatly 
injured  by  the  devastations  of  the  "white  grub"  and  "gray  corn-worm,"  he 
sowed  broadcast,  after  planting,  a  half  bushel  of  corn.  This,  of  course, 
attracted  the  crows,  which,  coming  to  the  ground  in  the  cooler  part  of  the 
afternoon  and  morning,  found  the  worms  on  their  usual  visit  to  the  surface, 
and,  preferring  tlie  latter  to  the  corn,  devoured  tliem  instead.  The  result  is, 
that  out  of  the  whole  field  he  has  not  lost  to  exceed  five  hills." 

230.  The  Reverse  of  the  f  row  Question. — Having  given  our  opinion  in  favor 
of  the  crow,  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  we  feel  that  it  is  due  to  a  fair  in- 
vestigation of  the  question  not  to  make  it  an  arbitrary  opinion,  and  rest 
there,  but  to  give  the  opinions  of  others  also.  It  is  facts,  not  theories,  tliat 
we  wish  to  give  farmers. 

One  who  signs  himself  a  "  Farmer's  Boy,"  writes  from  Ridgefield,  Conn., 
about  crows,  as  follows : 

"  Having  lately  read  your  article  upon  the  subject  of  crows  and  others 
of  the  feathered  tribe,  I  can  not  hold  still  my  rnsty  old  steel  any  longer.  I 
agree  with  you  very  well  until  you  advocate  the  protection  of  crows ;  there  I 
think  you  miss  your  mark.  There  is  but  one  thing  you  name  that  is  in  their 
favor — the  digging  of  grubs.  Tlioy  are  the  enemies  of  all  our  small  birds, 
which  you  advocate  preserving.  They  commence  with  the  eggs,  and  con- 
tinue their  depredations  until  the  young  are  nearly  grown.  They  arc  never 
found  destroying  insects  of  any  kind  that  could  not  be  of  more  use  than  the 
crow,  and  even  the  grub  can  be  made  a  source  of  income  to  the  farmer.  An 
intelligent  farmer  told  me,  some  years  ago,  he  made  1,000  pounds  of  pork  by 
letting  his  hogs  feed  on  them  in  his  meadows,  which  damaged  liis  grass  but 
little  the  first  year,  and  thought  it  better  the  second  by  having  the  surface 
stirred.  You  speak  of  their  devouring  carrion.  Now,  in  my  opinion,  no 
farmer  that  is  a  good  economist  will  allow  any  dead  animal  to  lie  and  rot  in 
the  sun  to  make  food  for  the  crows.  I  consider  tlie  carcass  of  a  liorse,  a  cow, 
or  an  ox  worth  from  tliree  to  five  dollars  to  any  farmer.  If  so,  it  is  quite 
too  dear  food  for  crows.  Some  say  crows  catch  grasshoppers  and  crickets. 
I  prefer  a  nice  brood  of  turkeys,  that  Avill  not  look  bad  on  the  table  when 
they  have  performed  their  work  on  the  farm. 

"  You  see  I  am  a  friend  to  almost  everything  but  a  crow.  If  there  is  any- 
thing made  in  vain,  it  is  the  crow.  They  destroy  our  little  warblers;  tliey 
catch  our  chickens,  ducks,  turkeys,  and  goslings;  they  dig  our  potatoes,  pull 
our  corn  and  beans,  from  the  time  they  appear  above  ground  until  they  grow 
out  of  their  way.  Then,  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  formed  on  the  ear;  tiiey 
commence  their  work  again.  Now,  if  such  a  pest  as  this  is  to  be  protected, 
it  must  be  by  some  one  who  has  a  heart  softer  than  I  have ;  a  creature  that 
but  one  thing  can  be  said  in  its  favor,  and  the  rest  must  go  against  it.     1 


Skc.  11.]  BIRDS.  181 

have  not  tlie  least  doubt  but  our  town  was  taxed  $500  last  year  to  feed 
crows." 

Upon  this  we  simply  remark:  If  "  Farmer's  Boy"  lias  a  breed  of  crows 
about  him  that  really  catch  turkeys,  goslings,  etc.,  and  dig  potatoes,  he  is 
welcome  to  be  their  enemy.  Our  crows  are  of  another  sort.  But  is  our 
"boy"  sure  that  he  "can  tell  a  hawk  from  a  hernshaw?"  Because  the 
raven,  though  one  of  the  corvus  family,  is  not  a  crow,  as  we  understand  the 
word ;  and  it  is  just  possible  that  the  bird  that  catches  turkeys  and  other 
birds  is  a  raven. 

We  have  another  opinion,  coming  from  a  citizen  of  Montgomery  County, 
Pcnn.     He  says : 

"Leaving  your  crows  imder  your  protection,  to  enjoy  their  excellent  repu- 
tations, we  desire  to  say  a  word  on  tlie  character  of  ours.  Ti:at  we  have 
real,  veritable  crows  that  catch  young  chickens,  is  a  '  fixed  fact,'  well  estab- 
lished. Tii'e  present  season,  notwithstanding  our  care,  we  lost  by  them,  I 
suppose,  from  ten  to  fifteen,  and  avoided  the  loss  of  othei's  only  by  the  use 
of  gunpowder.  Our  experience  on  this  subject,  I  may  add,  is  that  of  many 
others.  This  thing,  then,  our  'breed'  of  crows  do,  and  also  carry  off  spoiled 
eg^^  that  may  be  thrown  awaj',  birds'  eggs,  etc.  In  reference  to  ducks  and 
goslings,  I  am  unable  to  speak,  but  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  they  are 
distasteful,  or  that  they  do  not  catch  th^n. 

"  They  love,  it  appears,  a  variety.  A  near  and  reliable  neighbor  informs 
mo  that  quite  recently  he  saw  one  of  our  tribe  in  hot  pursuit  of  a  rabbit, 
whieli,  after  sundry  dodgings,  secreted  itself  under  the  fence.  So  you  see 
New  York  crows  differ  from  ours,  and,  I  incline  to  think,  from  most  other 
crows." 

Here  is  another  opinion.  This  comes  from  Theron  Wales,  AVindham, 
Portage  County,  Ohio.  He  says,  in  relation  to  our  remarks  upon  the  state- 
ment of  "  Farmer's  Boy  :" 

"I  conclude  you  received  it  as  doubtful.  I  can  add  testimony  in  part  to 
the  same  effect.  I  have  seen  the  crow  alight  into  the  nest  of  the  robin  and 
carry  away  the  j'oung  birds  to  feed  their  own  young.  They  are  pa5sionately 
fond  of  the  eggs  of  other  birds,  and  I  have  caught  tliem  in  traps  with  egg- 
shells. Hunters  of  tlie  wild  tiirkey  can  testify  to  the  hatred  between  tlie 
crow  and  the  gobblers.  From  the  frequent  presence  of  the  crow  over  the 
gobbling  turkey,  it  appears  they  watch  for  their  nests.  At  least  every  cry 
of  the  crow  is  answered  defiantly  by  the  turkey,  and  thus  I  have  often  been 
led  to  approach  the  turkey  and  shoot  him.  Wiiile  we  were  living  upon  the 
Berkshire  Hills,  in  Massachusetts,  it  was  not  unfrequent  that  our  neighbors' 
and  our  own  young  lambs  had  their  eyes  picked  out  by  the  early  returning 
crows  in  the  spring.  But  I  do  not  say  these  things  for  the  sake  of  engaging 
in  an  exterminating  war  upon  them.  All  things  were  created  for  some  wise 
purpose.  Every  creature  has  in  nature  its  enemy  and  destroyer,  and  every 
attempt  on  the  part  of  man  to  give  preponderance  to  one  part  of  the  wild 
creation  over  another,  will  fail.     Civilization  will  of  necessity  drive  away 


1 


182  SMALL  ANIMAI.S  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

the  beaver,  otter,  deer,  and  a  host  of  forest  birds,  and  their  places  will  be 

rapidly  supplied  by  the  wren,  the  roliin,  tlie  bluebird,  the  honey-bee,  etc. 

"The  raven  is  more  carnivorous  tiian  the  crow.  I  once  saw  one  alight 
into  a  kingbird's  nest  and  carry  away  the  young,  in  spite  of  the  cries  and 
efforts  of  tlie  old  ones.'' 

The  crowning  charge  against  the  crows  comes  from  Freeport,  Me.,  in  a 
letter  written  by  E.  Pratt,  Jr.,  wlio  says : 

"Now  Avhat  ^ your  crows'  are,  or  what  tliey  eat,  or  how  tliey  get  their  liv- 
ing, I  know  not ;  but  the  crows  in  Maine  both  dig  and  cat  potatoes,  incredu- 
lous as  it  may  apjjear. 

"  In  some  seasons  I  have  known  many  acres,  j-ylanted  on  light  soils,  in 
exposed  situations,  devaslatcd  by  these  miscreants,  and  that  in  my  own 
neighborhood. 

"Tlieir  manner  is,  when  the  plant  first  breaks  ground,  to  dig  and  pull  it 
up  with  the  tubers  attached,  though  it  appears  by  the  partially  eaten  ones 
left  here  and  there  on  the  field,  that  they  do  not  eat  them  with  much 
avidity. 

"I  know  that  popular  writers  think  the  crow  a  great  blessing  to  farmers, 
but  I  am  yet  to  be  convinced  of  this,  and  can  only  wish  that  those  who  think 
their  company  so  desirable  should  have  the  benefit  of  my  share." 

There  is  but  little  doubt  in  our  mind  tliat  most  of  these  bad  birds  were 
ravens,  and  not  crows,  particularly  as  Mr.  Wales  acknowledges  the  presence 
of  the  raven,  and  says  that  he  is  a  carnivorous  bird. 

Now,  having  said  our  say,  and  allowed  others  to  say  theirs,  about  crows, 
we  will  drop  down  to  wrens,  by  way  of  contrast. 

231.  Wrciis. — We  waked  one  morning — one  of  those  May  mornings — 
when  our  domicile  was  a  city  one,  with  delightful  sounds  coming  in  at  the 
window.  They  were  the  notes  of  sweet  singing  birds.  What  lovely  music! 
It  was  the  first  of  the  season  that  had  come  to  our  ears,  and  it  struck  a  chord 
that  called  to  mind  scenes  of  youth,  long,  long  ago.  We  hastened  to  the 
Avindow  and  looked  out.  "  Ila !  ha !  my  old  friends,"  we  cried,  "  and  so  you 
have  come  back  again."  It  was  the  wrens,  the  same  ones  undoubtedly  that 
we  built  a  nesting-place  for  last  year.  There  was  one  pair  then,  now  two 
pair — the  progeny,  wo  suppose,  of  those  that  sung  for  us  last  year.  "And 
80,"  we  said,  "  you  have  both  come  for  a  nesting-place,  have  you  ?  AVell, 
there  is  the  old  one — -but  you  must  have  another.  An  increasing  family 
needs  more  room.  You  shall  have  it."  Notwithstanding  the  morning  was 
a  rainy  one,  we  feared  our  pets  might  feel  neglected,  and  so  down  we  went 
to  provide  for  their  necessities.  IIow  amply  were  we  repaid  the  little  labor ! 
for  all  the  time  we  were  engaged,  they  were  hopping  about  the  peach  limbs, 
picking  off  the  insects,  and  singing  all  the  while  most  merrily.  Who  would 
not  cultivate  such  society  as  this?  Who  would  not  like  to  have  their  trees 
protected  from  insects  that  destroy  foliage  and  fruit?  Every  one,  surely. 
Then  protect  the  wrens.  Build  nesting-i)laces  for  them,  and  they  will  come 
every  spring  and  send  their  sweet  notes  into  your  open  window,  some  pleas- 


Seo.  11.]  BIRDS.  183 

ant  May  morning,  to  waken  you  to  see  the  beauty  of  sunrise,  or  lull  you 
into  dreams  of  the  old  farm-house,  orchards,  and  singing  birds. 

A  paper  from  Prof  Nash  says  he  has  domesticated  the  common  wren  in 
this  city,  by  building  them  a  suitable  house,  very  much  to  the  amusement 
and  pleasure  of  the  family.  One  pair  hatched  and  reared  ten  young  ones  in 
one  season,  and  they  acted  as  perfect  scavengers  of  bugs  and  worms  in  the 
neighborhood.  Mr.  Nash  says  two  hundred  wren-housesnvere  built  last  year 
about  Union  Square,  which  were  not  only  occupied  by  wrens,  but  several 
other  kinds  of  birds,  and  these  served  to  keep  the  park  and  neighborhood 
almost  free  of  insects. 

A  writer  in  Uoveys  Magazine  recommended  the  use  of  wrens  to  drive 
other  birds  away  from  the  cherry-trees.     He  says  : 

"  I  have  seen  the  experiment  of  placing  a  wren-box  on  a  cherry-tree,  tried 
in  several  instances  witli  apparent  success.  The  best  thing  for  this  purpose 
is  an  olive  jar.  A  hole  should  previously  be  drilled  into  the  side  of  the  jar, 
which  should  be  fixed  upon  the  tree,  by  thrusting  the  stump  of  an  amputated 
branch,  the  more  upright  the  better,  into  the  mouth  of  the  inverted  jar,  of 
just  sufficient  size  to  admit  a  wren,  but  too  small  to  allow  a  bluebird  to  en- 
ter ;  since,  if  it  were  otherwise,  the  latter  would  be  sure  to  get  possession  of 
it.  The  wren  being  a  very  jealous  and  pugnacious  bird,  is  diligent  in  driv- 
ing all  birds  from  the  tree  in  which  his  nest  is  built,  and  does  not  hesitate 
to  attack  birds  as  large  as  the  robin.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the 
wren  would  persevere  in  his  attacks,  when  the  robins  had  become  very  numer- 
ous, but  the  expedient  might  be  iised  with  some  advantage  in  all  cases." 

232.  Protecting  Trees  from  Birds. — Some  persons  advise  throwing  a  net 
over  the  trees,  during  the  few  days  while  the  fruit  is  becoming  mature.  This 
may  be  done  in  some  cases,  if  there  are  but  few  trees  to  be  protected,  and 
the  owner  can  afford  to  undertake  a  job  that  must  be  both  troublesome  and 
expensive.  Such  an  expedient  M'ould  be  hardly  advisable  except  in  extra- 
ordinary cases.  Some  fix  a  little  windmill  in  the  tree  ;  but  as  the  wheel  is 
constantly  turning,  the  birds  soon  become  accustomed  to  it,  and-  cease  to 
regard  it  with  suspicion.  If  anything  of  this  kind  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be 
kept  motionless,  until  tlie  birds  fly  into  the  tree,  and  then  put  suddenly  into 
action  by  some  person  M-ho  is  watching  it.  Something  like  a  watchman's 
rattle  elevated  on  a  pole,  and  fastened  firmly  to  each  of  the  trees,  with  a  cord 
to  be  pulled  when  the  machine  is  to  be  set  in  motion,  might  answer  a  good 
purpose.  A  boy  might  be  hired  in  this  case  to  watch  the  trees,  and  to  pull 
upon  the  cords  as  the  birds  arrived.  Cherries  require  so  short  a  time  to 
rijien,  that  no  tree  would  need  to  be  watclied  more  than  one  week. 

As  birds  always  give  the  greatest  oflfense,  by  their  depredations  upon  fruit, 
to  those  who  own  but  few  trees,  our  argument  is,  that  the  best  protection  is 
to  plant  trees  enough  to  serve  you  and  the  birds  too,  M'ith  all  that  all  of  you 
can  eat.  You  would  then  not  only  have  the  satisfaction  of  having  what 
cherries  you  wanted,  but  tiie  pleasure  of  seeing  the  birds.  From  experience 
every  season,  we  are  satisfied  that  the  robins  save  us  more  cherries  than 


184  SMALL  ANIMALS   AND  INSECTS.  [Ohap.  H. 

they  eat.  Our  trees  were  infested  with  the  same  kind  of  yellowish  bugs  that 
ate  the  roses,  and  are  commonly  called  rose-bugs.  We  have  seen  half  a 
dozen  of  them  eating  upon  a  single  cherry,  attacking  them  before  they  were 
ripe,  and  before  the  birds  did.  When  at  length  the  robins  came  iu  goodly 
numbers,  the  bugs  decreased,  and  if  the  robins  ate  cherries,  they  also  ate 
bugs,  and  we  believe  more  than  they  did  cherries.  At  any  rate  we  had 
more  cherries  than  the  birds  and  all  the  family  could  dispose  of,  and  some 
for  our  friends.     So  we  did  not  begrudge  the  dear  little  birds  their  share. 

As  there  are  some  who  can  not  aftbrd  to  share  their  cherries  with  the 
birds,  and  others  who  are  unwilling,  we  give  a  way  of  keeping  them  oflF, 
which  we  find  in  the  Gardener's  Chronicle,  London. 

"  The  following  is  a  plan  I  once  saw  succeed  very  well  for  some  time,  but 
the  birds  at  last  got  familiar  with  it  ;  still  I  think  it  might  answer  for  two 
months  or  so.  An  old  gardener  being  greatly  troubled  with  birds,  applied 
to  his  master  for  nets  to  cover  his  fruit  with  ;  but  no,  they  would  be  too 
expensive.  He  therefore  got  a  hawk  stuffed  in  what  he  called  a  hovering 
position,  put  it  on  the  end  of  a  long  wire,  attached  the  wire  to  the  top  of  a 
tree,  and  thus  had  the  hawk  suspended  in  the  air  as  if  it  had  been  alive.  lie 
had,  however,  another  hawk  which  really  was  alive  put  into  a  cage,  and  had 
the  cage  put  into  the  same  tree  where  the  dead  hawk  was.  The  gentleman 
in  the  cage  was  by  no  means  mute,  and  I  may  add  that  I  scarcely  ever  after- 
ward saw  birds  in  that  garden,  except  perhaps  a  few  sparrows." 

Another  plan  that  has  succeeded  very  well  at  times  is  to  suspend  small 
looking-glasses,  or  bits  of  a  broken  mirror,  to  the  limbs  of  the  tree.  "Where 
tlie  sun  shines,  and  the  wind  blows  a  little,  this  device  answers  a  good  pur- 
pose. It  is  of  no  use  at  other  times,  except  that  having  previously  frightened 
the  birds,  and  pi-evented  them  from  getting  a  haunt  in  the  tree,  they  will  not 
be  so  likely  to  come  when  the  mirror  is  still. 

233.  The  Food  of  Birds.— A  few  facts  to  show  what  the  food  of  birds  really 
is,  will  do  something,  we  hope,  to  dispel  the  prejudice  which  lias  made  man 
their  bitter  enemy. 

"Wilson,  the  great  ornithologist,  computes  that  a  red-winged  blackbird 
destroys,  on  an  average,  50  grubs  a  day  through  the  summer.  Many  other 
birds  are  equally  useful  to  the  farmer.  No  gold  would  buy  the  services  per- 
formed by  the  birds.  One  often  may  be  seen  following  the  plowman  hour 
after  hour. 

Then  look  at  the  eternal  labor  of  the  birds  in  fall,  winter,  and  spring,  pick- 
ing up  the  seeds  of  weeds,  and  upon  these  they  live  until  grain  ripens,  before 
it  is  possible  for  them  to  harm  the  farmer. 

"We  therefore  urge  farmers  to  spare  the  birds.  They  pay  more  rent  than 
the  worth  of  all  they  eat.  Robins  have  been  thoroughly  proved  to  be  insect- 
eaters,  and  great  destroyers  of  noxious  pests  to  the  farmers,  by  a  committee 
of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society. 

This  Society  has  done  a  deed  worthy  of  commendation  by  all  the  lovers  of 
birds.     A  resolution  was  moved  to  get  the  Society  to  ask  the  Legislature  to 


Seo.  11.]  BIRDS.  185 

repeal  the  law  for  protection  of  robins,  iipo!i  the  ground  that  these  birds 
were  noxious  to  the  tarnier ;  it  being  contended  that  their  food  being  veg- 
etable, they  were  great  destroyers  of  valuable  fruits.  Upon  this.  Prof. 
Jenks  (Prof,  of  Zoology)  suggested  that  the  Society  should  first  learn  the 
habits  of  the  robin,  and  a  committee,  consisting  of  Prof  Jenks,  C.  M.  Ilovey, 
and  E.  S.  Rand,  Jr.,  were  appointed,  and  have  reported  the  following  facts  : 
"  Plan  Adopted  for  the  Investiyation. — 1.  To  obtain  birds  at  daybreak,  mid- 
day, and  sunset.  2.  To  obtain  birds  from  both  the  village  and  the  country. 
3.  To  preserve  in  alcohol  the  contents  of  each  gizzard. 

Results  in  Procuring  Specimens. — Beginning  with  the  first  week  in  March, 
ISoS,  specimens  have  been  examined  at  least  weekly,  and  most  of  the  time 
daily,  to  December,  and  during  the  winter  months,  at  least  semi-monthly  to 
the  date  of  the  report,  in  the  spring. 

Results  of  Investigation. — 1.  Early  in  March,  numbers  of  this  bird  made 
their  appearance  in  this  vicinity  (Boston) ;  but,  until  the  second  week  in 
April,  only  the  male  birds. 

2.  The  gizzards  of  those  killed  in  the  morning  were,  as  a  riile,  either 
entirely  empty,  or  but  partiall}"^  distended  with  food,  well  macerated  ;  while 
those  killed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  day  were  as  nniformly  filled  with  food 
freshly  taken. 

3.  From  the  almost  daily  examination  of  their  gizzards  from  the  early  part 
of  March  to  the  first  of  May,  not  a  particle  of  vegetable  matter  was  found  in 
the  gizzard  of  a  single  bird.  On  the  contrary,  insects  in  great  variety,  both 
as  to  number  and  kind,  as  well  as  in  every  variety  of  condition  as  to  growth 
and  development,  were  the  sole  food. 

But  nine  tenths  of  the  aggregate  mass  of  food  thus  collected  during  this 
period  consisted  of  one  kind  of  larviB,  which,  through  the  aid  of  Baron  Osten- 
s:icken,  secretary  of  the  Russian  legation  at  Washington,  I  was  enabled  to 
identify  as  the  Bihio  albipcnnis  {Say),  and  whose  history  an(T  habits,  by  the 
aid  of  Dr.  Asa  Fitch,  entomologist  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  I  was  enabled  to  make  out  quite  satisfactorily. 

From  one  to  two  hundred  of  these  larvte  were  frequently  taken  from  a 
single  gizzard,  all  in  afresh,  unmacerated  condition;  and  usually,  when  these 
larvos  were  found,  tliey  were  the  only  food  in  the  stomach. 

To  quote  from  a  communication  received  from  Dr.  Fitch,  he  says  :  '  My 
attention  was  first  directed  to  this  fly  some  twelve  years  ago,  when  I  was 
occupied  in  investigating  the  wheat  midge.  I  observed  it  to  be  so  very 
common  in  fields  of  growing  wheat  that  I  suspected  it  of  living  at  the  expense 
of  that  grain  crop  ;  but  on  looking  around  I  found  it  was  equally  as  common 
everywhere  else — resting  upon  the  grass,  leaves,  and  flowere  in  my  yard  and 
garden,  as  well  as  in  meadows,  pastures,  and  forests.  *****  It 
comes  abroad  about  the  20th  of  May,  and  continues  about  a  fortnight.  You 
will  readily  recognize  it  by  its  commonness,  and  its  white  transparent  wings ; 
its  body  being  black,  clothed  with  soft,  white  hairs.  It  is  very  sluggish, 
moving  around  but  little,  and  is  easily  picked  up  by  the  fingers.     *     *     * 


186  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 


Oil  page  7Gt  of  tlie  London  Gard^ner^s  Chronicle  of  the  year  184i,  is  a  val- 
uable article  of  liuricola,  (J.  O.  Westwood),  giving  a  full  history  of  the 
Bihlo  Marci,  the  European  analogue  of  the  one  in  riuestion.  'It  appears 
these  insects  (unlike  most  others  of  the  family  Tipulidie  to  which  they  per- 
tain) arc  niost  pernicious,  the  larvaj  feeding  upon  the  roots  of  plants,  some- 
times to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  them  to  wither  and  die.  liuricola  state? 
that  the  larv£e  of  the  Merci,  and  other  allied  species  of  Bihio,  are  frequently 
sent  to  him  by  gai-deners,  who  find  them  to  be  mischievous  in  their  straw- 
berry beds,  vine  borders,  flower  pots,  and  other  situations  M'here  the  soil 
remains  undisturbed  during  the  autumn  and  spring.'  And  another  writer, 
Bouche,  says  '  that  his  bed  of  ranunculuses  was  completely  demolished,  ibr 
several  successive  years,  by  these  worms  eating  the  roots.'  From  these  facts 
every  one  will  perceive  that  the  robin,  consuming,  as  you  found  it  to  do, 
from  one  to  two  hundred  of  these  Bibio  larvse  daily,  during  the  months  of 
March  and  April,  has  probably  been  ridding  our  gardens  of  these  vermin 
every  j'car  hitherto  ;  thus  rendering  us  an  important  service,  of  which  wa 
have  been  wholly  unaware.  *  "  "*  The  larvae  are  gregarious  ;  living 
together  in  swarms,  and  perforating  the  ground  so  that  it  resembles  a  honey- 
comb. 

'  This  is  probably  caused  by  the  parent  fly  depositing  her  whole  stock  of 
eggs  in  one  spot,  she  being  too  lazy  and  slothful  to  wander  about  and  dis- 
tribute them  in  difl'erent  places.  Hence  the  robin,  on  finding  one  of  these 
worms,  knows  that  there  is  a  host  of  others  at  the  same  place,  and  thus  re- 
pairs to  that  spot,  day  after  day,  and  gluts  himself  with  them  till  the  whole 
colony  is  exterminated.' 

To  this  extract  I  may  be  allowed  to  add,  that  my  own  observations,  during 
the  past  year,  confirm  the  conclusions  of  Dr.  Fitch  respecting  this  larva  in 
every  particular,  having  found  its  colonies  in  November,  and  observed  the 
fly  in  early  summer.  I  may  also  here  introduce  .an  extract  froin  a  comnni- 
nication  of  a  lady  friend,  under  date  of  Oct.  7, 1S58.  She  says  :  "  On  speak- 
ing of  your  remarks  concerning  the  food  of  the  i-obiu,  at  the  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation at  Bridgewater,  in  June  last,  to  my  father,  he  told  mo  of  a  little 
circumstance  which  I  thought  just  proved  your  statement.  It  was  formerly 
the  custom  to  have  a  shooting  match  on  election  day  in  M.ay.  On  such  an 
occasion  in  Korth  Bridgewater,  about  the  year  18'2(>,  a  great  many  birds 
were  killed,  so  many  that  a  man  bought  thorn  by  the  cart-load  for  the  i)ur- 
pose  of  enriching  his  land.  In  consequence,  there  was  a  great  scarcity  of 
birds  in  that  vicinity,  and  a  great  amount  of  grass  land  seemed  to  be  injured, 
but  from  what  cause  no  one  knew.  The  grass  withered  and  turned  dark- 
colored,  as  though  it  had  been  burnt,  commencing  in  small  tufts  and  spread- 
ing in  large  circles."  It  would  seem  that  the  insect  under  consideration 
would,  growing  undisturbed,  produce  precisely  this  result. 

4.  During  the  month  of  May,  the  Bibio  larvai  entirely  disappeared  from 
the  gizzards,  but  up  to  the  21st  of  June,  was  replaced  by  a  variety  of  insects 
or  worms  only,  including  spiders,  caterpillars,  and  beetles  of  the  family 


I  I 


Sko.  11.]  BIRDS.  187 

Elateridse,  the  parents  of  the  well-known  wire-worms,  so  desLructive  to  corn 
and  various  other  seeds  when  committed  to  the  ground. 

The  earth-worm  I  found  to  be  a  favorite  food  for  tlie  young  bird,  but 
sjjaringly  e.nployed  by  the  adult  for  its  own  use. 

5.  From  tlie  date  of  June  21,  I  began  to  find  strawberries,  cheri-ics,  and 
pulpy  fruit  generally,  but  in  a  majority  of  the  examinations  intermingled 
with  insects,  which  led  mo  to  conclude  that  they  were  not  fond  of  an  exclu- 
sively vegetable  diet,  but  rather  adopted  it  as  a  dessert,  and  from  the  ease 
of  procuring  it,  particularly  during  the  enervating  season  of  molting.  At 
this  season  of  the  year,  I  discovered  a  marked  difference  in  the  food  of  the 
bii-ds  killed  near  or  in  the  village,  and  those  killed  in  the  country  at  a  dis- 
tance from  gardens  and  fruit-trees,  the  latter  having  less  stone  fruit  and  more 
insects  iu  their  gizzards,  which  led  me  to  conclude  that  the  robin  is  not  an 
extensive  forager. 

6.  The  mixed  diet  of  the  robin  seems  to  continue  from  the  ripening  of  the 
strawberries  and  cherries  to  October,  the  vegetable  portion  consisting,  during 
August  and  September,  in  great  part  of  elderberries  (Samhucas  canadensis) 
and  pokeberries  {Phytolacca  decandra). 

7.  During  the  month  of  October  the  vegetable  diet  is  wliolly  discarded, 
and  its  place  supplied  by  grasshoppers  and  orthopterous  insects  generally. 

8.  Early  in  November— the  robin  migrates  southward — tlie  few  remaining 
eking  out  a  miserable  existence,  during  the  winter  months,  on  bayberries 
{Myrica  cerifera),  privet  berries  {Ligustrum  viilgare),  and  juniper  berries 
{.Ju7iij)erus  comnuinis). " 

Here  is  something  further  upon  the  food  of  robins  :  In  the  report  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  in  September,  1858, 
we  find  an  instructive  paper  from  Prof.  Treadwell,  of  Cambridge,  giving  a 
detailed  account  of  the  feeding  and  growth  of  two  American  robins  {Tardus 
migt-atorius,  Linn.),  during  a  period  of  32  days,  commencing  from  the  5th  of 
June. 

"  When  caught,  the  two  were  quite  young,  their  tail  feathers  being  less 
than  an  inch  long,  and  the  weight  of  each  about  25  pennyweights — less  than 
half  the  weight  of  the  full-grown  bird.  Both  were  plump  and  vigorous,  and 
had  evidently  been  very  recently  turned  out  of  the  nest.  He  began  feeding 
them  with  earth-worms,  giving  three  to  each  bird  that  night ;  the  second 
day,  he  gave  them  ten  worms  each,  which  they  ate  ravenously  ;  thinking 
this  beyond  what  their  parents  could  naturally  supply  theiu  with,  he- limited 
them  to  this  allowance.  On  the  third  day,  he  gave  them  eight  worms  each 
in  the  forenoon  ;  but  in  the  afternoon,  he  found  one  becoming  feeble,  and  it 
soon  lost  its  strength,  refused  food,  and  died.  On  opening  it,  he  found  the 
crop,  gizzard,  and  intestines  entirely  empty,  and  concluded,  tlierefore,  that  it 
had  died  fi-om  want  of  sufiicient  food,  the  effect  of  hunger  being  perhaps 
increased  by  cold,  as  the  thermometer  was  about  60°.  The  other  bird,  still 
vigorous,  he  put  in  a  warmer  place  and  increased  its  food,  giving  it  the  third 
day  15  worms,  on  the  fourth  day  24,  on  the  fifth  25,  on  the  sixth  30,  and  on 


188  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Ciiap.  IL 

the  seventh  31  worms.  They  seemed  insufficient,  and  the  bird  appeared  to 
be  lojiiig  plumpness  and  weight,  lie  began  then  to  weigh  butli  the  bird 
and  its  food,  and  the  results  were  given  in  a  tabular  form.  On  tlie  fifteenth 
day,  he  tried  a  small  quantity  of  raw  meat,  and  finding  it  readily  eaten,  in- 
creased it  gradually,  to  the  exclusion  of  worms  ;  with  it  the  bird  ate  a  large 
quantity  of  earth  and  gravel,  and  drank  freely  after  eating.  By  the  table, 
it  appears  that  though  the  food  was  increased  to  iO  worms,  weighing  20  dwt. 
0  1  the  eleventh  day  the  weight  rather  fell  oft";  and  it  was  ni>t  until  the 
fourteenth  day,  when  he  ate  68  worms,  or  34  dwt.,  that  he  began  to  increase. 
On  this  day  the  weight  of  the  bird  was  21  dwt. ;  he  therefore  ate  11  per  cent, 
more  than  his  own  weiglit  in  twelve  liours,  weighing  after  it  29  dwt.,  or  1.5 
per  cent,  less  than  the  food  he  had  eaten  in  that  time.  The  lengih  of  these 
worms,  if  laid  end  to  end,  Avonld  be  about  fourteen  feet,  or  ten  times  the 
length  of  the  intestines.  To  meet  the  objection  that  the  earth-worm  contains 
but  a  small  amount  of  nutritious  matter,  on  tiie  twenty-seventh  day  he  was 
fed  exclusively  on  clear  beef,  in  quantity  23  dwt.  ;  at  niglit,  the  bird  weighed 
62  dwt. — but  little  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  flesh  consumed  during  the 
day,  not  taking  into  account  the  water  and  earth  swallowed." 

A  man  eating  in  the  same  proportion  would  consume  70  lbs.  of  flesh  and 
five  gallons  of  water.  Four  young  robins  would  require,  according  to  the 
consumption  of  this  bird,  250  worms,  or  their  equivalent  in  insects  or  other 
food,  daily.  After  the  thirty-second  day  the  bird  was  fed  for  eighteen  days 
on  an  average  of  15  dwt.  of  meat,  two  or  three  earth-worms,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  bread  each  day;  the  whole  being  equal  to  18  dwt.  of  beef,  or 
36  dwt.  of  earth-worms ;  and  it  has  continued  to  eat  this  amount  to  the 
present  time.  Tiie  food  was  never  passed  undigested  ;  the  excretions  were 
made  up  of  gravel  and  dirt,  and  a  small  quantity  of  white  semi-solid  urine. 

Every  admirer  of  trees  may  derive  from  these  facts  a  lesson,  showing  the 
immense  power  of  birds  to  destroy  the  insects  by  wliich  our  trees,  cs])ecially 
our  apples,  elms,  and  lindens,  are  every  few  years  stripped  of  their  foliage, 
and  often  many  of  them  killed.  The  food  of  the  robin,  while  with  us,  con- 
sists principally  of  earth-worms,  various  insects,  their  larvos  and  eggs,  and 
a  few  cherries  ;  of  worms  and  cherries  they  can  procure  but  few,  and  those 
during  but  a  short  period,  and  they  arc  obliged  therefore  to  subsist  princi- 
pally upon  the  great  destroyers  of  leaves,  canker-worms,  and  some  other 
kinds  of  caterpillars  and  bugs.  If  each  robin,  old  and  young,  requires  for 
its  support  an  amount  of  these  equal  to  the  weight  consumed  by  this  bird,  it 
is  easy  to  see  what  a  prodigious  havoc  a  few  hundreds  of  these  must  make 
upon  the  insects  of  an  orchard  or  a  park.  Is  it  not,  then,  to  our  advantage, 
to  purchase  the  service  of  the  robins  at  the  price  of  a  few  cherries  ? 

Speaking  upon  this  paper,  the  editor  of  the  Newark  (N.  J.)  Advertiser 
says : 

"  There  is  so  little  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  birds,  and  their  ways  and 
means  of  gaining  a  living  in  the  world,  that  anything  which  promises  to 
produce  better  acquaintance  with  them  ought  to  bo  generally  made  known. 


Skc.  11.]  BIRDS.  189 

"It  will  be  seen  by  this  account,  that  quite  a  young  robin  died  from 
starvation,  because  it  was  allowed  but  eight  or  ten  earth-worms  a  day.  The 
survivor  was  afterward  treated  more  generously,  and  his  fare  was  increased 
from  day  to  day,  till  lie  liad  tor  his  dinner  68  worms,  or  34  dwt.,  though  tlie 
robin  himself  weighed  only  24  dwt.,  thus  consuming  in  twelve  hours  41  per 
cent,  more  than  his  own  weight. 

"  After  the  bird  was  fully  grown,  he  continued  to  cat  one  third  of  his  own 
weight  in  clear  flesh  daily  !  A  man  with  such  voracity  (inferior,  however, 
we  have  seen  to  that  of  the  young  bird  while  growing)  would  have  some 
difficulty  in  finding  board  in  any  of  our  cities.  But  natui'e  is  not  obliged  to 
go  to  market  to  sustain  her  children  with  comfortable  food.  This  same 
robin,  if  permitted  to,  be  free  to  satiate  his  prodigious  appetite,  not  chiefly 
on  cherries  or  other  fruits  valued  by  man,  but  npon  man's  enemies,  would 
range  himself  on  the  side  of  man,  and  slaughter  the  numberless  insects  of 
every  variety  wliich  are  destructive  to  his  crops.  Here  we  have  reason  to 
be  grateful  for  the  prodigious  appetite  of  the  robin,  and  thank  him  for  his 
extraordinary  gormandism.  Tliis  guest  at  tlie  table  of  nature  is  addressed 
in  very  different  language  from  guests  generally.  She  says  to  him.  Will  you 
take  something  further  ?  pray  don't  spare,  but  help  yourself  to  the  spider,  the 
canker-worm,  the  measurer,  the  caterpillar,  grub,  slug,  and  bug,  and  help 
yourself  also  to  a  score  or  two  of  curculio's  eggs.  Thus,  '  more  the  merrier' 
is  the  sentiment  of  nature's  feast.  How  the  insect  tribe,  ixnd  all  the  wicked 
fry  who  infest  our  fruits  and  cereal  crops,  fall  before  the  all-devouring  robin  ! 
Even  the  ugly  bug  that  is  said  to  infest  and  feed  upon  the  tubers  and  tops 
of  the  potatoes,  producing  thereby  the  blight  or  rot,  might  be  exterminated, 
if  the  robin  and  other  birds  were  Jiot  destroyed  or  frightened  away  by  boys, 
or  men  as  stupid  or  mischievous  as  boys. 

"  For  what  had  been  remarked  of  the  voracity  of  the  robin,  is  probably 
true  with  I'espect  to  other  birds.  Men  have  but  recently  come  to  the  knowl- 
edge that  they  are  tlie  most  effectual  protectors  they  can  have  of  their  fruits 
and  crops ;  but  nobody  till  now  has  been  aware  of  the  full  extent  of  the 
obligation  they  are  under  to  even  a  few  birds  in  consequence  of  their  being 
such  enormous  eaters.  If  their  board  costs  them  anything,  they  never  could 
be  able  to  stand  it.  But  it  does  not — only  now  and  then  a  life  or  two  among 
them,  taken  by  some  rascal  or  vagabond,  who  should  be  their  true  benefac- 
tors, for  they  are  busy  in  the  service  of  man." 

This  bird,  the  robin,  is  probably  known  to  nearly  every  one  wlio  will 
read  this  volume ;  but  we  will  add  the  following  short  description  : 

The  robin  measures  nine  inches  and  a  half  in  length.  His  bill,  which  is 
about  an  inch  long,  is  strong,  yellow,  and  dusky  near  the  tip  ;  the  head,  back 
of  the  neck,  and  tail  are  black  ;  tlie  back  and  rumj>,  ash  color  ;  the  throat 
and  upper  part  of  the  breast  arc  black,  the  fortner  streaked  with  white  ;  tlie 
wliole  of  the  rest  of  the  breast  down  as  far  as  the  tliiglis  is  of  a  dark  orange  ; 
belly  and  vent,  white  ;  legs,  dark  brown  ;  claws,  black  and  strong. 

It  builds  a  large  nest,  often  on  an  apple-tree,  whicli  it  plasters  on  the 


190  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

inside  wiih  mud,  and  lines  witii  hay  or  fine  grass.  The  eggs  are  from  four 
to  six,  bluish  green,  unsijotted.  They  feed  on  worms,  insects,  fruit,  and 
berries,  c-pecially  those  of  the  sour  gum-tree  {N'l/ssa  sylvatica).  When 
fat,  tlie  robin  is  in  considerable  esteem  for  the  table. 

Tiiesc  birds  are  among  our  earliest  songsters.  Even  in  March,  while  the 
snow  yet  mantles  the  fields  and  woodlands,  he  will  mount  a  post  or  leafless 
tree,  and  make  an  attempt  at  a  song. 

They  are  ornamental  to  every  farm,  and  should  be  encouraged  to  build 
their  nests  in  every  garden. 

234.  Birds  Destroying  Grasshoppers  and  WormSi— Last  year,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Philadelphia,  there  was  a  swarming  pest  of  grasshoppers.  By- 
and-by,  when  every  one  was  at  his  wits'  end  to  know  what  to  do  to  get  rid 
of  this  scourge,  there  was  a  sudden  appearance  of  immense  flocks  of  plover, 
which  spread  themselves  over  the  fields,  and  devoured  with  avidity  the 
grasshoppers.  Some  of  them  have  been  shot  to  test  the  matter,  and  their 
crops  have  been  found  full  of  grasshoppers.  Tlie  ravages  of  the  latter  soon 
cease  wherever  the  flocks  of  j^lover  appear,  as  the  great  number  and  voracity 
of  the  birds  render  them  more  than  a  match  for  the  insects.  Up  to  this 
visit  of  plover,  the  only  relief  from  this  calamity  was  the  eagerness  with  which 
the  fowls  devoured  the  grasshoppers.  Turkeys,  the  most  efficieut  adversaries 
of  tiicse  insects — because  the  largest  and  most  active— have  thriven  wonder- 
fully upon  them.  So  have  the  ducks,  geese,  and  chickens.  If  farmers  pre- 
fer to  be  annually  eaten  up  by  insects,  they  will  continne  their  insane  war- 
fare upon  birds.  On  the  contrary,  let  them  be  protected,  and  encouraged  to 
build  their  nests  in  the  very  windows  of  our  dwellings,  and  see  what  myriads 
of  pests  they  will  destroy  ! 

In  one  of  the  years  that  I  lived  on  the  Western  prairies,  there  was  an 
iri'uption  of  greedy  devourers  of  farm  crops,  known  as  the  army  worm, 
coming  from  no  one  knows  Avhere,  nor  wlien  to  look  for  its  march.  It  is 
easy  to  trace  it,  however,  after  it  has  marched  over  a  country,  for  it  con- 
sumes every  leaf  of  grass  and  grain,  wherever  the  army  spreads  itself. 

Farmers  sometimes  plow  a  deep  furrow  around  a  field  as  the  army 
approaches,  and  this  furrow  will  soon  fill  up  with  worms,  which  are  crushed 
by  a  log  drawn  over  them ;  repeating  the  operation  every  day.  This  is 
troublesome,  and  not  always  efieetive.  In  the  year  alluded  to,  the  army 
approached  just  at  the  time  it  wonld  be  destructive  to  the  wheat  crop,  and 
the  owners  of  the  most  exposed  farms  were  in  sore  trouble  at  the  prospect 
before  them.  For  two  days  tliey  looked  on  in  dread.  "  One  more  day,"  they 
said,  "  and  we  shall  be  swept."  One  more  daycame,  and  with  it  one  of  man's 
best  friends, 'the  worm-eating  birds.  Looking  out  southward  where  the 
worms  were  at  work  on  the  prairie  grass,  a  black  cloud  was  seen  hovering 
close  to  the  ground.  It  was  a  cloud  of  blackbirds,  coming  np  from  their 
great  nesting-place  in  the  Kankakee  marshes,  to  feed  on  the  worms.  They 
saved  the  wheat  crop.  It  is  true  that  tliis  variety  of  birds,  Avhen  they  come 
in  great  flocks  into  the  grain-fields,  arc  pests,  but  not  half  as  bad  as  worms 


Seo.  11.]  BIRDS.  191 

and  bugs  would  be  if  not  destroyed.  Besides,  birds  can  be  watched  and 
driv'en  away  from  fields,  where  no  efforts  of  man  wouhi  serve  to  drive  away 
an  army  of  worms,  marching  to  destroy,  nor  prevent  liis  farm  from  being 
devastated  by  such  a  fliglit  of  grasshoppers  as  swept  every  green  thing  from 
a  portion  of  Minnesota  a  few  years  ago.  Birds,  then,  in  countless  numbers, 
will  be  found  to  be  man's  best  friends. 

235.  T!i8  Sap-SuckerSi — The  name  of  "  sap-sucker"  has  been  given  to  a 
very  useful  class  of  birds,  under  the  erroneous  impression  that  they  sucked 
the  sap  from  the  fruit-trees,  where  they  are  often  seen,  hour  after  hour, 
clinging  to  tlie  bole  of  an  apple-tree,  patiently  drilling,  drilling,  drilling 
their  little  bills  through  the  bark,  leaving  it,  sometimes,  as  full  of  Iioles  as  a 
honey-comb.  It  is  a  slander  upon  these  beautiful,  busy  little  birds  to  snp- 
pose  their  object  is  to  suck  out  the  sap,  and  thus  destroy  the  trees.  To  say 
that  the  "  sap-sucker"  girdles  apple-trees  and  destroys  them,  or  taps  the 
Austrian  and  Scotch  pines  so  as  to  cause  them  to  bleed  to  death,  we  must 
have  stronger  proof  than  slipshod  statements. 

In  argument  against  the  birds,  it  has  been  stated  that  they  have  been  shot 
wliile  in  the  very  act  of 

"  Tapping  the  hollow  beech-tree," 

and  their  craws  examined  without  finding  a  worm,  and  notliing  but  pieces 
of  bark,  thus  proving  their  object  to  be  eating  the  bark,  if  not  sucking  the 
sap,  and  that  they  were  therefore  very  injurious  to  trees.  These  microscopic 
examinations  only  prove  what  we  have  long  believed,  that  tlie  bird  can  not 
always  tell  where  the  worm  is  that  he  wants,  and  so. has  to  bore  until  he 
finds  him.  It  is  not  likely  that  he  goes  far  amiss,  and  probably  hits  him 
oftener  with  the  first  hole  than  he  fails.  It  is  thought  by  many  jJersons  that 
that  troublesome  litile  destroyer  of  fruit,  the  curculio,  deposits  its  eggs  in 
the  bark  of  trees,  and  that  that  is  what  the  sap-sucker  is  after.  It  is  certain 
tiiat  when  sap-suckers  abounded  in  our  orchards,  there  was  no  complaint  of 
curculio.  In  our  opinion,  a  perfectly  healthy  tree,  free  from  insects,  is  never 
attacked  by  any  of  the  nut-hatch  family — vulgarly  called  "  sap-suckers." 
We  believe  that,  on  the  contrary,  they  ai"e  of  essential  service  to  man  ;  and 
that  it  was  one  of  the  admirable  provisions  of  nature,  where,  everything 
works  on  an  even  balance,  until  one  scale  is  ovei-loaded  by  man,  that  the 
nut-hatch  should  stand  sentinel  over  the  fruit-trees,  and  keep  the  pestiferous 
insects  from  getting  the  balance  of  power. 

236.  Do  Birds  Eat  Bees  ? — It  has  long  been  a  mooted  question  whether  the 
birds  known  as  "kingbirds"  (the  Musciccipa  tyranmis)  destroy  bees? 
Tins  bird  has  obtained  his  name  from  a  spirit  of  boldness  in  attacking  and 
driving  away  birds  of  mucli  larger  size  and  power,  enough  to  kill  him  at  a 
single  stroke.  He  has  obtained  the  name  of  a  destroyer  of  honey-bees,  and 
war  to  the  death  has  been  declared  against  him,  on  the  evidence  of  his  bad 
name,  and,  as  we  think,  without  anything  like  a  fair  trial. 

A  few  years  ago  we  elicited  a  great  deal  of  testimony  upon  this  question. 
One  witness,  Mr.  IS^athaniel  M.  Tobey,  of  Tompkins  County,  says  he  is  an 


192  SMALL  ANIMALS  AKD  INSECTS.  [Chap.  H. 

old  farmer,  has  kept  bees  ten  years,  and  always  encouraged  birds  to  make 
their  homes  upon  iiis  premises.  One  season,  observing  two  kingbirds  about 
his  hives,  he  was  curious  to  know  what  they  wei-e  after,  a!id  ascertained  to 
liis  satisfaction  tliat  tliey  caught  bees  on  their  return  to  the  hive,  not  to  cat 
them  bodily,  but  to  disembowel  them  and  despoil  them  of  the  "  honey-sack." 

He  attributed  the  non-swarming  of  the  bees  to  this  pair  of  kingbirds,  but 
says  his  bees  have  never  been  molested  since. 

That  the  kingljirds  caught  Mr.  Tobey's  bees  wc  have  no  doubt,  since  he 
says  he  saw  the  disemboweled  carcasses  under  the  trees  where  they  alighted, 
but  that  one  single  one  of  them  was  a  worker  we  do  doubt,  and  that  a  single 
pair  of  kingbirds  were  the  cause  of  the  non-swarming  of  several  hives  of 
bees,  we  have  no  doubt  upon  the  subject — we  know  it  was  not  the  case — it 
would  be  a  preposterous  absurdity  to  believe  such  a  wild  tale.  We  do  not 
believe  that  all  the  kingbirds  in  the  world  ever  destroyed  a  hive  of  working- 
bees,  and  a  man  who  will  kill  the  innocent  birds  witliout  better  proof  of 
their  guilt,  than  all  that  we  have  heard,  is  at  heart  a — bird  murderer. 

Other  persons  declared  that  they  had  often  seen  kingbirds  catch  bees,  on 
the  wing,  near  the  hive.  This  we  do  not  doubt,  because  others  have  seen 
the  same  thing,  and  have  killed  and  dissected  them  and  found  bees  in  their 
craws.  But  in  every  case  where  they  were  examined  by  persons  competent 
lo  decide,  tliey  have  declared  that  none  but  drones  were  ever  found.  Upon 
lliis  point  the  instinct  or  observation  of  the  bird  is  perfect;  and  this  ma}' 
iiave  been  one  of  nature's  provisions,  that  these  birds  should  bo  assistants 
of  the  workers,  and  not  their  destroyers.  Certainly,  until  we  have  some 
better  evidence  against  the  birds,  we  shall  advocate  their  protection.  Surely, 
if  they  eat  bees,  they  also  cat  other  flies,  and  if  permitted  to  live  and  multi- 
ply around  our  dwellings,  might  keep  us  free  of  a  great  many  pestiferous 
insects.  If  a  bird  can  eat  a  stinging-bee  with  impunity,  it  can  also  eat  a 
wasp  or  hornet,  and  so  destroy  that  family. 

237.  Swallows,  Swifls,  aud  Martins.— In  our  boyhood,  swallows  were  looked 
upon  as  pests  of  the  farm,  or  rather  the  barn,  and  war  was  often  waged  upon 
them  by  the  boys,  with  tlie  countenance  of  those  who  should  have  been  well 
enough  informed  to  teach  them  better.  We  hope  the  day  is  past  when  any 
one  would  wantonly  destroy  these  beautiful  birds. 

Ilirundo  is  the  gcnoric  term  applied  to  the  class  of  birds  comprised  in  the 
several  species  of  barn  swallows,  bank  swallows,  chimney  swallows,  and  a 
large,  strong  sort  known  as  swifts,  and  the  common  martin,  for  which  many 
New  England  people  are  careful  to  provide  boxes,  whicli  are  often  attached 
to  the  dwellings.  Their  first  appearance  in  spring  is  hailed  with  delight, 
and  the  time  of  their  coming  f)ften  noted,  so  as  to  compare  one  year  with 
another.  Although  "  one  swallow  does  not  make  it  spring,"  people  have 
learned  to  think  that  many  never  come  until  spring  is  fairly  opened. 

The  Ilirinido  family  are  all  birds  of  passage.  They  go  far  south  to  win- 
ter, and  return  with  great  regularity  to  their  old  haunts,  to  build  their  nests, 
rear  their  young,  and  catch  flies,  till  autumn  approaches,  and  then  they  are 


Sec.  11.]  BIRDS.  193 

off.  They  cross  the  parallel  of  40°,  on  their  northern  journey,  about  the 
first  of  May. 

The  barn  is  often  tenaiitless  at  night,  and  alive  with  the  twitter  of  swal- 
lows the  next  morning.  To  talk  about  their  hybernating  in  the  mud,  or  in 
hollow  trees,  is  simply  ridiculous.  You  might  just  as  well  expect  wild  geese 
to  go  down  into  the  mud  to  winter,  as  for  the  swallows  to  do  so. 

Tiie  following  description  of  some  of  the  rare  varieties  of  the  Hirundo  we 
found  in  the  Country  Gentleman  newspaper,  and  thought  it  interesting: 

"The  Cliff,  or  Republican  Swallow,  Hirundo  lunifrous,  or  Il.fulva,  is  a 
well-known  swallow  among  farmers.  Its  crown  and  back  are  of  steel  blue, 
belly  Avhite,  length  five  inches,  plus,  and  the  stretch  of  the  wings  twelve 
inches,  plus.  They  formerly  occupied  the  cliffs  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  and 
the  fur  countries.  One  of  the  first  records  of  their  appearance  in  the  States 
was  at  Henderson,  and  Newport,  Ky.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  in  1815. 
In  1817  they  were  observed  at  "Whitehall,  N.  Y.,  near  Lake  Champlain. 
These  birds  are  of  social  habits,  building  their  nests  in  clusters,  or  near  each 
other.  Vieillot  observed  one  at  sea,  off  Nova  Scotia,  long  before  this.  They 
have  long  been  known  in  that  province.  In  1818,  it  is  stated  that  they  began 
to  build  at  Crawford's,  near  the  base  of  the  White  Mountains.  General 
Dearborn  saw  their  nest  at  Winthrop,  Me.,  in  1830;  also  in  Gardiner. 
The  writer  first  saw  them  in  Worcester  County,  Mass.,  about  1838.  Their 
nests  arc  arranged  frequently  along  under  the  eaves  of  a  barn,  in  the  form 
of  a  projecting  retort,  constructed  of  pellets  of  earth,  with  an  internal  lining 
of  dried  grass,  in  which  are  laid  four  eggs.  Their  note  is  not  a  twitter,  but, 
according  to  Audubon,  resembles  in  sound  the  rubbing  of  a  moistened  cork 
in  the  neck  of  a  glass  bottle.  AVithin  a  quarter  of  a  century  they  have  be- 
come the  favorites  of  many  New  England  farmers. 

"  The  Violet-green  Swallow,  Hirundo  thalassina,  tail  acutely  emarginafe; 
back  a  soft,  velvety  green,  shaded  with  purplish  violet;  length  five  inches, 
and  the  stretch  of  the  wings  twelve  inches;  is  common  in  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ain region.  They  are  the  associates  of  the  cliff  swallow,  just  described, 
their  note  being  more  like  that  of  the  barn  swallow.  Their  nests  resemble 
those  of  the  cliff  swallow,  wanting,  however,  the  pendulous  neck.  They 
sometimes  occupy  the  deserted  nests  of  their  associate  species.  They  are  not 
common  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

"  The  White-bellied  Swallow,  Hirundo  hicolor,  is  of  a  glossy,  metallic  green 
above,  and  white  below ;  hence  its  common  name.  Its  length  is  six  inches, 
and  the  stretch  of  the  wings  is  twelve  and  a  half  inches.  It  is  not  as  com- 
mon as  the  barn  swallow,  and  is  allied  somewhat  fo  the  purple  martin. 
Their  note  is  a  shrill,  lively,  warbling  twitter.  They  are  usually  the  first 
swallows  that  appear  in  the  spring.  They  breed  in  some  deserted  house  or 
hollow  tree.  They  use  no  mud  in  building  their  nests,  which  are  lined  with 
feathers. 

"The  Rough-winged  Swallow,  Hirundo  serripcjinis  of  Audubon,  and  Cotyle 
serripennis  of  Bonaparte ;  color  above  a  light,  sooty  brown,  and  beneath 


194  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 


a  wliitisli  gray ;  Icngtli  live  and  a  half  inclies,  and  the  stretch  of  tlie  wings 
twels-e  iuclies. 

"The  Chimney  Swift  or  Swallow,  nirundo pelasgia  of  Linnreus,  and  Chw- 
turapdiwjia  of  Stephens;  color  a  sooty  brown;  length  five  inches;  the  stretch 
of  wino-s  twelve  inches ;  the  tail  is  short  and  niueronatc.  They  build  their 
nests  freqnently  in  chimneys,  sometimes  in  hollow  trees.  They  are  small  and 
shallow,  and  are  attached  to  the  side  of  the  chimney  or  tree  by  an  adhesive 
gum  or  mucilage  secreted  in  the  stomach  of  the  architect.  They  feed  their 
young  tin-ough  the  greater  part  of  the  night,  as  the  writer  has  frequently  ob- 
served. The  noise  they  make  in  passing  down  and  up  the  chinniey  resembles 
distant  thunder. 

"  Vaux's  Chimney  Swift,  or  the  Oregon  Swift,  resembles  the  one  described 
above;  length  three  and  a  half  to  four  and  a  half  inches;  stretch  of  the 
wings  ten  inches,  plus.     This  species  is  not  rare  on  the  Western  coast. 

"The  swallow  tribe  arc  remarkable  for  their  social  habits,  living  generally 
in  colonies,  constructing  their  nests  together  ;  and  when  the  season  for  mi- 
gration arrives,  they  leave  in  large  flocks.  They  usually  rear  two  broods  or 
more  per  pair  during  the  sunmier.  They  frequent  watery  places  or  swampy 
lands,  ponds,  etc.,  in  pursuit  of  winged  insects,  which  they  take  on  the  wing. 
In  fair  weather  they  usually  fly  high  in  the  air.  As  the  air  becomes  less 
dense,  the  insects  fly  nearer  the  earth,  and  the  swallows  skim  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  or  water,  which  prognosticates  rain  at  hand.  The  number 
of  flies,  gnats,  etc.,  annually  consumed  by  swallows  exceeds  all  calculation. 
Hence  the  truth  of  the  observation  of  a  farmer,  mIioso  barn-eaves  had  be- 
neath them  one  connected  line  of  cliff  swallows'  nests:  'I  am  very  glad  to 
have  these  birds  here,  for  my  cows  and  milkers  are  much  less  troubled  with 
gnats  and  flies  than  before  these  swallows  came  in  such  numbers.' 

"Some  farmers  try,  unwisely,  to  exclude  swallows  from  their  promi.-;cs, 
because,  say  they,  '  these  birds  make  dirty  work.'  Granted,  but  it  is  far  less 
troublesome  and  annoying  than  the  insects  of  the  kinds  named,  which  greatly 
multiply  in  the  absence  of  the  swallows,  swifts,  and  martins." 

Barn  swallows  and  martins  arc  too  widely  known  to  make  a  description 
of  them  interesting  in  this  })lace.  Children,  however,  should  always  have 
an  opportunity  of  seeing  their  portraits  and  reading  their  history  in  Audu- 
bon or  Wilson,  as  well  as  that  of  every  other  bird,  and,  by  learning  ihcir 
habits,  judge  M'hich  is  and  which  is  not  beneficial  to  the  farmer.  Swallows 
and  martins  would  certainly  not  then  be  doomed  to  destruction.  D.  W.  War- 
ner, of  Sharon  Springs,  N.  Y.,  says : 

"My  father  repeatedly  attempted  wheat-growing,  but  as  often  failed,  the 
weevil  taking  the  whole  crop,  until  a  large  colony  of  martins  cstahlisiicd 
themselves  under  the  eaves  of  the  barn,  since  which  time  he  has  raised  good 
crops  of  spring  wheat.  The  wheat  has  been  grown  within  one  hundred  rods 
of  the  barn.  Quci-y — Had  the  martins  anything  to  do  in  preventing  the 
appearance  of  the  weevil  ?" 

238.  Skylarks  and  Imported  BirdSi — Several  attempts  have  been  made  to 


Sec.  11.]  BIRDS.  195 

introduce  skylarks  into  this  country.  In  February,  1853,  Jolin  Gorgas,  of 
Wilmington,  Del.,  received  a  lot  of  twenty,  wliicli  were  kept  confined  until 
the  19th  of  March,  when  they  were  set  at  liberty.  Another  lot  of  twenty- 
two  arrived  April  18th,  and  were  set  at  liberty  the  next  day.  This  was 
oidy  twenty-two  days  from  the  time  they  were  trapped  in  England.  These 
birds  propagated  in  the  neighborhood  that  season,  and  strong  hopes  were 
entertained  that  the  English  skylark  had  been  introduced  permanently 
into  this  country ;  but  these  hopes  have  not  been  realized.  A  letter 
from  Mr.  Gorgas,  in  the  summer  of  1860,  indicates  that  the  birds  liave  all 
disappeared.  •» 

Tliere  was  also  another  lot  of  skylarks  imported,  and  liberated  in  Green- 
wood Cemetery,  on  Long  Island,  in  the  spring  of  1853,  and  still  another  lot 
were  set  free  in  "Washington  city,  at  a  later  period  ;  but,  so  far  as  we  can 
learn,  all  of  these  birds  have  disappeared.  This  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  ; 
for  besides  the  interest  of  their  curious  flight  and  song,  they  are  great  insect 
dostroyers.  Their  home  is  in  the  grass  and  grain  fields,  and  their  food  in 
summer  is  entirely  composed  of  insects  and  worms  that  are  pests  to  the 
farmer.  In  Europe  they  inhabit  a  wide  range  of  latitude,  feeding  in  winter 
upon  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds,  and,  if  located  too  far  north,  making  a  short 
migration  to  a  milder  clime.  It  can  not  be  owing  to  the  cold  that  they  do 
not  succeed  here ;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  cold  has  prompted  them 
to  move  southward,  and  they  have  not  felt  disposed  to  return.  "We  still  hope 
the  skylark  will  have  its  home  with  us,  as  common  as  in  England,  where  it 
is  so  noted  as  a  song-bird.  Its  flight  skyward  is  also  very  curious.  It  as- 
cends perpendicular!}^,  as  though  it  screwed  itself  through  the  air,  until 
quite  out  of  sight,  and  after  a  little  descends  in  the  same  way.  The  skylark 
in  Europe  is  a  fine  table  luxury,  notwithstanding  they  afiord  but  half  an 
ounce  each  of  meat  to  the  epicure.  Vast  numbers  of  just  as  diminutive 
birds  are  sacrificed  upon  the  epicurean  tables  of  all  our  large  cities  in  the 
United  States. 

To  those  who  may  take  an  interest  in  the  importation  of  birds,  the  follow- 
ing account  will  be  useful,  as  given  by  Mr.  "W.  Brodie,  of  his  successful 
transportation  of  English  pheasants,  gold  pheasants,  and  partridges  from 
England  to  New  Zealand.     He  says : 

"  I  left  the  St.  Katherine's  Dock  with  thii'ty-six  pheasants  and  partridges 
on  board,  and  after  a  long  and  most  disagreeable  voyage  of  2G1  daj's,  landed 
in  Auckland,  Kew  Zealand,  with  the  same  number  as  I  had  left  England 
with.  It  is  a  pastime  to  cabin  passengers  going  a  long  voyage  to  have  some 
occupation  to  break  the  monotony  of  shipboard  imprisonment.  I  therelbie 
looked  after  my  own  birds,  cleaned  them  out  every  morning,  gave  them 
fresh  red  gravel  (coarse)  every  other  day,  supplied  them  bountifully  with 
fresh  water  (not  M-ater  caught  on  deck  aflcr  a  heavy  rain,  as  there  is  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  tar  in  it),  never  allowed  thetn  a  fresh-water  bath,  fed  them 
with  buckwheat,  wheat,  canary-seed,  and  hemp-seed  alternately,  week  and 
week  about,  kept  them  in  wicker  cages  made  on  purpose,  three  feet  long, 


196  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Cuap.  II. 

two  feet  wide,  and  one  foot  liigli,  and  padded  the  top  inside  the  lids  of  the 
cages,  to  protect  theirlieads. 

"These  birds  were  kept  on  deck  the  whole  of  the  voyage,  with  a  painted 
canvas  cover  to  protect  them  from  the  salt  water  in  bad  weather.  Hence 
my  success.  The  increase  of  my  birds  has  amounted  to  tens  of  thousands. 
In  the  northern  part  of  New  Zealand  they  breed  twice  a  year,  and  they  have 
stocked  the  province  of  Auckland,  200  miles  distant  from  the  point  where 
they  were  first  sent  adrift,  M'hich  was  upon  one  of  my  estates,  near  the  North 
Cape  o^New  Zealand.  In  the  early  part  of  1S59  I  sent  out  400  house  and 
liedge  sjjarrows  and  yellow-hammers  to  Auckland  ;  and  I  hope  in  September 
to  send  out  400  singing  birds  to  the  same  port  gratuitously.  Birds  should 
not  be  sent  out  between  March  and  September;  those  sent  in  April  or  ^lay 
are  sure  to  pine  away  and  die,  it  being  their  pairing  season." 

By  pursuing  the  course  adopted  by  Mr.  Brodie,  we  might  have  some  of 
the  most  rare  birds  of  California  brought  to  the  Atlantic  States,  with  un- 
doubted  profit  to  the  importer. 

239.  Laws  for  the  Protectiou  of  Birds. — Tlie  State  of  New  York  has  had 
what  is  called  a  "game  law"  for  a  good  many  years;  but  it  was  a  law  for 
the  protection  of  a  class  of  men  and  boys  who,  without  any  claim  to  the 
title,  called  themselves  "sportsmen" — such  sportsmen  as  would  shoot  a 
robin-red-breast  on  her  nest,  or  an  imported  skylark  in  the  midst  of  his  song. 
The  law  was  only  incidentally  beneficial  to  farmers,  so  tar  as  it  protecte*! 
game  birds,  the  most  of  which  are  great  insect-eaters.  There  is  not  a  farmer 
in  all  the  old  States  that  can  afford  to  have  a  quail  killed  upon  his  farm,  if 
he  was  paid  a  dollar  a  head.  This  species  of  wild  bird  would  be  semi 
domesticated,  if  man  would  allow  it  to  be  so.  We  have  seen  them  so  gentle 
that  they  often  came  around  the  barn  for  food  in  winter,  and  only  walked 
slowly  away  at  the  approach  of  man.  At  such  a  time  we  would  not  kill  one 
for  ten  times  its  value  as  food.  All  the  past  summer  we  had  the  delight  of 
knowing  that  a  pair  of  these  beautiful  birds  were  safely  rearing  their  young 
only  a  few  rods  from  our  home.  Often,  as  we  walked  about  the  little  farm, 
they  were  seen  dodging  along  some  jiath,  or  between  the  corn-rows,  or  into 
the  shelter  of  the  grass  or  shrubbery.  Then,  with  what  sweet  satisfaction 
we  listened  to  "  Bob  White,"  sitting  upon  the  wall,  telling  us  almost  uner- 
ringly of  the  approach  of  "  more  wet !"' 

An  Illinois  farmer  declares  that  a  flock  of  quails  made  him  a  crop  of  corn, 
having  voluntarily  taken  upon  themselves  to  rid  the  field  of  cut-worms.  "  I 
never,"  says  he,  "  can  again  consent  to  the  destruction  of  these  valuable 
birds.  I  used  to  shoot  and  trap  them,  but  I  was  ignorant  of  their  value  on 
the  farm. 

A  neighbor  of  ours,  a  true  sportsman,  said  to  us,  the  other  day:  "I  have 
done  shooting  quails.  I  used  to  think  it  real  sport  to  wing  these  beautiful 
birds;  and  tlie  temptation  to  do  so  was  enhanced  l)y  the  delicious  food  tliey 
aft'ord.     I  really  think  that  I  never  shall  shoot  another  quail  iu  my  life." 

Li  answer  to  our  "  Why  ?"  he  said  : 


Sec.  11.]  BIKDS.  197 

"I  had  never  studied  their  liistorj,  and  the  nature  of  their  habits,  and 
character  of  their  food,  until  this  season.  I  was  incited  to  do  this  from 
meeting  with  a  pair  of  the  birds  ev^ery  time  I  walked  over  a  certain  jjortion 
of  the  farm.  They  were  ahnost  as  gentle  as  the  fowls  in  the  door-yard,  and 
frequently  I  noticed  them  so  busily  engaged  picking  up  worms  in  the  corn- 
field, that  it  led  me  into  a  train  of  thought  and  study  that  has  taught  me 
not  to  kill  quails.  A  few  days  ago  I  saw  my  pets — for  such  I  had  come  to 
regard  them — with  sixteen  young  ones,  each  nearly  as  large  as  its  parent. 
If  I  could  guard  that  flock  from  the  depredation  of  idle  boys,  no  money 
would  buy  them.  Why,  what  useful  as  well  as  interesting  birds  they  are ! 
TVe  want  stringent  laws,  well  enforced,  to  protect  quails." 

Yes,  but,  most  of  all,  we  want  information  for  farmers  of  their  value. 

The  following  are  the  penalties  of  the  New  York  Game  Law,  passed  April 
14,  1860: 

It  is  $25  fine  to  kill  a  deer  in  the  first  seven  months  of  the  year. 

It  is  $2  fine  to  kill  a  v\-oodcock  between  January  1  and  July  -1 ;  or  a  par- 
tridge (ruffled  grouse)  between  January  15  and  September  1 ;  or  a  quail  be- 
tween January  1  and  October  15;  or  any  wild  duck  between  February  1 
and  August  1. 

It  is  $10  fine  to  kill  a  prairie  fowl,  or  pinnated  grouse,  at  any  time  within 
five  years. 

It  is  $10  fine  to  trap  or  snare  quail  or  grouse. 

It  is  50  cents  fine  to  kill,  trap,  or  snare  a  nightingale,  night-hawk,  blue- 
bird, yellow-bird,  oriole,  finch,  thrush,  lark,  sparrow,  wren,  martin,  swallow, 
woodpecker,  or  any  other  harmless  bird,  at  any  time ;  and  bobolinks  and 
robins  only  between  February  1  and  October  1. 

It  is  $5  fine  to  catch  brook  or  lake  trout,  or  muscalonge,  between  Septem- 
ber 1  and  March  1 ;  and  it  is  $2  fine  to  catch  them  in  any  way  but  by  a  hook 
and  line. 

It  is  $5  fine  for  any  pei-son  to  enter  the  premises  of  another  with  fire-arms, 
or  other  hunting  or  fishing  implements,  with  the  intent  of  using  tliem ;  and 
if  he  entei-3  upon  a  cultivated  field,  orchard,  or  garden,  or  where  crops  are 
growing,  in  jjursiil,  of  game,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  he  is  finable 
$10  for  each  oflTense. 

Such  is  the  law  now  in  force  in  this  State.  Let  all  who  are  interested  see 
that  it  is  made  effectual.  Tlie  difficulty  in  the  way  of  its  enforcement  is  a 
very  lax  state  of  morals  among  the  people,  many  of  whom  consider  birds 
free  plunder;  and  they  have  so  long  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  rambling  over 
everybody's  land,  as  freely  as  though  they  owned  it,  that  it  is  hard  to  con- 
vince them  that  they  do  not.  The  contrary  can  never  be  taught  in  courts, 
nor  by  fines  and  prisons ;  it  must  be  taught  in  our  common  schools  and 
around  the  farmer's  fireside. 

Xew  Jersey  has  a  good  law  upon  her  statute  book  for  the  protection  of 
small  birds.  It  is  diSicult  of  enforcement,  because  the  mass  of  people  have 
been  educated  to  look  upon  all  birds  as  noxious,  or  elae  worthy  of  destruc- 


198 


SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS. 


[Chap.  IL 


tion  for  food,  and  of  no  otiier  value.  They  do  not  even  look  upon  poultry 
in  any  other  light.  Yet  the  truth  is,  poultry  is  worth  ten  times  as  much  to 
tlie  fanner  for  the  work  of  destruction  it  docs  upon  his  pests,  as  it  is  for  the 
food  it  affords  him.  It  is  just  so  with  game  birds ;  and  if  the  owners  of  land 
well  situated  for  game  preserves  were  able  t(5"  preserve  the  birds,  the  culti- 
vated portions  might  be  benefited,  and  the  owners  could  make  the  keeping 
of  wild  birds  as  profitable  as  tame  ones. 

From  time  to  time  laws  have  been  devised  and  statutes  enacted  for  the 
preservation  of  game;  but  until  recently  such  legislation  has  been  originated 
by  the  wealthy  men  of  cities,  the  men  of  the  educated  and  leisure  classes  of  llie 
community,  the  consumers  and  killers,  not  the  feeders  and  jjossessoi^,  of  the 
game  or  the  owners  of  the  acres.  This  has  generally  given  to  these  statutes 
tiie  appearance,  though  in  no  degree  the  reality,  of  partaking  of  the  odious 
character  of  class  legislation ;  of  being  enacted  for  the  benefit  of  the  rich 
against  the  poor,  the  proud  against  the  humble,  the  men  of  leisure  against 
the  men  of  labor.  The  formers,  who  knew  little  and  cared  less  for  the  game 
which  ran  wild  in  their  woods,  fluttered  in  their  tangled  swamps,  or  screamed 
over  their  boggy  morasses,  did  not  conceive  how  it  could  have  any  real  value 
in  the  eyes  of  any  rational  being ;  regarded  all  legislation  forbidding  its 
slaughter,  except  at  stated  periods,  as  a  device  cunningly  framed  for  depriv- 
ing them  of  their  own  natural  and  indefeasible  rights,  and  for  giving  amuse- 
ment and  gratification  to  finely-dressed,  flashy  strangers  from  the  towns, 
wiio  came  periodically  into  country  places  to  break  down  fences,  trample 
under  foot  growing  crops,  and  kill  the  game  reared  on  the  farmer's  land, 
which  was,  in  its  very  nature,  and  from  tiie  mode  of  killing  it,  useless  to  the 
farmer  himself.  In  a  word,  they  looked  upon  the  Game  Laws  as  an  oftensive, 
aristocratic,  unrepublican,  European  invention  ;  a  sort  of  scheme  for  making 
the  rich  richer,  and  the  poor  poorer — an  idea  sedulously  encouraged  by  all 
the  brawling  foreigners  and  pot-house  village  loafers,  who,  too  lazy  to  work, 
found  their  own  profit  in  poaching  a  few  starveling  parent  birds  on  the 
ncsis,  or  half-grown  fledgeling  young  fry  on  otlier  men's  lands,  which  they 
might  traflic  or  truck  away  to  railway  conductors  and  stage-coach  drivers, 
for  transmission  to  the  eating-houses  of  the  cities. 

Gradually,  however,  they — the  farmers,  mo  mean — have  come  to  open 
tlieir  eyes  on  this  cpiestion.  The  fearful  increase  of  insect  life,  the  prodigious 
deterioration  of  the  crops  of  all  kinds,  the  threatened  utter  extinction  of 
some  of  the  most  valuable  American  staples  in  the  very  localities  of  which 
they  were  formerly  the  pride  and  boast — as,  for  instance,  the  wheat  crop  of 
the  famous  Genesee  Valley,  where  it  is  already  questionable,  from  the  yearly 
aggravated  ravages  of  the  Hessian-fly  and  the  weevil,  whether  it  is  any 
longer  profitable,  or  perhaps  prudent,  to  sow  wheat — have  forced  them  to 
perceive  that  this  growth  and  superabundance,  daily  and  hourly  aggravated 
and  exaggerated,  of  insect  pests  is  to  be  attributed  wholly  to  the  unprece- 
dented destruction  of  small  birds.  At  the  samo  time,  the  vast  and  honrly- 
incicasing  demand  /or  game  in  the  large  cities,  the  immense  freights  and 


Sko.  11.]  BIEDS.  .  199 

cargoes  of  wild  animals  sent  down  yearly,  so  soon  as  cold  weather  allows  its 
safe  transportation  by  express  companies  and  railroad  cars — immense,  yet 
still  inadequate  to  meet  the  call  of  the  markets,  although  the  illimitable 
West  is  fast  suffering  depletion,  and  is  in  some  States  legislating  against  ex- 
portation— have  quickened  the  perception  of  agriculturists  to  the  fact,  that 
if  game  be  worth  as  much  money  in  the  market  as  poultry,  or  more,  and  can 
be  raised  at  no  cost  and  less  than  no  trouble,  it  is  better  to  have  the  woods, 
which  they  necessarily  keep  up  as  timber  lots,  the  hill-sides,  which  are  too 
craggy  and  sterile  of  soil  to  rear  anything  but  brambles  and  ferns,  and  the 
morasses,  which  it  would  be  too  costly  to  drain,  swarming  with  profitable 
Avild  animals,  than  waste  and  unprofitable ;  and  to  the  other  fact,  that  if 
money  is  to  be  made  by  killing  game  on  their  lands,  it  is  as  well  at  least,  if 
not  better,  to  make  it  themselves,  and  to  go  on  making  it,  year  after  year, 
by  maintaining  a  sufiicient  breeding  stock,  as  to  suffer  it  to  be  made  out  of 
their  pockets  by  every  landless,  shiftless  vagabond  who  chooses  to  stampede 
every  head  of  game  out  of  every  farm,  and  who  lias  no  earthly  reason  or 
inducements  why  he  should  not  kill  as  speedily  as  possible  the  goose  which 
lays  the  golden  eggs — seeing  that  the  goose,  if  slain  by  himself,  is  clearly 
his,  while  the  eggs,  infuturo,  may  fall  to  the  lot  of  any  other  Tom,  Dick,  or 
Harry  of  his  own  reputable  or  disreputable  order. 

The  farmers  and  land-owners  being  thus  convinced  of  the  loss  directly 
attributable  to  the  killing  of  small  birds  at  all,  at  any  season,  and  of  the  great 
gain  certainly  attainable  by  the  protection  of  the  game  during  the  breeding 
seasons,  have  of  late,  in  many  States  and  counties  of  States,  procured  statutes 
to  be  passed  for  the  preservation,  absolutely  and  at  all  times,  of  certain 
innoxious  and  useful  small  birds.  But  all  these  statutes  have  defects,  besides 
the  one  alluded  to — the  lack  of  proper  instruction  to  the  children. 

It  is  a  defect  in  our  State  law  that  no  penalty  is  provided  sufiicient  to 
prevent  hunting  all  the  public  highways,  or  other  public  grounds,  and  the 
penalty  for  entering  your  premises  is  quite  inadequate  to  their  protection, 
because  you  can  not  afford  to  procure  testimony,  and  hire  attorneys  to  pros- 
eculu  a  fellow  who  will  verify  the  adage  of  "  sue  a  beggar  and  catch  a  louse." 

The  statutes  in  question  are  not  asked  or  enacted  for  the  defense  of  private 
rights  of  private  individuals,  though  they  may  defend  them  incidentally, 
but  for  that  of  the  community  at  large,  to  M'hich  the  safety  of  crops  and  the 
greatest  possible  supply  of  food  of  all  kinds  in  the  market,  at  the  lowest  i^os- 
sible  rates,  are  incontestably  benefits.  Therefore  the  community  has  not 
only  a  right,  but  it  is  its  especial  duty  to  enforce  the  same  protection  and 
preservation  of  the  same  animals  on  its  own  possessions — that  is  to  say,  on 
the  highways,  wastes,  commons,  and  all  other  unoccupied  lands  or  waters  of 
which  the  public  are  the  guardians  and  occupants — -as  it  commands  on  the 
private  lands  of  individuals  from  trespassers. 

So  convinced  are  the  scientific  agriculturists  of  Franco  of  the  importance 
of  raising  all  those  species  of  wild  animals  which  are  natural,  indigenous, 
or  capable  of  being  acclimated  and  naturalized  to  the  waste  lands,  of  which 


200  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

tliere  are  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres,  utterly  unsuited  to  any  other 
sort  of  culture  or  stocking,  that  there  is  an  important  department  in  the 
National  Agricultural  Society  of  that  great  and  enlightened  nation,  tl>e  sole 
duty  of  wliich  ii  to  superintend  the  reproduction  ou  the  waste  lands  and 
waters  of  France  of  the  native  6j)ecies  of  game  which  have  gradually  become 
extinct ;  to  promote  the  introthiction  ou  the  same  lands  of  such  foreign  wild 
animals,  valuable  for  food,  as  may  appear  to  be  suited,  by  their  habits  and 
the  character  of  the  climates  to  which  they  originally  belonged,  for  naturaliza- 
tion in  France  ;  and,  lastly,  to  encourage  and  enforce,  by  means  of  premiums 
for  success  and  stringent  protective  legislation,  the  maintenance  of  such 
stocks  of  game,  both  quadruped  and  winged,  as  shall  realize  to  the  propri- 
etors and  to  the  state  an  abundant  return  of  nutriti'Mis  and  cheap  food  from 
lands  until lable,  uniitted  for  pasturage,  and  in  fact  worthless  for  any  purpose 
but  that  of  raising  game. 

At  the  same  time  we,  in  America,  are  suffering  our  infinitely  larger 
number  of  unreclaimed — if  not  irreclaimable — acres,  which  formerly  swarmed 
with  animal  life,  and  aiforded  supplies,  a  few  years  ago  supposed  to  be 
inexhaustible,  of  the  choicest  varieties  of  game,  to  be  stripped  of  the  last  fin, 
the  last  hoof  or  pad,  the  last  feather  of  the  wild  tribes,  unequaled  elsewhere, 
both  in  quality  and  quantity',  which  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  rendered 
America  the  paradise  of  Nimrods ;  so  that  the  woods,  the  fens,  the  waters 
are  indeed  fast  becoming  utterly  barren,  useless,  and  unprofitable  wastes. 

It  is  certain  that  the  fact  of  any  farm  being  well  stocked  with  game  is  not, 
in  any  possilile  point  of  view,  a  disadvantage,  even  if  their  value,  whether 
as  an  article  of  food  or  as  an  object  of  pleasurable  and  healthful  pursuit  be 
entirely  set  aside,  since  the  actual  profit  consequent  on  their  subsistence  is 
greater  than  the  loss  from  the  grain  which  a  few  of  the  varieties  consume. 
Besides  the  insects,  many  of  the  game  birds  are  great  consumers  of  weed 
seeds.  The  prairie-liens,  where  they  exist  in  large  numbers,  do  depredate 
upon  corn-fields  and  stacks  of  grain  ;  but  even  there,  it  is  not  a  very  severe  tax 
to  feed  them  ;  and  we  think  that  farmers  could  make  the  preservation  of 
birds  profitable. 

It  may  be  assumed,  as  a  reasonable  average,  that  every  fiirmer  who  owns 
and  cultivates  a  hundred  acres  of  arable  land,  with  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
of  meadow  land  and  pasture,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  woodland,  if  he 
choose  to  protect  and  preserve  them,  especially  if  he  takes  the  trouble  to 
erect  a  few  little  shelter  huts  of  brushwood  and  fern  in  his  woodskirts,  and 
to  bait  them  in  hard  weather  with  a  few  bushels  of  buckwlieat,  in  a  good 
game  district  where  the  winters  are  not  too  severe,  may  winter  from  ten  to 
twenty  brace  of  quail,  which  may  he  expected  to  raise  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
bevies  of  birds.  Each  bevy  will  probably  average  fifteen  birds,  which  gives 
a  yield  of  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  brace  of  quail,  to  be  killed  and 
sent  to  market  in  the  late  autumn  or  early  winter,  with  the  butter,  buck- 
wheat, fat  turke_vs,  and  other  produce  of  tlic  farm.  Tiiese  birds  will  average 
twenty  five  cents  a  brace  iu  ordinary  seasons,  and  when  game  is  scarce  or 


Seo.  11.]  BIRDS.  201 

for  any  reason  there  is  an  unusual  demand,  an  increased  price.  To  this  may 
be  added,  if  it  be  a  ruffed  grouse  country,  two  or  three  broods  of  these 
hardy,  bokl,  and  delicate  birds,  which  rarely  jM-oduce  fewer  than  twelve  and 
thence  upward  to  sixteen  poults,  so  that  the  landholder  may  reckon  on  his 
iifteen  to  twenty  brace  of  ruffed  grouse  at  seventy-five  cents  a  brace,  and  on 
his  thirty  or  forty  rabbits,  at  a  dime  a  head.  Here  is  a  profit  of  perhaps 
fifty  dollars  per  annum,  arising  from  no  expenditure,  from  no  investment  of 
capital,  and  involving  as  a  consequence,  several  days  or  hours  of  pleasant 
exercise  and  amusement  in  lieu  of  labor,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it 
marketable.  On  snipe  grounds  and  countries  adapted  to  woodcock,  the 
profits  are  yet  more  enormous. 

The  number  of  woodcock  to  be  killed  annually  on  any  given  piece  of 
ground  is  never  so  great  as  that  of  snipe,  since  the  birds  killed  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season  consist  of  those  bred  on  the  ground  itself  on  which  they 
are  shot,  which  is  of  course  a  limited  number,  although  tiie  autumnal  flights, 
which  come  in  successively,  are  those  bred  in  the  uncultivated  wastes  far  to 
the  northward.  Yet  even  of  these,  there  are  numerous  localities,  especially 
in  parts  of  the  States  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Michigan,  and  other  Western  States,  which  might  be  counted  on  as  sure  to 
furnish  ten  woodcock  to  the  acre  in  each  season,  at  twenty-five  cents  the  bird. 
■  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  by  the  system  of  game  protecting,  without 
expending  a  dollar,  every  owner  farming  from  100  to  200  acres  of  land  in  a 
country  well  adapted  for  game — and  there  is  but  little  country  in  any  of  the 
Northern,  Western,  or  Middle  States  which  is  not  adapted  to  it — can  add 
from  $50  to  $200,  and  in  some  instances  a  much  larger  sum  to  his  annual 
income.  If  he  have  trout-streams,  and  the  facility  of  making  a  chain  of 
small  trout-ponds,  as  may  be  easily  done  in  every  deep  glen  watered  by  a 
rapid  brook,  instead  of  suflering  them  to  be  weired  and  netted  by  all  the 
vagabonds  of  the  country  side,  he  might  make  thousands  more  easily  than 
by  his  poulti-y-yard  or  sheep-fold,  and  at  far  less  cost. 

With  these  facts  before  them,  it  is  for  the  farmers  "themselves  to  consider 
whether  game-laws  are  the  obnoxious  things  that  demagogues  have  taught 
them  to  believe.  Is  it  not  rather  worth  their  while  to  insist  upon  the 
enactment,  and  strict  observance  of  such  laws  as  will  protect  their  own 
interests,  and  afford  them  such  additions  to  their  income  as  we  have  briefly 
hinted  at. 

240.  Scndiuj  Wild  Pigeons  to  Market.— The  Eagle^  newspaper,  printed  at 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  published  an  article  in  the  spring  of  1860,  about 
the  pigeon  trade.  There  had  been  at  that  time  shipped  from  that  village 
588  barrels  of  wild  pigeons — equal  to  108,555  lbs.  The  express  freight  on 
this  quantity  at  three  cents  a  pound,  would  be  $3,256  65.  If  sold  at  twenty 
cents  a  pound,  they  would  bring  $21,711.  It  was  estimated  that  the  west 
part  of  Jlichigan  had  sent  two  millions  of  wild  pigeons  to  market  in  one 
season.  This  great  number  can  easily  be  understood  by  those  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  manner  in  which  these  birds  flock  together.     To  one 


202  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

who  has  never  seen  a  pigeon-roost  or  a  nesting-place,  the  truth  will  seem 
almost  as  fabulous  as  the  tales  of  Sinbad  the  sailor.  Yet  it  is  far  within  the 
bounds  of  truth  to  saj  that  we  have  seen  many  millions  of  wild  piijeons  at 
once,  or  at  least  as  soon  as  we  could  direct  our  eyes  upon  them.  We  iiave 
seen  them  on  their  evening  flight  toward  tlie  roosting-place,  in  one  unbroken 
flock,  two  miles  wide,  and  two  hours'  continuance.  We  have  ridden  two 
hours  in  a  straight  line  through  a  pigeon-roost  at  least  seven  miles  wide. 
We  have  seen  upon  a  single  beech-tree  many  wagon-loads.  At  one  time  a 
little  section  of  the  main  flock  got  belated  in  reaching  the  roosting-placc, 
and  settled  in  a  heavy  beech  wood  near  our  house  in  Indiana,  and  the  nois(! 
they  made  resembled  a  terrific  tornado  ;  and  they  piled  on  to  the  trees  in 
such  numbers  that  all  the  weak  limbs  were  broken  off,  and  hundreds  of 
large  trees,  such  as  stood  leaning,  and  were  weak  at  the  roots,  were  entirely 
broken  down.  We  spent  hours  of  the  evening  in  that  temporary  roost, 
witnessing  thtir  operations,  and  trying  to  imagine  the  vastness  of  the  mul- 
titude. There  is  great  danger  in  visiting  such  a  roost,  from  the  falling 
timber.  In  one  long  occupied,  all  that  is  liable  to  break  has  been  prostrated, 
and  there  is  less  danger,  so  there  is  less  commotion.  Tiiey  often  sit  so  low, 
and  remain  so  quiet,  that  you  may  approach  near  enough  to  kill  half  a  score 
at  a  blow.  A  charge  of  shot  sent  into  a  full  tree  brings  down  a  great 
number.  When  they  alight  upon  a  tree  that  breaks  mider  the  mass,  they 
fly  and  light  upon  the  backs  of  others  already  loading  a  tree  all  it  can  beai-, 
and  so  the  additional  weight  perhaps  produces  a  second  crash,  and  sometimes 
crash  after  crash,  almost  without  cessation.  That  was  the  case  upon  tlie 
evening  mentioned.  The  breaking  commenced  at  dusk,  when  they  began 
alighting,  and  continued  until  we  left  at  midnight.  In  the  morning  about 
two  hundred  acres  were  literally  covered  with  broken  timber. 

A  pigeon  nesting-place  is  a  still  greater  curiosity  than  a  pigeon-roost.  It 
covers  hundreds  of  acres  of  dense  forest,  and  every  tree  is  covered  with  nes's 
almost  as  closely  as  the  birds  can  build  them,  by  laying  a  few  loose  twigj 
together  among  the  branches.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  load  a  wagon  with 
squabs.  Often  they  fall  out  of  the  frail  nests,  and  fall  a  prey  to  wild  aninuils 
and  wood  hogs.  Audubon  gives  a  very  truthful  picture  of  the  immense 
numbers  of  wild  pigeons  in  the  great  West.  To  ns  it  is  the  more  interest- 
ing, because  we  know  it  to  be  true. 

Those  who  have  read  Audubon,  or  others  who  have  written  accounts  of 
pigeon-roosts,  and  can  believe  the  trutli,  will  be  able  to  realize  the  extent  of 
tiic  trade  we  have  spoken  of. 

Having  now,  we  hope,  said  enough  about  birds  to  create  an  interest  in 
their  behalf,  and  induce  a  study  of  their  character,  and  their  value  to  the 
farmer,  we  shall  leave  the  subject  for  another,  which,  though  about  snuill 
things,  is  of  great  importance  to  all  our  readers. 


Sec.  12.] 


ENTOMOLOGICAL. 


203 


SECTION  XII.-ENTOMOLOGICAL. 

'isg«^A=ff:.^  hat  arc  Insects? — The  term  is  iipplied  to  all,  or  nearly 
all,  the  family  of  bugs,  worms,  flies,  wasps,  moths, 
millers,  and  small  creeping  things  that  infest  a  farm, 
and  all  are  generally  ranked  as  pests,  though  erro- 
neously, as  M'e  will  show  hy-and-by,  some  of  tliem 
being  highly  beneiicial. 

The  word  insect  comes  from  two  Latin  words, 
signifying  cut  into,  or  notched ;  and  the  body  of  a 
perfect  insect,  as  a  wasp,  is  cut  into  and  divided  into 
three  distinct  segments — the  head,  thorax,  and  abdo- 
men, with  two  or  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  one  or  two 
pairs  of  wings,  and  it  breathes  through  holes  in  the 
sides  of  the  body.  Insects  commence  life  in  eggs, 
which  hatch  into  worms  or  larvae,  such  as  maggots 
or  catei-pillars,  and  these,  after  doing  immense  mis- 
chief, as  in  that  state  they  are  voracious  gormandizers,  undergo  transforma- 
tion to  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  state,  and  from  that  to  the  bug  or  butterfly 
form,  during  which  the  eggs  are  laid  in  such  vast  numbers,  that  the  species 
are  propagated  so  rapidly  that  the  art  of  man  seems  insufficient  to  stay  their 
ravages,  if  of  a  ravaging  breed,  and  hence  he  must  look  to  natural  aids.  It 
is  for  this  that  we  have  advocated  protection  to  birds,  because  they  are  great 
insect  destroyers.  Pestiferous  insects  also  liave  several  other  natural  ene- 
mies, which  must  be  studied  and  protected  by  farmers. 

Besides  what  are  considered  and  treated  of  in  natural  history  as  perfect 
insects,  there  are  a  great  many  sorts  that  come  under  the  general  name  of 
insect  that  do  not  answer  the  above  definition,  sucli  as  some  of  the  aphis,  or 
plant-lice  family,  the  striped  and  other  bugs,  and  various  worms.  Some  of 
the  latter — for  instance,  the  earth-worm,  or  angler's  worm — are  thought  to 
be  beneficial  to  soil.  "We  think,  rather,  it  could  be  made  more  beneficial  in 
its  death  than  in  its  life.  Anything,  such  as  salt,  lime,  potash,  ammonia, 
that  would  kill  all  the  earth-worms,  would  add  all  the  animal  matter  of  their 
body  to  the  soil's  fertility. 

We  can  not  go  into  a  general  examination  of  entomology,  though  we  do 
earnestly  advise  a  study  of  the  science  by  all  farmers,  who  are,  above  all 
other  classes  of  the  community,  most  in  want  of  knowledge  of  insects,  and 
how  to  distinguish  between  those  that  are  pests  and  those  that  are  harmless, 
or,  perhaps,  actual  destroyers  of  those  that  are  devastating  our  orchards,  gar- 
dens, and  grain-fields.  Of  a  few  of  these  we  shall  give  correct  pictures, 
with  brief  hints  about  their  character,  depredations,  and  such  preventives  as 
have  been  tried  and  proved  valuable  or  useless. 

The  great  difficulty  with  the  management  of  the  greatest  pests  is  their 


204  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

diminutive  size.  Tlie  great  destroyers  of  wlieat,  the  midge,  TIcssian-fl_v,  and 
joint--n-orm,  are  so  minute  tliat  a  microscope  is  needed  for  their  examination. 
It  is  the  same  with  the  aphis  tribe,  and  what  is  called  the  "  scale  insect," 
which  cover  the  limbs  of  fruit-trees  like  a  second  bark,  until  millions  of 
mouths,  although  very  diminutive,  suck  away  the  life  of  the  tree.  Neither 
man  nor  bird  notices  these  minute  destroyers  until  it  is  too  lute  to  stop  their 
ravages. 

Now  let  us  look  at  what  some  of  these  insect  pests  do  to  the  farmer's 
crops.  As  cotton  is  considered  the  great  American  staple,  and  as  America 
i>,  above  all  competition,  the  land  of  insects,  we  will  first  enumerate  the  cot- 
ton destroyers  found  upon  that  plant  by  tliat  indefatigable  student  of  ento- 
mology, Townend  Glover,  who  was  employed  by  the  Patent  Office  to  collect 
infiirmation  upon  the  subject. 

242.  Insects  Infesting  the  Coltosi-P!anti — A  species  of  cantharidcs,  similar 
to  the  striped  potato  fly,  feeds  upon  the  nectar  or  pollen,  and  sometimes  eats 
the  petals  of  the  flowers.  Tliese  are  injurious,  and  several  others  found  in 
the  flowers  did  not  appear  to  be  so. 

A  leaf  beetle  eats  holes  in  the  petals,  and,  some  say,  injures  the  bolls.  A 
large,  green,  thorny,  poisonous  caterpillar  damages  the  foliage  in  August 
aiul  September.  It  also  attacks  Indian  corn.  If  handled  incautiously,  its 
spines  inflict  painful  wounds.  This  large  worm  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
diminutive  cotton-louse,  which  destroys  the  young  plant  in  w-et  seasons. 

The  boll-worm,  however,  is  the  great  destroyer.  Their  presence  in  a  cot- 
ton-field is  indicated  by  the  great  number  of  young  bolls  fallen  to  the  ground, 
after  the  inside  has  been  eaten  out.  Before  it  falls,  the  worm  crawls  out  and 
attacks  others,  which  in  turn  fall ;  and  if  the  worms  are  numerous,  all  the 
bolls  may  be  destroyed,  just  as  all  the  plums  of  a  tree  are  destroyed  by 
curculio. 

A  small  green  caterpillar  feeds  upon  and  rolls  itself  in  the  leaves  of  the 
cotton  2)lant;  and  a  solitary  hairy  caterpillar,  of  a  yellowish  color,  eats  the 
leaves;  and  a  green,  smooth-skinned  one  feeds  upon  the  blossoms  ;  and  also 
several  very  slender,  brownish  span-worms.  A  small  beetle,  of  a  greenish, 
metallic  color,  barred  with  dirty  cream-color,  often  seen  in  the  holes  made 
by  boll-worms,  is  not  thought  a  destroyer.  It  only  follows  in  the  path  of 
insects  that  do  destroy. 

Various  other  small  insects  are  found  on  the  plant,  but  it  is  not  certain 
that  they  arc  destructive,  while  several  are  well  ascertained  to  be  highly 
beneficial  to  tlie  cotton-planter.  Among  these  we  enumerate  the  lady-bird 
{Coccinella),  which,  both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  state,  devours  myriads  of 
cotton-lice. 

The  planter  and  overseer  should  learn  to  distinguish  these  from  noxious 
insects,  and  instruct  their  hands  to  protect  them. 

The  larva  of  the  bee-winged  fly  also  destroys  lice,  and  ichneumon  flies  de- 
posit eggs  in  their  bodies. 

Tiger  beetles  {Clcimlella)  are  also  destroyers  of  the  noxious  insects.    Ants 


Sec.  12.J  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  205 

climb  the  cotton-stalks  to  feed  iipon  aphis,  and  not  upon  the  plant.  Spiders, 
too,  catch  moths  in  their  nets,  and  also  seize  and  devour  otlier  insects.  The 
great  aim  should  be  to  learn  whicli  of  all  the  insects  found  in  the  cotton-field 
are  friends,  and  which  foes. 

The  boll-worm,  and  the  one  which  is  some  seasons  so  destructive  to  Indian 
corn  in  the  milk,  are  declared  by  some,  upon  pretty  good  authority,  to  be 
identical.  The  chrysalis  is  of  a  bright  chestnut  brown  ;  the  moths,  a  tawny 
yellow  color.  The  upper  wings  yellowish,  shaded  with  green  or  red,  in  some, 
with  a  dark  band,  and  crescent-shaped  mark  near  the  center  of  the  wing. 
Tlie  under  wings  are  lighter  colored,  bordered  with  black. 

To  prevent  depredations  from  the  boll-worm,  it  is  recommended  to  light 
fires  around  the  field  at  night,  to  attract  the  moths  when  they  begin  to  make 
their  appeai'auce.  Doubtless  many  will  be  attracted  to  the  light  and  de- 
stroyed. Tliey  have  also  been  destroyed  by  placing  plates  upon  stakes  set 
among  the  cotton,  in  which  about  half  a  gill  of  vinegar  and  molasses  is 
placed,  mixed,  four  of  vinegar  to  one  of  molasses.  This  attracts  the  moth, 
which  perishes  in  the  mixture.  This  kind  of  moth-trap  requires  a  good  d-eal 
of  labor,  for  the  plates  must  be  visited  every  evening  and  replenished,  while 
the  moths  last.  The  same  plan  will  be  found  a  good  one  to  catch  other 
moths  tlian  those  which  infest  cotton. 

243.  Insects  Destructive  to  Indian  Corn  and  Wheat. — ^The  insect  which  eats 
into  the  grains  of  Indian  corn  is  not  only  a  destructive  one,  but  when  it  in- 
fests the  ears  that  are  wanted  for  cooking  in  their  green  state,  it  is  trouble- 
some and  disgustingly  otiensive.  It  only  feeds  while  the  corn  is  in  the 
"roasting  car"  condition.  At  first  it  is  so  small  as  to  be  almost  impercept- 
ible, and  doubtless  man}'  a  one  gets  between  the  teeth  of  the  eater  of  early 
green  corn,  even  in  this  city,  for  here  we  have  seen  a  great  many  marks  of 
their  ravages.  It  is,  however,  mucli  worse  at  the  South.  Slieltered  under 
the  husk,  it  eats  voraciously,  and  increases  in  size  rapidly,  until  about  an 
inch  long.  Some  are  brown,  some  green,  some  striped.  In  fact,  there  is  no 
uniformity  in  color.  Tlie  body  is  sparingly  clothed  with  short  hairs,  rising 
from  black  spots  or  warts.  The  worm  leaves  the  ear  and  goes  into  the 
ground  to  undergo  its  transformation. 

If  farmers,  particularly  JSTorthern  ones,  would  watch  the  first  appearance 
of  these  insects,  and  try  to  destroy  the  moths,  they  might  save  themselves 
much  loss  in  the  iuture,  for  all  insects  of  tliis  kind  are  wonderfully  prolific. 
There  is  an  ichneumon  fly  which  preys  upon  this  insect,  and  the  habits  of 
that  fly  should  be  studied,  and,  if  possible,  tlie  family  increased.  Birds,  too, 
are  fond  of  this  species  of  worms ;  probably  because  the  food  it  fattens  upon 
makes  sweet  morsels  for  their  palates. 

The  destruction  of  tire  grains  of  corn  eaten  by  this  worm  is  only  a  part  of 
the  damage  that  ensues.  The  grains  eaten  are  upon  tlie  small  end  of  the  ear, 
and  here  grows  a  fungus,  which  often  destroys  the  ear.  It  also  oftentimes 
affords  a  secure  harbor  for  otlier  insects,  which  destroy  wliat  tlie  worms  have 
left.     The  corn-worm  does  more  damage  in  dry  seasons  than  wet  ones,  owiiif 


•20G  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

fo  the  fact  that  tlie  silk  grows  irregularly,  or  continues  longer  green,  and  the 
worms  often  cat  ofi"  the  silk  before  the  kernel  is  fructified. 

Another  insect  infesting  Indian  corn  at  the  South  is  called  Sylvanits 
quadricollis—xi  diminutive  beetle,  which  hides  between  the  grains,  and 
loosens  them  from  the  cob,  devouring  the  germ  first,  and  then  the  white 
starchy  part  of  the  kernel.  These  insects  sometimes  exist  in  vast  nutnbers, 
and  arc  then  very  destructive.  Sometimes  they  destroy  the  germ  in  such  a 
way  that  its  absence  is  imperceptible,  and  that  causes  disappointment  when 
it  is  planted  as  seed.  Kiln-drying  is  recommended  when  the  corn  is  to  be 
nsed  for  food,  but  not  for  seed.  Quick-lime  is  recommended,  strewed  among 
tlie  ears  of  corn  in  the  crib.  If  put  up  with  husks  on,  salt  has  proved 
beneficial. 

There  is  another  insect  that  troubles  corn  in  the  Southern  States — the 
corn-borer.  Tiiis  is  called  a  bill-bug,  or  corn-borer.  It  bores  into  the  stalk 
just  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  deposits  its  eggs.  The  grub  eats  the  sub- 
stance of  the  stalk,  and  the  transformation  takes  place  in  the  cavity  eaten 
out,  where  the  pupa  remains  till  spring,  and  then  comes  forth  a  beetle,  in  its 
tarn  to  deposit  eggs  in  the  young  corn. 

These  insects  have  been  very  destructive  in  Alabama  and  several  other 
Southern  States,  and,  like  many  other  pests,  may  gradually  become  acclimated 
faither  and  farther  north,  till  all  the  corn-growing  region  is  infested.  Farmers 
should  be  on  the  look-out  for  these  "  borers,"  and  also  bear  in  mind  that  the 
best  remedy  yet  found  is  to  pull  up  all  corn-stalks,  after  harvest,  and  pile 
and  burn  them.    These  insects  are  usually  most  troublesome  in  swamp  lands. 

The  larva  of  the  angoumas  moth  is  very  destructive  to  corn,  as  -well  ns 
wheat  and  other  cereals,  when  stored ;  and  in  the  South,  in  the  open  field. 
The  grub  is  one  fourth  inch  long  in  corn,  and  less  iu  wheat.  It  spins  a 
cocoon  in  the  cavity  eaten  out  when  it  goes  into  the  pupa  state.  From  a 
small  round  hole  previously  made,  it  emerges  a  moth,  with  long,  narrow 
wings,  of  a  yellowish  gray  color,  of  satin-like  luster,  fringed  with  long  hairs. 
The  insects  grown  in  maize  are  larger,  though  identical  with  the  wheat  in- 
t-ects.  Tliis  insect  is  not  confined  to  M-arm  latitudes,  but  is  more  troublesome 
there  than  farther  north.  We  have  seen  the  moths  swarming  in  myriads 
about  corn-houses  and  around  wheat-stacks.  The  female  lays  from  sixty  to 
ninety  eggs,  which  hatch  into  minute  white  worms  in  four  to  six  days,  each 
one  of  which  makes  a  lodgment  in  a  grain  of  corn,  where  it  eats,  and  ma- 
tures in  three  weeks;  so  that  two  sets  mature  in  one  season,  the  pupa  of  the 
second  growth  remaining  in  the  grain  till  spring. 

It  is  said  that  this  insect  was  first  observed  in  North  Carolina,  about  forty 
years  ago.  They  will  fly  into  a  candle  sometimes,  in  a  granary,  in  such 
numbers  as  fo  extinguish  the  light,  and  doubtless  could  be  destroyed  by  fire 
to  a  great  extent.  Smear  a  cask  with  one  head,  on  the  inside,  with  tar  or 
molasses,  and  place  a  light  in  it,  and  you  will  catch  quantities  of  the  moths. 
Where  they  abound,  it  is  advisable  to  store  corn  unhusked ;  and  salt  is 
also  useful,  sprinkled  iu  as  the  corn  is  put  in  the  crib,  just  as  hay  is  salted. 


Sec.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  20T 

"We  know  places  where  this  insect  is  so  trouhlesome  to  farmers,  that  it  is  only 
by  great  care  that  they  can  keep  corn  or  wheat  over  from  one  crop  to  an- 
other. In  west  Tennessee  and  northwest  Mississippi  they  are  excessively 
annoying. 

Several  remedies  have  been  tried,  with  success  in  some  cases  and  failure 
in  others,  imder  apparently  the  same  circumstances.  We  will  name  some 
of  them.  After  the  grain  is  thoroughly  cleaned,  spread  it  upon  white  sheets, 
or  boards,  or  a  tin  roof,  or,  if  convenient,  a  flat  rock  is  better  than  either, 
and  some  use  a  clay  floor,  and  let  it  lie  in  the  sun  until  it  gets  hot,  and  then 
put  it  np  in  tight  casks.  Kiln-drying  at  176°  kills  the  insect  and  the  germi- 
nating power  of  the  corn  at  the  same  time.  If  grain  is  placed  in  tight  casks, 
and  the  gas  arising  from  burning  charcoal  conveyed  to  it  by  a  tube,  which 
nuiy  be  iron  next  the  fire,  and  flexible  tube  next  the  cask,  for  convenience,  so 
as  to  fumigate  the  grain,  the  insect  is  destroyed  without  injury  to  the  germ. 
An  infusion  of  the  fumes  of  chloroform  will  kill  these  or  any  other  insects 
iu  a  close  vessel.  Even  a  few  drops  jjut  in  a  bottle  with  insects,  corked  up, 
deprives  them  of  life  directly.  It  will  not,  however,  destroy  eggs,  as  the 
heating  of  the  corn  does.  Heating  it,  by  piling  it  up  damp,  has  been  prac- 
ticed ;  but  cai'e  must  be  taken,  if  this  is  practiced,  that  it  does  not  overheat 
and  get  musty.     If  it  does,  it  should  be  washed  before  grinding. 

Lime  has  been  effectively  tried,  entirely  preventing  the  ravages  of  the 
insect,  by  storing  the  grain,  ready  prepared  for  the  mill,  in  tight  casks  or 
bins,  and  covering  by  sifting  over  the  top  an  inch  or  two  deep  of  finely- 
powdered  lime.  Whenever  the  grain  is  v\-anted  for  the  mill,  run  it  through 
the  winnowing  machine,  and  blow  out  the  lime.  A  trifle  will  adhere  to  the 
furze  of  the  kernels,  but  it  does  uo  harm — it  is  rather  beneficial  to  the  flour 
or  meal. 

244.  The  Rice  Weevil. — This  is  another  pestiferous  insect,  which  not  only 
destroys  rice,  but  attacks  other  grain  upon  the  upland  portion  of  a  rice 
plantation.  This  weevil  {Calandra  orysos)  resembles  the  one  whose  ravages 
we  have  noticed  in  243,  which  is  the  Calandra  granaria.  All  true  weevils 
are  beetles,  with  long  snouts,  and  only  depredate  upon  dry  grain. 

Many  of  us  consumers  of  rice  have  seen  the  rice  weevil,  which  has 
hatched  out  of  eggs  deposited  by  the  female  parent,  one  in  each  grain, 
where  it  hatches,  and  the  young  larva  eats  out  all  the  substance,  making 
food  of  its  habitation.  By-and-by  the  weevil  comes  out,  and  the  sexes  meet, 
and  the  female  deposits  its  eggs  iu  sound  grains,  and  so  on  until  all  are 
destroyed. 

When  very  plenty  in  rice,  it  makes  anything  but  a  savory  dish.  It  is  the 
same  with  wheat.  We  have  eaten  bread  that  tasted  as  though  we  had  about 
an  even  mixture  of  bread  and  meat.  "  Weevilly  flour,"  we  have  heard  said, 
was  not  unwholesome.  Perhaps  not ;  to  us  it  is  most  decidedly  unpalatable, 
and  no  art  of  cooking  wheat  or  rice  will  hide  the  weevil  flavor.  It  looks 
and  tastes  of  weevil,  even  in  the  buttermilk  and  saleratus  biscuit  of  the  most 
liberal  user  of  that  salt. 


208  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

Tlie  rice  weevil  has  often  been  found  in  rice  inipoitod  from  China,  and  it 
may  have  been  introduced  into  tiiis  country  from  thence.  It  differs,  both  in 
appearance  and  habits,  a  little  from  the  grain  weevil.  It  is  said  to  attack 
rice  in  the  field  as  well  as  after  it  is  stored.  It  also  attacks  Indian  corn  in 
the  field,  if  left  out  till  late  in  the  fall,  or  until  it  becomes  cjuite  dry,  in  tiiose 
States  at  the  South  where  this  insect  most  abounds. 

The  same  remedies  that  will  answer  for  oije  variety  of  weevil  will  answer 
for  all.     Wc  give  a  few  more  remedies. 

245.  To  Destroy  Weevil. — Grain  subject  to  depredations  from  the  weevil, 
which  develops  and  matures  in  the  heart  of  the  seeds,  and  which  imparts 
considerable  heat  to  the  bulk  of  the  pile,  equal  to  or  above  blood-heat,  is 
easily  detected  on  thrusting  the  hand  into  the  body  of  the  grain,  by  means 
of  the  great  heat  of  the  mass. 

In  France,  large  quantities  of  grain  are  stored  up  against  time  of  scarcity ; 
and  in  order  to  protect  it  from  the  depredations  of  the  insects  that  prey  upon 
it,  commissioners  have  been  appointed  to  examine  into  the  means  of  destroy- 
ing them,  -who  have  reported  that  a  small  quantity  of  chloroform  or  sulphuret 
of  carbon  put  into  the  interior  of  the  grain  pit  (which  is  usually  in  the 
ground),  and  then  hermetically  sealed  up,  will  destroy  all  the  pests.  Abn^it 
seventy-five  grains  of  sulphuret  of  carbon  arc  sufficient  for  about  four  bnsliels. 
Grain  put  up  in  rail  pens,  as  is  the  custom  in  the  West,  may  be  treated  with 
equal  success  with  this  agent,  by  covering  the  heap  with  a  tarpaulin  or  close 
woven  cloth. 

A  successful  farmer  in  Broome  Co.,  N.  Y.,  recommends  cutting  wheat  while 
in  the  milk,  and  the  straw  green,  and  salting  it  in  the  mow  or  stack.    He  says : 

"  About  fourteen  years  ago  the  weevil  appeared  upon  this  farm,  and  quite 
seriously  affected  the  wheat  crop.  We  commenced  also  about  that  time 
cutting  our  wheat  very  green,  as  soon  as  it  was  out  of  the  milk,  no  matter 
how  green  the  straw  or  heads ;  and  in  order  to  preserve  it  the  better  in  the 
mow  or  stack,  always  applied  salt  liberally.  For  many  years  I  liave  salicd 
my  grain  mows  and  stacks,  but  put  none  upon  my  hay.  I  am  now  cutting 
my  wheat  as  green  as  usual. 

"  From  my  own  experience,  I  am  satisfied  that  if  the  wheat  is  thus  treated, 
and  not  thrashed  until  after  it  has  been  some  time  piled  up,  the  insect  will 
be  destroyed  in  some  of  its  transformations.  At  any  rate,  whoever  tries  tiie 
experiment  will  be  well  surprised  in  the  value  of  his  wheat  and  straw. 
Where  straw  is  fed  to  stock — and  all  mine  goes  that  way — it  is  sought  Ibr 
with  keener  relish,  and  makes  better  manure,  while  the  wheat  is  much 
heavier  and  plumper  than  when  not  so  treated. 

"I  ought  to  say,  perhaps,  that  the  weevil  has  not  troubled  the  farm  since 
that  year,  although  wheat  has  been  grown  every  year.  Almost  any  year  a 
few  may  be  ibund,  but  none  to  do  any  damage.  My  soil  is  a  slaty,  gravelly 
loam,  and  my  seeding  is  usually  all  done  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  the  best  variety  of  wheat  thus  far  has  been  the  Uuc-stem,  a  beauti- 
ful variety  of  white  wheat." 


Seo.  12.]  KNTOMOLOGIOAL.  209 

Another  Broome  County  farmer,  who  thought  the  yellow-birds  destroyed 
his  wheat,  wished  a  neighbor  "  would  get  a  gun  and  kill  some  yellow-birds, 
which  farmers  generally  suppose  destroy  the  wheat.  Mr.  R.  declined,  as  he 
does  not  like  to  kill  birds  of  any  kind.  Out  of  curiosity,  however,  he  killed 
one  of  the  birds  and  opened  the  crop,  when  he  found  that  the  bird,  instead 
of  eating  the  wheat,  ate  the  weevil — the  great  destroyer  of  the  wheat.  He 
found  as  many  as  two  hundred  weevil  in  the  bird's  crop,  and  hut  fori?'  grains 
of  wheat,  and  these  had  the  weevil  in  them.  This  is  a  very  important  dis- 
covery, and  should  be  generally  known.  The  bird  resembles  the  canary, 
and  sings  beautifully." 

246.  Wheat  Insect  vs.  Weevil. — ^Tliere  is  a  confusion  of  tongues  in  relation 
to  the  M'cevil  that  we  have  described  (244,  245),  and  the  one  that  attacks  the 
wheat  in  the  milk. 

The  insect  that  has  injured  the  wheat  crop  so  extensively  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  is  not  the  one  generally  known  as  the  weevil.  This 
insect,  called  "  red  weevil,"  "  wheat-midge,"  "  the  insect,"  etc.,  differs  very 
much  from  the  Calandra  granaria,  as  that  only  injures  the  ripened  kernel 
of  wheat  or  com  after  it  is  stacked  or  housed,  or  even  after  it  is  in  the  bin 
of  the  granary  or  grist-mill.  The  weevil  exhibits  in  swarms  around  the 
barn,  the  female  laying  her  eggs  on  the  grain,  and  the  grubs  as  soon  as 
hatched  work  into  the  kernel,  consuming  all  but  the  bran,  without  breaking 
that,  so  as  to  show  tliat  all  is  rottenness  within.  The  ravages  of  this  insect, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  are  so  destructive  at  the  South,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  keep  wheat  and  corn.  The  latter  is  generally  put  up  with  the  shucks  on, 
which  is  damp  or  else  heavily  salted.  "Wheat  is  kc]:)!  in  close  casks  or  tight 
bins  by  covering  with  flour  of  lime  an  inch  deep  over  the  surface. 
"The  insect  that  has  destroyed  so  much  grain  in  past  seasons  is  a 
yellow  fly  (with  blue  wings),  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length ;  it 
deposits  its  eggs,  while  the  wheat  is  in  blossom,  within  the  chaffy  scales  of 
the  flower,  during  the  evening  twilight  and  dark  stormy  days,  in  numbers 
from  two  to  forty,  which  hatch  in  ten  days  and  completely  destroy  the  germ 
of  the  berry.  The  maggot  is  reddish  yellow,  about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch 
long,  or  perhaps  an  eighth  when  full-grown." 

"  It  is  supposed  that  it  leaves  the  wheat  and  winters  in  the  ground.  That  is 
the  time  to  kill  them.  Salt  is  undoubtedly  the  remedy.  Tiie  fly  is  hardly 
ever  seen  ;  they  never  fly  in  the  sunshine.  The  weevil  fill  the  air  like  mus- 
ketoes  in  a  swamp.  Tliis  insect  hides  on  the  stems  and  leaves,  shaded  from 
the  heat  of  tlio  sun.     This  is  a  northern  insect;  the  weevil  is  a  southern  one." 

"  Tiiis  insect  M-as  first  seen  in  America  about  the  year  1828,  in  the  nortliern 
part  of  Vermont  and  borders  of  Lower  Canada.  It  first  made  its  appearance 
in  nortliern  Ohio  in  the  year  1843,  and  its  ravages  have  rapidly  increased 
from  year  to  year." 

Dr.  Harris  recommends  brimstone  fumigation  of  the  plants.  That  would 
be  impossible,  almost,  on  whole  counties.  Flour  of  lime  sown  on  wet  wheat 
has  appeared  to  prevent  the  work  of  destruction.     Deep  plowing  the  stubble, 


210  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  U. 

and  not  sowing  any  grain  upon  it  next  year,  might  eradicate  the  insect,  if 
all  who  arc  affected  would  unite  in  that  course,  as  all  must  in  any  other  that 
sliould  be  adopted. 

The  remedy  recommended  by  our  correspondent  m  Broome  Co.,  of  salting 
the  cut  wheat  in  the  mow  or  stack,  would  not  answer,  for  the  maggots  already 
burrowed  in  the  ground  for  winter,  but  the  salt  must  be  applied  to  the  land 
in  liberal  quantities — say  five  to  ten  bushels  per  acre.  We  cut  up  the  cut- 
worms effectually  upon  our  corn  ground  this  season  with  a  handful  of  salt  to 
a  hill.  The  corn  fired  a  little  at  first,  but  it  is  growing  beautifully  now. 
Every  bug  or  worm  can  be  killed  in  the  soil,  with  salt,  and  we  have  no 
doubt  that  will  be  found  the  most  sure  way  of  ridding  the  country  of  this 
terrible  pest  of  wheat-growers.  The  Cccidomyia  tritici  of  Kirby  is  what  we 
take  to  be  the  insect  called  the  "  red  weevil." 

A  "  close  observer"  of  the  habits  of  the  midge,  says  of  one  who  had 
written  of  the  insect's  wintering  in  the  ground : 

"  The  writer  is  mistaken  in  some  of  his  facts  as  to  the  habits  of  the  insect, 
as  he  can  very  easily  satisfy  himself  by  getting  a  few  heads  of  wheat  in  the 
proper  season  that  are  afiected  and  putting  them  in  a  small  glass  jar.  He 
will  see  that  the  worm  does  not  go  into  the  earth,  but  corner  outside  of  the 
head  after  desti-oying  the  grain  of  wheat  it  hatched  in,  and  weaves  itself  up 
into  a  snug  little  cocoon  on  the  under  side  of  the  outside  chafi".  If  he  exam- 
ine that  cocoon  after  a  time,  he  Avill  find  the  worm  has  changed  into  a  new 
shape,  and  will  ultimately  come  out  a  winged  insect.  I  have  never  yet 
been  able  to  find  the  worm  seeking  shelter  in  the  earth.  It  is  this  knowl- 
edge of  the  habit  of  the  insect  that  induces  the  belief  that  liberal  salting  of 
the  grain  in  mow  or  stack  is  fatal  to  it." 

Townend  Glover,  who  is  pretty  good  authority,  says  of  this  pest : 

"  The  parent  fly  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  beginning  of  July,  and'  in  the 
opening  flowers  of  the  grain,  or  when  the  wheat  is  still  in  the  milky  state. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  eight  days,  when  the  little  yellow  maggots,  or 
worms,  maybe  found  within  the  chafty  scales  of  the  grain.  The  seed  scales 
of  grass  also  sometimes  serve  as  a  shelter  for  these  depredators.  The  worms, 
which  are  of  a  bright  yellow  or  orange  color,  do  not  exceed  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  are  ofren  much  smaller.  I  have  seen  as  many  as  twelve 
within  the  chafl"  of  one  single  grain,  sent  to  the  Patent  Oftice  from  Ohio. 
Tliese  maggots  prey  upon  the  wheat  wl^en  only  in  a  milky  state.  "When 
they  begin  their  depredations,  soon  after  the  blossoming  of  the  plant,  they 
do  the  greatest  injury,  as  the  grains  never  fill  out.  Toward  the  last  of  July 
or  beginning  of  August  the  full-grown  maggots  cease  eating,  and  become 
sluggish  and  torpid,  jireparatory  to  shedding  their  skins,  which  takes  place  in 
the  following  manner  :  Tlie  body  of  the  maggot  gradually  shrinks  in  length 
within  its  skin,  and  becomes  more  flattened  and  less  pointed,  as  readily  may 
be  seen  through  its  delicate  transj^arency.  Tiiis  torpid  state  lasts  only  a  few 
days,  after  which  the  insect  casts  its  skin,  leaving  the  latter  entire,  except  a 
little  rent  at  one  end  of  it.     These  empty  cases,  or  skins,  may  be  found  in 


Sec.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  211 

great  abundance  in  the  wheat-ears,  after  the  molting  process  is  completed. 
Mr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  of  Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  says  that  sometimes  the  maggot 
descends  from  the  plants  and  molts  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  After 
shedding  the  skin,  it  recovers  its  activity,  and  writhes  about  at  first,  but 
takes  no  food.  It  is  shorter,  somewhat  flattened,  and  more  obtuse  than 
before,  and  is  of  a  deeper  yellow  color,  with  an  oblong  greenish  spot  in  the 
middle  of  the  body.  Within  two  or  three  days  after  molting,  the  maggots 
either  descend  of  their  own  accord  or  are  shaken  out  of  the  ears  by  the  wind, 
and  fall  to  the  ground.  They  do  not  let  themselves  down  by  threads,  as 
has  been  supposed  by  some,  for  they  are  not  able  to  spin.  Nearly  all  of 
them  disappear  before  the  middle  of  August,  and  they  are  rarely  found  in 
the  grain  at  the  time  of  harvest.  Hon.  "William  D.  Lindsley,  of  Sandusky 
City,  Ohio,  however,  sent  me  several  specimens  of  wheat  with  this  insect  in 
it  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  August.  From  observations  and  remarks  made 
by  intelligent  farmers,  it  appears  that  the  descent  of  these  insects  is  facilitated 
by  falling  rain  and  heavy  dews.  Having  reached  the  ground,  the  maggots 
soon  burrow  under  the  surface,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  those 
which  have  not  molted  casting  their  skins  before  entering  tlie  earth.  Here 
they  remain  witliout  further  change  through  the  following  winter.  It  is  not 
usually  before  June  that  they  are  transformed  to  pupae,  this  change  being 
effected  witliout  another  molting  of  the  skin.  This  pupa  state  lasts  but  a 
short  time,  a  week  or  two  at  most,  and  in  many  cases  only  a  few  days. 
Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  the  pupa  works  its  way  to  tlie 
surface,  before  liberating  the  included  fly,  and  when  the  insect  has  taken 
wing,  the  empty  pupa  shell,  or  skin,  will  be  seen  protruding  from  the  ground. 
In  other  cases,  the  fly  issues  from  its  pupa  skin  in  the  earth,  and  comes  to 
the  suiface  with  flabby  wings,  which  soon  expand  and  dry  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  Tliis  last  change  occurs  mostly  in  the  months  of  June  and  July, 
when  great  numbers  of  the  flies  have  been  seen  apparently  coming  from  the 
ground  in  fields  wlierc  grain  was  raised  the  year  before. 

"The  wheat-midge,  or  fly,  'is  a  small  orange-colored  gnat,  with  long, 
slender,  pale-yellow  legs,  and  two  transparent  wings  reflecting  the  tints  of 
the  rainbow,  and  fringed  with  delicate  hairs.  Its  eyes  are  black  and  prom- 
inent ;  its  face  and  feelers,  yellow  ;.  its  antennje,  long  and  blackish.  Tliose 
of  the  male  are  twice  as  long  as  the  body,  and  consist  of  only  twelve  joints, 
which,  except  at  the  base,  an  oblong-oval,  somewhat  narrowed  in  the  middle, 
are  surrounded  by  two  whorls  of  hairs.  These  insects  vary  much  in  size. 
The  largest  females  do  not  exceed  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  many 
are  found  toward  the  end  of  the  season  less  than  half  this  length.  The  males 
are  usually  smaller  than  the  females,  and  somewhat  paler  in  color.'  Mr. 
Lindsley  sent  several  of  these  insects  to  tlie  Patent  Office  in  August,  1855, 
and  stated  that  they  have  been  extremely  destructive  in  several  parts  of  his 
district  last  year  (1854),  and  that  in  some  places  the  cattle  were  turned  into 
the  field  in  order  to  eat  the  straw  and  what  little  was  left  of  the  grain,  the 
main  crop  not  being  worth  harvesting.     These  flies  are  likewise  said  to  be 


212  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

much  more  numerous  and  destructive  on  the  edges  of  fields  than  in  the 
center,  and  in  some  cases  when  the  edges  were  completely  worthless,  the 
center  bore  comparatively  a  good  crop. 

"  Fumigation  with  sulpliur,  and  burning  weeds  on  tlie  windward  side  of 
the  field,  when  the  grain  is  in  blossom,  have  been  recoinmended.  Air-slacked 
lime  or  wood-ashes,  strewn  over  the  grain  wlicn  in  blossom,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  bushel  of  lime  or  ashes  per  acre,  to  be  scatlered  over  the  field  when 
the  jjlants  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  Two  or  three  applications  have  some- 
times been  found  necessary.  Plowing  up  the  ground,  also,  to  destroy  the 
maggots  ;  and  the  dust-chaff,  or  refuse  straw,  if  found  to  contain  any  of  these 
insects,  should  be  immediately  burned.  In  those  parts  of  New  England 
where  these  insects  have  done  the  greatest  injury,  according  to  Dr.  Harris, 
the  cultivation  of  fall-sown  or  winter  grain  has  been  given  up,  and  this  for 
some  years  to  come  will  bo  the  safest  course." 

247.  The  Joint-Worm. — One  of  the  greatest  pests  that  Virginia  farmere 
have  had  to  contend  with  in  M-hcat-growing  is  the  joint-worm.  It  has  been 
more  destructive  than  the  weevil,  and  in  some  cases  as  great  a  pest  in  that 
State  as  the  midge  has  in  New  York. 

Tlio  following  is  Glover's  description  of  this  insect : 

"  The  joint-worm  (Artr//^o/»rt  hardt i),  ^v\nch  has  committed  such  ravages 
in  tlic  wheat-fields  of  Virginia,  comes  from  a  small,  black,  four-winged  fly, 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Tiie  female  lays  several  eggs  in  the 
outer  sheath  of  the  stalk  above  the  joints.  After  they  hatch,  the  worms 
commence  feeding  within  the  sheath,  and  the  constant  irritation  produced 
by  I  hem  forms  a  woody  gall,  or  rather  succession  of  galls,  in  the  cavity  of 
each  of  wiiich  lies  a  small,  footless  maggot,  about  the  seventh  or  eighth  of 
an  inch  in  length,  having  a  body  wnth  thirteen  segments,  and  of  a  pale, 
glossy,  yellowish  color.  The  number  of  worms  in  each  cluster  of  galls  varies 
from  four  to  ten,  or  even  more.  The  substance  of  the  stalk  attached  becomes 
brittle,  and  either  partially  or  entirely  fills  its  central  cavity,  and  frequently 
distorts  it  into  various  irregular  shapes.  I  have  often  observed  young  root- 
lets ])utting  out  immediately  below  a  joint  so  affected.  Tiie  worms  on  the 
stalks  of  wheat,  when  examined  in  Febrnar}',  were  yet  in  the  larva,  but 
early  in  March  several  had  assumed  the  pupa  state.  The}'  were  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  letigth,  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  which  as  the  pupa3  were 
near  coming  out,  became  afterward  nearly  black.  These  pupa3  had  the 
rudiments  of  wings,  legs,  and  antemiaj  as  in  the  perfect  fly,  but  were  motion- 
less. Late  in  April  and  the  beginning  of  May  tlie  flies  made  their  appear- 
ance through  holes  gnawed  through  the  tough.,  woody  covering  of  the  gall- 
like excrescence  in  which  they  had  passed  the  winter.  Tiiis  transformation, 
however,  took  place  in  a  warm  room.  Tliese  flies  are  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  of  a  black  color,  the  knees,  joints,  and  feet  being  tinged 
with  yellow.  The  males,  according  to  Dr.  Harris,  vary  from  the  females  by 
being  smaller,  and  in  having  no  ])iercers.  The  joints  of  the  antemia;  are 
likewise  longer,  and  surrounded  with  whorls  of  little  hairs.     The  hind  body 


!   I 


Sec.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  213 

is  shorter,  less  pointed  at  the  extremity,  and  is  connected  with  the  thorax 
bj  a  longer  stem.  He  also  says,  that  among  fifteen  females  only  one  male 
was  found.  This  corresponds  with  what  I  have  observed,  as  out  of  sixty  to 
eighty  joint-worm  flies,  produced  from  diseased  stalks  of  wheat,  I  only  pro- 
cured one. male  answering  to  his  description,  and  eiglit  parasites,  not  quite 
a  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  dark  metallic  shade,  with  yellow  legs,  and 
the  antennae  much  thicker  at  the  end.  These  flies  were  furnished  with  four 
transparent,  dotted  wings.  It  is  somewhat  incomprehensible  how  it  happens 
that  so  many  females  appear  at  the  same  time  without  more  males. 

"  Another  four-winged  fly  also  made  its  appearance  from  the  same  stalks, 
of  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  an  abdomen  and  legs  of  a 
briglit  yellow.  The  head  and  tliorax  were  of  a  dark  color,  and  somewhat 
metallic  luster.  Tiie  wings  were  transparent,  dotted,  and  fringed  with  short 
hairs,  and  the  piercer  reached  to  the  middle  of  the  under  part  of  the  abdo- 
men. Di".  Han-is  states  tliat  it  has  been  found  in  Massachusetts,  that  plow- 
ing in  the  stubble  lias  no  cfi'ect  upon  the  insects,  which  remain  alive  and 
uninjured  under  tlie  slight  covering  of  earth,  and  easily  make  tlieir  way  to 
tlie  surface,  when  tlicy  have  completed  their  transformation.  A  free  use  of 
manure  and  thorough  tillage,  by  promoting  a  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  of 
the  plant,  may  render  it  less  liable  to  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  the  insect. 
It  lias  been  stated  that  t'.iis  fly,  like  the  wheat-midge,  does  more  injury  on 
the  edges  of  fields  than  in  the  middle. 

"  At  the  Joint-Worm  Convention,  held  at  Warrentown,  Virginia,  in  185i, 
the  following  was  recommended  :  Prepare  well  the  land  intended  for  wheat, 
and  sow  it  in  the  beginning  of  autumn  witli  the  earliest  and  most  tlirifty 
and  hardy  varieties,  and  do  nothing  to  retard  the  ripening  of  the  crop  by 
grazing  or  otherwise.  Use  guano  or  some  other  fertilizer  liberally,  partic- 
ularly when  seeding  corn-land  or  stubble.  Burn  the  stubble  on  every  field 
of  corn,  rye,  or  oats,  and  all  thickets  or  other  harbors  of  vegetable  growth 
contiguous  to  the  crop.  Sow  the  wheat  in  as  large  bodies  and  in  as  compact 
forms  as  practicable  ;  and  if  possible,  neighbors  should  arrange  among  them- 
selves to  sow  adjoining  fields  the  same  year.  Feed  all  the  wheat,  or  other 
straw,  which  may  be  infected,  in  racks  or  pens,  or  on  confined  spots ;  and 
on  or  before  the  first  of  May  carefully  burn  all  the  straw  which  has  not  been 
fed.  The  refuse  of  wheat,  such  as  screenings,  etc.,  should  also  be  destroyed, 
as  the  pupa  ease  is  hard  and  not  easily  softened  by  dampness  or  wet." 

We  can  add  nothing  to  this  preventive,  except  a  recommendation  to  com- 
post the  refuse  of  the  cattle,  instead  of  burning  it.  Make  a  heap  that  will 
undergo  a  heating  fermentation,  and  the  eggs  will  be  destroyed,  and  the 
manure  will  be  more  valuable  than  the  ashes. 

248.  The  Hessian-Fly. — ^This  is  thp  common  name  of  an  insect  that  at  one 
time  threatened  to  put  a  stop  to  wheat-growing  in  all  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States.  This  insect  {Cecidomyia  destructor)  obtained  its  name  from 
the  fact  of  its  (supposed)  importation  with  the  Hessian  soldiers  of  the  Revo- 
lution, though  this  fact  has  been  strongly  disputed.     It  might  have  been  in 


214  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 


the  country  before,  and  it  might  also  have  been  imported.  It  was  first  pub- 
licly noticed  in  1776,  at  Flatbiish  (L.  I.),  and  on  Staten  Island,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Sir  William  Howe's  debarkation  of  those  mercenaries  of  King  George, 
and  it  was  quite  in  keeping  with  the  feelings  of  the  people  that  they  should 
readily  credit  the  charge,  that  they  had  brought  this  among  the  other  evils 
of  war.  At  any  rate,  it  multiplied  and  spread  rapidly,  and  was  for  a  time 
looked  upon  as  a  scourge  almost  as  great  as  tire  and  sword.  Of  late  years, 
liowever,  it  appears  to  be  dying  out.  It  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  parasites, 
which  have  done  more  than  all  the  arts  and  strength  of  man  to  rid  his  land 
of  this  pest. 

Tlie  greatest  destroyer  of  the  Ilessian-fly  is  a  shining  black  four-winged 
fly,  about  the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  lengtii.  Do  not  mistake  this  friend  for 
your  foe,  and  compass  its  destruction.  Many  sensible  men  have  made  this 
mistake,  and  very  aptly,  too  ;  for,  as  they  will  tell  you,  they  have  actually 
seen  the  fellow  come  out  of  the  dried  skin  of  the  Hessian.  So  they  did  ;  but 
not  until  the  destroyer  of  wheat  had  been  destroyed  by  an  insect  that  fed 
upon  his  vitals. 

The  parasite  of  the  Cccldomyia  destructor  is  the  Ceraphron  destructor  of 
Say,  and  it  is  a  question  of  vast  consequence  to  wheat-growers  what  they 
can  do  to  promote  th.e  growth  of  this  insect,  which  has  already  been  of  such 
vast  benefit  to  tliem. 

"We  have  no  doubt  that  the  parasite  of  the  wheat-midge  will  do  the  same 
kind  of  service,  and  perhaps  exterminate  that  pest. 

The  Hessian-fly  is  a  very  small  two-winged  gnat.  The  female  deposits 
her  eggs  soon  after  the  wheat  begins  to  grow,  say  in  October,  for  lat.  39^, 
40°,  41°,  in  tlie  cavities  between  the  little  ridges  of  the  blades.  In  from 
four  to  fifteen  days  the  eggs  hatch,  and  the  diminutive  maggots  M-ork  down 
into  the  leaf-sheath  and  there  spend  the  winter.  The  fly  works  from  August 
to  January,  according  to  latitude  and  climate  influences,  so  that  what  would 
be  a  remedy  in  one  place  would  not  be  in  another.  In  fiict,  it  is  asserted  that 
the  fly  sometimes  works  upon  Avheat  in  the  spring  ;  so  the  following  recom- 
mendation would  not  be  eflectual.     That  is  : 

About  the  middle  of  August  sow  a  strip  of  wheat  adjoining  where  you 
intend  to  put  your  cyo\> — say  one  or  two  acres.  About  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember sow  your  field.  When  that  lias  come  up  and  shows  cleverly,  plow 
under  the  first  sown  ;  turn  it  under  well.  Your  fly  is  headed  and  your  crop 
is  safe. 

In  the  particular  locality  of  the  man  who  says  "  that  remedy  wont  fail," 
perhaps  it  will  not. 

The  maggots  within  the  leaf-sheath  lie  dormant  through  the  winter,  and 
do  not  stop  the  growth  of  the  wheat  until  just  before  it  is  ready  to  blossom, 
when  if  there  are  several  on  a  stalk,  it  withers  and  dies.  The  worms  do  not 
eat  the  stalk,  but  suck  up  the  sap  and  poison  it.  A  full-sized  maggot  is 
three  twentieths  of  an  inch  lon^',  with  a  hard  skin,  of  a  bright  chestnut  color, 
and  looks  as  much  like  a  flax-seed  as  anything  it  can  be  compared  to.     This 


Seo.  12]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  215 

appearance  remahis,  but  the  outside  is  a  dried  skin  inclosing  the  pupa,  whicli 
advances  to  perfection  in  April  or  May,  and  it  is  these  early  tlies  that  lay 
eggs  upon  spring  wiieat.  It  is  asserted  that  there  are  three  broods  in  a  year. 
Tlie  fly  is  about  tlie  tenth  of  an  inch  long  ;  the  head,  antennae,  and  thorax, 
black  ;  the  iiind  body  tawny,  the  wings  tawny  at  the  base,  and  black  and 
hairy  at  the  ends,  expanding  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  The  legs  are  pale, 
red,  or  brown,  and  feet  black.  The  antennse  are  jointed,  and  surrounded 
with  whorls  of  short  hairs. 

With  the  above  short  description  and  microscope  in  hand,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  for  any  observing  person  to  determine  the  character  of  an  insect 
found  upon  his  wheat,  so  as  to  decide  whether  it  is  the  Ilessian-fly  or  the 
Ilessian-fly  destroyer. 

249.  Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits. — Probably  of  all  the  tribe  of  pests  that 
infest  fruit-trees,  that  known  as  curculio,  or  plum  weevil  {Rhijnchmnus 
?ienuphar),  does  the  most  damage.  It  has  nearly  driven  the  plum-trees 
away  from  every  farm,  and  has  in  some  seasons  destroyed  the  peaches,  and 
done  incalculable  damage  to  the  apple  crop.  In  fact,  for  many  years  pre- 
vious to  1860,  there  was  not  a  good  apple  crop  in  all  the  Eastern  States, 
owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  curculio.  Small  as  this  pest  is,  it  is  capable 
of  doing  great  mischief  to  all  the  fruits,  and  its  sting  is  death  to  plums, 
apricots,  and  nectarines,  and  very  injurious  to  cherries  and  pears.  The  finer 
the  fruit,  the  greater  the  injury.  A  very  hardy  plum  or  cherry  may  survive 
a  sting  from  this  insect,  which  leaves  a  peculiar,  crescent-shaped  wound,  and 
makes  an  ugly  scar  and  a  hard  gnarl  in  the  fairest  fruit. 

Tliis  insect  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  States  of  the  Union ;  it  is  worst  in 
the  Middle  ones,  or  between  latitudes  39^  and  41°. 

By  the  following  minute  description  by  Glover,  the  little  villain  may  be 
known  by  any  one,  though  not  previously  acquainted  with  him : 

"The  perfect  curculio  is  about  two  tenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  with  a  spot  of  yellowish  white  on  the  hind  part  of  each  M'ing- 
case.  The  head  is  furnished  with  a  long,  curved  snout,  or  bill,  with  which 
it  is  enabled  to  bore  into  the  unripe  fruit  by  means  of  jaws  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  bill.  Tlie  wing-cases,  which  are  rigid,  uneven,  and  humped, 
cover  two  transparent  wings,  by  which  the  perfect  weevil  is  enabled  to  fly 
from  tree  to  tree ;  but  when  these  wing-cases  are  closed,  the  back  appears 
v.'ithout  any  suture,  or  division,  which  has  led  to  the  very  eiToneous  idea 
among  farmers  that  the  insect  can  not  fly.  When  disturbed,  or  shaken  from 
the  tree,  it  is  so  similar  in  appearance  to  a  dried  bud,  that  it  can  scarcely  be 
distinguished,  especially  when  feigning  death,  which  it  always  does  when 
alarmed.  As  soon  as  the  plums  are  of  the  size  of  peas,  the  weevil  com- 
mences the  work  of  destruction  by  maling  a  semi-circular  cut  through  the 
skin  with  her  long,  curved  snout,  in  the  apex  of  which  she  deposits  a  single 
egg.  She  then  goes  to  another  plum,  which  is  treated  in  a  similar  manner, 
until  she  has  exhausted  her  whole  stock  of  eggs.  The  grubs,  which  are 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  immediately  eat  their  way  to  the  stone  in  an 


216  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  XL 

oblique  direction,  where  they  remain,  gnawing  the  interior,  until  the  fruit  is 
wealvoned  and  diseased,  and  by  this  treatment  falls  from  the  tree.  Tiic 
grub,  which  is  a  small,  yellowish,  footless,  white  maggot,  then  leaves  the 
fiillcn  fruit,  enters  the  earth,  changes  into  a  pupa,  and  in  the  first  brood 
comes  to  the  surface  again,  in  about  three  weeks,  as  a  perfect  weevil,  to 
propagate  its  species  and  destroy  more  fruit.  It  has  not  yet  been  decided 
whether  the  latest  generation  of  the  w^eevil  remains  in  the  ground  all  winter 
in  the  grub  or  in  the  pupa  state.  Dr.  E.  Sanborn,  of  Andover,  Mass.,  asserts, 
however,  that  the  grubs,  after  having  entered  the  earth,  return  to  the  surface 
in  about  six  weeks  as  perfect  weevils,  which  must  remain  hidden  in  crevices 
until  spring.  The  most  popular  opinion  is  that  they  remain  in  the  larva  or 
pupa  state  in  the  earth  during  the  winter,  and  only  reappear  in  the  spring 
in  the  perfect  state.  The  worm,  or  grub,  is  often  found  in  the  knots  or  ex- 
crescences which  disfiguie  and  destroy  plum-trees,  and  has  been  wrongfully 
accused  of  being  the  cause  of  these  swellings;  but  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  weevil,  finding  in  the  young  knots  an  acid  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
the  unripe  fruit,  merely  deposits  its  eggs  therein,  as  the  nearest  substitute 
for  the  real  plum. 

"  Some  of  the  remedies  recommended  for  preventing  the  ravages  of  these 
insects  are  actually  absurd,  such  as  tying  cotton  round  the  trees  in  order  to 
prevent  tliem  from  ascending,  when  it  is  known  that  they  are  furnished  with 
wings,  and  fly  from  tree  to  tree  with  perfect  ease.  Among  the  remedies  at 
present  in  use,  one  is  to  cover  the  fruit  with  a  coating  of  whitewash  mixed 
with  a  little  glue,  applied  by  means  of  a  syringe.  Another  is  to  spread  a 
sheet  upon  the  ground  under  the  tree,  and  then  jar  the  principal  branches 
suddenly  with  a  mallet  covered  with  cloth,  so  as  not  to  bruise  tlie  bark, 
when  the  perfect  insects  will  fall  into  the  sheet  and  feign  death,  and  may  be 
gathered  and  dcstroj-ed.  Hogs  are  sometimes  turned  into  plum  orchards, 
where,  by  eating  the  fallen  and  diseased  fruit,  they  materially  lessen  the  evil. 
Coops  of  chickens,  placed  under  the  trees,  have  also  been  recommended. 
Then  shake  the  trees  often,  and  the  chickens  will  catch  and  devour  the 
insects.  All  fallen  fruit  should  be  gathered  up  several  times  in  the  course 
of  the  season,  and  burnt,  or  given  to  hogs,  or  destroyed  in  some  other  way." 

We  shall  now  give,  besides  the  above  remedies,  a  few  more,  "infallible," 
of  course,  that  float  annually  through  the  newspai)ers. 

250,  Ciirculio  Remedies. — To  one  pound  of  whale-oil  soap  add  four  ounces 
of  flour  of  sulphur.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  dissolve  in  twelve  gallons  of 
water.  To  one  half  peek  of  quick-lime  add  four  gallons  of  water,  and  stir  well 
together.  When  fulh'  settled,  pour  oft'  the  transjiarent  lime-water,  and  add 
to  the  soap-and-sulphur  mixture.  Add  to  tiie  same,  also,  say  four  gallons 
of  tolerably  strong  tobacco-water.  Apply  tliis  mixture,  when  thus  incor- 
porated, with  a  garden-syringe,  to  your  plum  or  other  fruit  trees, .so  that  the 
foliage  shall  be  well  drenched.  If  no  rains  succeed  for  three  weeks,  one 
application  will  be  sufficient.  Sliould  frequent  rains  occur,  the  mixture 
should  be  again  applied  until  the  stone  of  tlie  fruit  becomes  hardened. 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  217 


The  person  who  used  and  recommended  tliis  remedy  says :  "  The  trees  tliat 
received  the  apijlication  rijiened  an  abundant  crop  of  as  perfect  and  beautiful 
plums  as  ever  grew,  while  not  a  single  plum  was  ripened  on  those  trees  to 
which  the  wash  was  not  applied." 

He  also  recommends  a  little  salt  to  be  added  to  the  mixture. 

It  lias  been  stated  as  an  important  fact,  that  plum-trees  planted  in  such  a 
position  that  the  fruit  will  hang  over  water,  Avill  never  be  stung  by  curculio; 
so  that  nothing  is  more  easy  than  growing  this  delicious  fruit  wherever  the 
trees  can  be  so  planted.  Dr.  Underhill,  of  Croton  Point  Vineyard  notoriety, 
spates  that  he  is  never  troubled,  not  having  seen  an  insect  upon  one  of  150 
trees  in  six  years.  lie  formed  an  artificial  pond,  with  banks  constructed  on 
purpose  to  set  the  trees  slanting  over  the  water.  He  gathers  the  fruit  in  a 
boat.  He  has  many  of  the  best  varieties  of  plums  so  planted,  and  never 
saw  finer  fruit  than  he  thus  produces.  It  is  an  experiment  that  should  be 
tried  by  every  man  who  has  the  necessary  conveniences.  The  ravages  of 
the  curculio  have  been  so  great  for  many  years  that  we  have  had  but  few 
plums,  and  those  inferior  and  high  priced,  in  this  market. 

We  have  the  following  account  from  James  Taylor,  of  St.  Catherine's, 
C.  W.,  a  few  miles  from  Niagara  Falls,  of  a  pretty  effectual  remedy  for  the 
great  pest  of  the  plum-grower — the  curculio.     Ho  says  : 

"  Our  locality  being  much  infested  with  the  curculio,  and  observing  in  one 
paper  issue,  last  spring,  what  had  been  pronounced  by  a  Mr.  Jos.  H. 
Matlier,  of  Goshen,  twenty  miles  southeast  of  the  place  where  the  writer 
resided,  an  effectual  remedy  against  its  ravages,  allow  me,  for  the  benefit  of 
your  readers,  to  state  7ni/  exjyerience  of  its  efficacy.  The  proposed  remedy 
was  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  lard,  and  Scotch  snuff,  to  be  rubbed  freely  on  the 
trunk  and  branches.  This  I  applied  according  to  the  directions,  and  it  is 
true  that  I  had  a  splendid  crop  of  plums,  some  of  the  clioicest  varieties, 
always  most  subject  to  the  a^tacks  of  this  insect,  viz.,  the  Bolmar,  Huling's 
Superb,  etc.,  being  perfectly  loaded ;  lut  marJc  the  result.  On  examining 
my  trees  last  fall,  I  found  all  that  T  had  ajypUed  the  mixture  to  in  a  dying 
state,  and  I  have  lost  them  all,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  young  trees. 
The  operation  being  rather  a  troublesome  one,  I  did  not  apply  it  to  as  many 
as  I  should  otherwise  have  done,  or  I  should  have  lost  more.  So  much  for 
quack  nostrums.  The  remedy  proved  worse  than  the  disease.  Perhaps  my 
experience  will  be  useful  to  others." 

R.  G.  Pardee  gives  the  following  remedy  fur  the  curculio,  which  has  been 
successfully  practiced  by  a  person  of  his  acquaintance.  Take  fresh  cow- 
droppings,  and  a  little  wood-ashes,  some  lime,  and  a  little  sulphur,  and  make 
all  into  a  thin  decoction,  and  throw  it  over  the  trees  with  a  hand-basin. 
Tliis  lasts  until  it  rains  ;  it  is  then  put  on  again.  A  half  pound  of  sulphur 
to  a  half  barrel  is  sufficient,  and  of  the  other  substances  it  is  not  very  im- 
portant as  to  the  proportions. 

"VVe  think  the  labor  of  this  application  would  be  too  great. 

Dr.  Trimble,  of  New  Jersey,  says  that  he  has  tried  all  sorts  of  offensive 


218  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

odors  to  keep  off  curculio,  without  effect.  "  I  liave  found  no  remedy  equal 
to  that  of  manual  labor  in  catching  and  destroying  the  insect.  It  is  a  fact 
that  some  plum-trees  are  not  infested  by  the  curculio." 

The  fullowiiig  is  a  conversation  of  some  experienced  fruit-growers  upon 
curculio  remedies,  and  the  character  of  the  insect : 

IIenky  Steele,  a  New  Jersey  nurseryman,  said  that  he  had  prevented 
curculio  by  the  use  of  black  soap  from  the  tallow-chandler's,  dissolved  in 
water  and  much  diluted,  with  which  the  trees  are  syringed  directly  after  the 
blossoms  fall,  after  a  rain,  and  repeated,  if  necessary,  in  consequence  of  being 
washed  off. 

R.  G.  Pardee — A  person  present  assures  me  that  a  neighbor  of  his 
yarded  his  hogs  around  his  plum-trees,  and  that  saved  them  from  the  curcu- 
lio. Mr.  Pardee  said  that  he  thought  that  fresh  cow  or  pig  manure,  dis- 
solved, and  the  water  sprinkled  over  plum-trees,  would  prevent  curculio. 
They  dislike  any  sh-ong-smelling  substances. 

"Wm.  Lawton — You  may  apply  cow  or  pig  manure  raw  to  all  fruits  and 
berries,  but  not  horse  manure  ;  that  never  should  be  used  fresh — make  it  first 
iijto  compost. 

Dr.  Trimble — Tlie  curculio  has  already  commenced  its  ravages  this  spring. 
I  am  also  satisfied  that  the  curculio  stings  the  bark  of  plum-trees  and  pro- 
duces the  disease  known  as  the  black  knot.  I  have  made  a  great  many 
experiments  to  prove  the  insect  identical  with  that  wliich  destroys  all  of  our 
smooth-skinned  fruit.  Tlie  jarring  of  trees  to  shake  off  the  curculio  is  effect- 
ual, but  it  is  an  immense  labor,  as  it  must  be  attended  to  every  day,  and 
some  sunny  days  several  times  a  day.  I  think  that,  unless  some  remedy 
for  this  insect  can  be  discovered,  we  shall  be  unable  to  raise  any  fine  fruit. 
It  is  the  curculio  that  causes  the  disease  in  apples  known  as  gnarly.  Wo 
get  no  good  apples  in  Jersey,  and  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  raise  plums, 
apricots,  or  fine  peaches.  We  import  prunes  from  Germany  cheaper  than 
we  can  make  boxes  to  pack  them  in — the  plums  grow  to  such  perfection  in 
that  country. 

Wm.  Lawton — I  have  removed  bushels  of  black  knots  from  my  cherry-trees 
and  burned  them.  I  found  in  all  these  knots  a  living  worm.  I  destroy  tlic 
common  caterpillar  by  collecting  them  in  the  nests  and  destroying  them. 

Mr.  O.  W.  Brewster,  of  Freeport,  111.,  gave  a  statement  of  his  success  in 
repelling  the  attacks  of  the  curculio  on  his  plums.  Early  in  spring  he  scat- 
tered lime,  which  had  been  mixed  for  whitewashing,  under  his  plum-trees 
once  a  week,  until  the  curculio  quitted  tlie  field.  He  also  scattered  soap-suds 
and  cliamber-lye  under  them  in  liberal  quantity.  He  said,  I  have  twice  tried 
the  same  remedy,  with  complete  success.  I  once  applied  it  to  a  small  tree, 
which  matured  its  whole  crop  ;  several  other  trees  near  it,  which  set  full  of 
fruit,  did  not  ripen  a  specimen.  If  plum-trees  succeeded  with  us  well,  I 
should  have  no  fears  of  the  curculio. 

P.  II.  Perry,  of  Collins  Center,  N.  Y.,  says : 

"  A  gentleman  lately  informed  me  that  he  had  raised  a  good  crop  of  plums 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  219 

simply  by  spreading  a  heavy  coat  of  fresh  horse  manure  on  the  ground  under 
his  trees.  He  said  it  entirely  prevented  the  ravages  of  the  curcnlio,  when 
0  1  their  account  he  had  not  been  able  to  gather  a  crop  of  plums  for  years 
before." 

Solon  Eobixson  read  the  following  letter  from  Dobbs'  Ferry.  The  man 
certainly  can  read,  at  least  he  says  so,  but  we  wonder  how  he  can  own  a  tree 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  curculio,  and  know  so  little  about  it.     He  says  : 

'■  I  have  been  much  interested  in  the  doings  and  sayings  of  the  Farmers' 
Club,  but  in  the  various  debates  before  that  body,  I  have  seen  no  statement 
advanced  concerning  the  habits  of  the  curculio.  I  have  also  read  several 
articles  concerning  its  depredations,  but  I  have  yet  to  learn  whether  it  is  a 
flying  insect,  or  simj^ly  crawls  up  the  body  of  trees.  1  have  several  cherry- 
trees  in  my  garden  of  choice  varieties,  and  I  can  safely  say  that  every  cherry 
was  punctured  by  the  curculio  this  spring. 

"The  trees  are  growing  and  have  just  commenced  bearing. 

"  The  soil  is  sandy. 

"  My  neighbor,  less  than  a  hundred  feet  from  me,  has  escaped  its  ravages. 

"  Does  it  fly  or  crawl  ? 

"  Would  a  barrel  or  trough  similar  to  those  used  on  tlie  elms  of  New 
Haven  be  of  any  service  in  staying  its  ravages  ? 

"  Are  the  worms  in  the  common  black  cherry,  which  is  universally 
inhabited,  produced  by  the  curculio  ? 

"  Is  there  any  remedy  for  this  pest  ?" 

That  question — "  Is  there  any  remedy  for  this  pest  ?" — has  been  answered 
in  every  agricultural  paper  in  the  world,  and  so  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
insect  has  wings,  and  yet  the  writer  of  this  letter  has  not  read  of  it. 

Let  me  ask  another  question  :  "  How  is  it  possible  to  enlighten  people 
who  will  not  read  ?  or,  reading,  will  not  understand  ?" 

Dr.  Trimble — I  am  now  trying  several  experiments  to  prove  that  the 
same  insect  that  stings  the  fruit  makes  the  knots  on  the  limbs.  No  attach- 
ment to  the  bole  of  a  tree  can  be  any  protection  against  a  flying  insect  like 
the  curculio.  The  excrescence  on  the  limb  is  no  more  remarkable  than  the 
insect  that  produces  the  balls  upon  oak-trees.  Dr.  T.  showed  specimens 
of  the  curculio  of  plums,  that  he  had  hatched  out  in  earth  covered  to  pre- 
vent escape,  to  show  that  the  insect  becomes  perfect  from  the  first  laying  of 
6ggs  in  young  plums,  and,  as  he  thinks,  these  perfect  insects  lie  dormant  till 
spring.  The  question  is,  "Where  do  they  hide  themselves  until  the  young 
fruit  is  ready  for  them  to  deposit  their  eggs  ? 

Prof.  Mapes  said  that  a  preparation  called  Persian  Powder  is  said  to  be 
very  effectual  in  destroying  insects. 

"VVm.  S.  Caepentek  thought  that  no  bug-powder  would  rid  a  farm  of  cater- 
pillars.    Something  else  must  be  done. 

Wm.  Lawton  said  that  he  had  cleared  his  farm  of  tent  caterpillars  by 
pulling  down  the  nests  by  hand,  with  all  the  worms  in  them,  when  they  are 
easily  destroyed. 


220  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

Dr.  Tkimble  gave  a  history  of  the  cockchafer,  which  remains  in  the  ground, 
nice  tlie  locust,  four  years,  and  then  comes  forth  in  immense  numbers,  but 
in  the  flying  state.  They  do  not  feed,  and  consequently  do  no  damage  to 
plants. 

In  our  opinion,  the  best  remedy  for  curculio  is  pigs,  poultry,  and  birds. 
We  have  seen  fine  crops  of  plums  grown  in  a  curculio  neighborhood,  in  a 
season  when  these  pests  were  active,  in  a  small  lot  occupied  as  a  poultry -yard, 
in  which  several  pigs  run  at  large.  The  hens  scratclicd,  and  the  pigs  rooted 
the  ground,  and  the  dove-cot  also  had  something  to  do  with  the  matter.  At 
any  rate,  the  barn  was  inhabited  by  swallows,  and  they  catch  flies,  and  per- 
haps curculios. 

251. — Apple  and  Peach  WormSi — Tlie  codliu  moth,  or  apple  moth  {Carpo- 
capm  jwmaiicUa),  is  the  name  of  an  injurious  insect  which  deposits  its  eggs, 
in  June  or  July  evenings,  in  the  calyx  of  the  young  apples,  where  they  soon 
hatch,  and  the  little  worms  eat  their  way  to  the  heart  of  the  fruit,  where 
they  continue  till  ready  to  change  into  the  chrysalis  state.  "  Wormy  apples" 
generally  ripen  prematurely  and  f;dl.  The  worm  is  of  a  reddish  color  when 
fully  grown,  and  ready  to  leave  the  fruit  and  creep  into  crevices  of  the  bark 
to  spin  a  semi-transparent  cocoon,  where  it  changes  into  a  small  chestnut- 
brown  chrysalid,  and  that  produces  a  moth  in  a  few  days,  measuring 
seven  tenths  of  an  inch  across  the  wings,  which  are  of  a  brownish-gray  color, 
crossed  by  many  dark-colored  lines,  with  a  dark,  oval  spot  on  each  wing. 
The  under  wings  are  lighter  colored,  shaded  near  the  margin.  As  a  remedy 
against  this  pest,  it  has  been  recommended  to  wrap  cloths  loosely  around 
the  forks  of  the  trees,  for  a  shelter  for  the  worms  to  form  cocoons,  and  then 
destroy  them.  We  fancy  that  this  remedy  will  cure  but  a  very  small  part 
of  the  evil.  Picking  nji  and  putting  all  wind  falls  where  the  worms  can 
never  see  daylight  will  kill  more  of  them. 

Perhaps  the  best  remedy  for  this,  and  many  other  little  pests,  is  the  Scrip- 
tural one — "  Dig  about  the  tree  and  dung  it."  That  is,  give  it  greater  vigor 
of  growth ;  make  it  more  productive,  so  that  a  portion  of  the  fruit  will  come 
to  maturity  in  spite  of  all  insects.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  most 
vigorous-growing,  thrifty  trees  exactly  correspond  with  thrit'ty  farmers — the 
more  they  have,  the  more  they  gain.  Insects  mostly  attack  the  most 
neglected  trees. 

252.  Peach-Tree  Borcrsi — Tlie  peach-tree  borer  {^i^eria  exitiosa)  is  one 
of  the  greatest  pests  of  the  farm,  because  it  has  almost  blotted  out  of  exist- 
ence this  most  valuable  fruit  in  large  districts  of  the  country.  It  is  believed 
by  most  careful  observers  to  be  the  cause  of  nearly  all  the  diseases  which 
afiect  the  peach-trees,  the  most  visible  of  which  is  *•  the  yellows,"  where  the 
leaves  gradually  take  on  a  yellow,  sickly  appearance  in  midsunimer,  and 
frequently  at  the  age  of  three  or  four  years  show  scarcely  a  green  leaf,  when 
they  should  be  clothed  in  the  richest  green,  and  finally  wither  and  gradually 
perish.  Tlie  epitaph  of  tens  of  thousands  of  peach-trees  all  over  New  En- 
gland, Xew  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania, 


LJ 


I  I 


I  1 


Sec.  13.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  221 

would  be,  "Died  joiiiig — attacked  by  boreis — tbe  disease  exhibited  in  yel- 
low leaves — speedy  death  followed." 

This  boi'ing  worm  is  produced  from  eggs  deposited  at  the  foot  of  the  tree 
by  a  wasp-shaped  moth,  of  a  steel-blue  color,  with  an  orange  ring  about  the 
abdomen.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  placed  in  wounds,  or  between  forks,  bi.t 
generally  in  the  bark,  close  to  the  ground,  where  the  worms  can  easily  pene- 
trate into  and  devour  the  inner  bark  and  wood  just  below  the  surface. 

Sometimes  a  vigorous  tree  will  retain  life  year  after  year,  with  these  worms 
gnawing  at  its  vitals.  Sometimes  the  tree  is  girdled  and  destroyed  in  a  single 
summer.  There  appears  to  be  a  succession  of  broods  in  a  single  season.  In 
the  latitude  of  New  York  city,  the  moths  come  out  in  June  and  July.  Nec- 
tarines and  apricots  are  also  attacked  by  the  same  insect.  The  plum  wood 
appears  too  hard,  and  peaches  engrafted  on  plum  stocks  sometimes  succeed 
where,  if  upon  their  natural  roots,  they  would  never  bear  fruit.  Tliese 
borers,  when  full-grown,  are  about  an  inch  long,  colored  yellowish  white, 
with  an  amber-brawn  head.  The  chrysalis  is  brown  ;  it  is  formed  in  a  case 
made  of  the  gnawings  of  the  worm,  which  it  glues  together  around  its  body. 
The  moth  expands  wings  an  inch  across,  transparent  and  veined,  and  bor- 
dered blue  in  the  male,  and  dark  blue  upon  the  female's  upper  wings,  and 
her  body  is  belted  with  orange. 

The  remedies,  as  preventives  or  cures  of  the  peach-tree  borer,  are  numer- 
ous.    Dr.  Harris,  the  great  American  entomologist,  says : 

"  Remove  the  earth  around  the  base  of  the  tree,  crush  and  destroy  the 
cocoons  and  borers  which  may  be  found  in  it  and  under  the  bark,  cover  the 
wounded  parts  with  the  common  clay  composition,  and  surround  the  trunk 
with  a  strip  of  sheathing-paper  nine  or  ten  inches  wide,  whicli  should  extend 
two  inches  below  the  level  of  the  soil,  and  be  secured  by  strings  of  matting 
above.  Fresh  mortar  should  then  be  placed  around  the  root,  so  as  to  con- 
fine the  paper,  and  prevent  access  beneath  it;  and  the  remaining  cavity  may 
be  filled  with  new  or  unexhausted  loam.  The  operation  shoidd  be  performed 
in  the  spring,  or  daring  the  month  of  June,  In  the  winter  the  strings  may 
be  removed,  and  in  the  following  spring  the  trees  should  again  be  examined 
for  any  borers  that  may  have  escaped  search  before,  and  the  protecting  ap- 
plications should  be  renewed.  The  ashe&  of  anthracite  coal  have  also  been 
recommended  to  be  put  into  the  cavities  made  when  the  earth  has  been  re- 
moved from  around  the  trunks  when  searching  for  the  worm ;  and  if  the 
trunks  are  thoroughly  searched  three  or  four  times  a  year,  especially  in  the 
earth  near  the  roots,  and  the  grubs  and  chrysalids  dug  out  and  destroyed, 
these  insects  would  soon  cease  to  be  as  injurious  as  they  are  at  present." 

The  following  conversation  in  the  Farmers'  Club  conveys  some  useful  in- 
formation upon  this  important  subject: 

Solon  Robinson  read  a  letter  from  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Weishampel,  Sen.,  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  upon  the  use  of  hot  water  to  kill  insects  upon  trees.  He  alludes 
to  a  letter  read  here  some  weeks  since,  about  scalding  wheat,  and  then  sa3"s: 

"  This  scalding  process  destroys  the  egg  of  the  fly,  and  the  same  process 


222  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  ,  [Chap.  II. 

has  been  knowu  to  destroy  tlie  eggs  as  well  as  the  grubs  themselves,  that  injure 
the  i)oach,  plain,  and  other  trees  so  greatly.  Scald  the  stem  of  the  tree  well, 
letting  the  hot  water  get  M-ell  into  the  ground  around  the  tree,  where  the 
grubs  do  the  most  harm,  and  a  destruction  of  botii  eggs  and  grub  follows ; 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  scalding  appears  to  add  to  the  vigor  of  the 
trees. 

"An  old  lady  in  Berks  County,  Pa.,  had  a  plum-tree  that  for  many  years 
bloomed  and  brought  forth  crops  of  fruit  till  half  ripe,  and  then  shed  them. 
Siie  often  besought  her  husband  to  remove  the  tree,  but  he  still  pleaded, 
'  Let  it  stand  another  year.'  At  length,  one  spring,  after  she  had  boiled  lier 
soap,  she  heated  the  kettle  full  of  the  refuse  lye  to  a  boiling  degree,  and 
poured  it  all  down  the  stem  of  the  tree,  intending  to  '  scald  it  to  death,'  as 
she  said.  It  soon  blossomed  most  abundantl}-,  and  bore  a  profuse  crop  of 
plums,  which  it  brought  to  the  greatest  perfection,  which  greatly  pleased  the 
old  lady. 

"  This  same  principle  could  be  applied  to  the  destruction  of  every 
kind  of  destructive  insect  upon  the  various  choice  fruit-trees,  either  by  pour- 
ing boiling  water  upon  the  limbs  and  stems,  or  by  conducting  a  stream 
of  steam  through  a  liose  or  pipe,  from  a  movable  boiler,  to  kill  both  eggs 
and  insects. 

"  Chestnuts,  too,  are  very  liable  to  be  worm-eaten.  If  they  were  subject- 
ed to  a  momentary  heating  (wet  or  dry  heat),  to  a  sufficient  degree  to  scald, 
it  would  kill  the  germ  of  the  worm  that  destroys  that  sweet  nut.  And  the 
same  principle  would  also  prevent  all  wood  used  in  building  and  machin- 
ery from  becoming  worm-eaten." 

Prof.  Mapes — I  have  used  it  on  peach-trees,  until  I  have  satisfied  myself 
that  a  peach-tree  can  not  be  injured  by  hot  water. 

Mr.  Caepentek  said  that  lime  was  the  best  thing  he  ever  tried  around 
peach-trees. 

Mr.  "\YuEELER  said  that  lime  will  not  kill  the  grubs  in  the  wood, 

Mr.  Smith,  of  Connecticut — I  have  found  no  remedy  except  manual  labor, 
thougli  wood-ashes  arc  valuable,  and  so  is  lime.  I  have  an  orchard  in  full 
bearing  that  is  fourteen  years  old. 

Prof.  Mapks — I  have  never  found  any  remedy  equal  to  hot  Avater.  It 
cooks  the  worms. 

A  letter  from  East  Wilson,  Niagara  County,  N.  Y.,  says  : 

"A  large  and  interested  community,  comprising  at  least  Jive  thousand 
peach-growers  in  this  county,  ask  for  light.  What  can  be  done  to  stay  the 
ravages  of  the  red-Iieaded  pcach-gruhf  To  dig  him  out  and  kill  him  will 
oidy  insure  an  armistice  for  about  ten  days.  Fresh  wood-ashes  applied  to  the 
trees  only  seem  to  sharpen  his  appetite  for  destruction.  Hundreds  of  orchards 
and  thousands  of  trees  are  dying  from  his  operations.  Tliere  are  half  a 
million  of  peach-trees  in  this  vicinity  suffering  from  this  pest.  Will  tar  pre- 
vent ills  operations?  and  will  it  injure  the  tree?  Can  you  or  any  of  your 
numerous  readers  or  correspondents  tell  us  of  any  specific  which  will  kill 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  223 

the  grub  without  iiijurhig  the  tree?  If  you  can  do  so,  you  will  confer  a 
substantial  favor  upon  many  hundreds  of  your  readers." 

Andrew  S.  Fullle — The  best  remedy  is  to  preserve  the  birds — the  natu- 
ral insect  destroyers.  It  is  their"  decrease  that  has  increased  destructive 
insects. 

Wm.  Lawton  stated  that  he  had  taken  great  pains  to  preserve  birds  around 
his  place,  and  was  now  reaping  the  benefit.  As  to  any  outward  application 
to  kill  the  peach-worm,  he  did  not  know  of  anything  that  would  destroy  it 
without  destroying  the  trees.  If  the  worms  are  dug  out,  and  a  plaster  of 
soft  cow-manure  is  applied,  the  tree  may  recover.  It  is  a  very  tedious 
operation. 

Wrc72S. — ^The  Secretary  advocated  the  cultivation,  or  rather  protection,  of 
wrens  and  insect  destroyers. 

Mr.  FcLLEE  said  that  the  wren  was  a  mischievous  bird,  and  destroyed  the 
eggs  of  other  birds. 

A  letter  from  P.  M.  Goodwin,  Kingston,  Luzerne  County,  Pa.,  says : 

"I  observe  in  the  transactions  of  the  Club  of  July  2,  it  is  thought  that  if 
a  discussion  of  the  topic  of  the  peach-grub  would  elicit  a  remedy,  it  would 
be  universally  entertaining.  My  conclusion  is,  that  trying  to  cure  the  peach- 
grub,  unless  where  the  soil  is  light  and  but  few  are  found,  is  a  humbug.  I 
have  a  preventive,  which  I  will  give  cheerfully  : 

"  When  I  purchased  my  little  place  on  Kose  Hill,  overlooking  a  portion 
of  '  Wyoming  Valley,'  there  wei"e  one  hundred  neglected  peach-trees  thereon 
— budded,  and  of  excellent  varieties — -whicli  were  full  of  grubs.  Early  in 
April  I  commenced  operations  by  carefullj''  clearing  away  the  grubs  by 
means  of  the  knife  and  wire.  I  then  made  a  funnel-shaped  hole  around  the 
base  of  each  tree,  which  would  hold  three  or  four  quarts  of  water.  I  filled 
the  holes  with  boiling  water,  which  effectually  destroyed  the  progeny.  I 
then  filled  the  holes  with  a  tenacious  clay,  and  tamped  it  hard,  leaving  the 
surface  around  the  tree  cone-shaped  and  hard  compacted.  I  have  examined 
these  trees  at  various  times  during  the  intervening  five  years,  and  have  found 
but  one  tree  afiected,  and  that  with  but  two  grubs.  This  mode,  with  me, 
has  acted  as  a  perfect  preventive,  and,  I  have  no  doubt,  will  with  all  who 
adopt  it  and  exercise  the  same  care. 

"These  trees  were  three  or  four  years  old,  and,  at  the  time  the  experiment 
was  made,  much  inferior  to  some  from  the  same  lot  growing  elsewhere, 
which  were  regularly  examined  and  carefully  cleared  of  grubs  in  the  usual 
way.  My  trees  are  sound  in  wood,  and  look  well,  while  the  others  have  dis- 
appeared. 

"  In  planting  peach-trees  now,  I  would  cut  away  the  tap  (not  top)  root 
close  under  where  the  horizontal  roots  put  out.  Having  driven  a  stake  firmly 
for  each  tree,  I  would  plant  it  so  shallow  that  after  the  lieavy  rain  the  upper 
side  of  the  roots  will  become  exposed.  In  this  way  the  trees  are  not  so  liable 
to  become  infested  with  the  grub.  I  planted  some  trees  so  a  year  ago,  and 
find  the  non-appearance  of  the  grub  satisfactory." 


224  SMALL   ANIMALS   AND   INSECTS.  [Chap.  IT. 

R.  G.  Paedek — I  have  tried  the  hot  water  very  often,  and  have  ahva^'S 
found  it  effectual ;  and  I  tliought  that  by  this  time  everybody  liad  lieard  of 
it,  but  if  they  have  not,  I  hope  this  letter  will  be  read  and  remembered. 
Instead  of  clay  I  used  leached  ashes,  as  they  were  more  convenient,  and  they 
answered  a  good  purpose. 

The  Cliairnian  presented  a  new  pest  of  the  peach — a  dark-colored  worm, 
about  an  inch  long,  that  fixes  itself  in  the  foot-stalks  of  the  leaves  and  destroys 
them. 

Wm.  S.  Caepentek — This  insect  discussion  is  one  of  great  importance  to 
farmers.  These  little,  insignificant  things  are  great  -destroyers  of  our  crops. 
What  if  we  could  discover  a  remedy  for  the  bugs  that  eat  up  the  potato  vines, 
or  a  remedy  for  the  effect  of  cold  upon  fruit-trees ;  for  I  have  noticed,  within 
a  day  or  two,  that  the  northerly  sides  of  the  pear-trees  are  blasted  and  turned 
dark  by  the  cold  wind.  The  cold  of  a  day  or  two  in  spring  often  destroys 
many  tender  vegetables. 

It  was  observed  that  cold  nights  sometimes  have  a  beneficial  effect  upon 
fruits,  by  destroying  some  of  the  insects  that  usually  prey  upon  them.  It  did 
in  the  spring  of  1860.  That  season  proved  the  most  productive  of  fruit  of 
any  year  in  the  memory  of  most  young  people.  Of  the  hot-water  remedy 
for  the  peach-grub,  we  speak  from  experience,  that  it  is  the  best  of  all  mc 
ever  knew.  Lime,  too,  has  been  tried  with  good  results.  Hon.  John  M. 
Clayton,  of  Delaware,  assured  us  once,  at  his  house,  that  the  peach-trees  we 
were  then  looking  at,  which  M'cre  so  vigorous,  had  been  treated  with  half  a 
bushel  of  lime,  placed  in  contact  with  the  body  and  upjier  roots,  and  he  be- 
lieved it  would  continue  to  be  a  preventive  of  the  peach-grub. 

253.  Insect  RemedieSt — We  give  the  following  various  remedies  for  insects, 
all  of  which  are  vouched  for  by  good  men ;  some  believing  one  infallible, 
and  some  another. 

The  following  wash  is  recommended  for  all  sorts  of  trees,  as  a  preventive 
remedy  against  caterpillars,  etc. :  Potash,  20  lbs. ;  air-slacked  lime,  half  a 
bushel ;  sifted  wood-ashes,  half  a  bushel ;  fresh  cow  dung,  half  a  bushel, 
^lix  in  water  enough  to  be  of  the  consistence  of  whitewash.  Scrape  off  the 
rough  bark,  and  rub  the  wash  in  well  with  a  brush. 

Caustic  soda  loash  is  one  of  the  best  things  we  ever  saw  applied  to  a  fruit- 
tree.  It  will  make  the  bark  as  smooth  as  if  wax-polished.  It  leaves  no 
harbor  for  insects  nnder  pieces  of  dead  bark.  It  is  made  by  heating  tiio 
common  sal-soda  red  hot  in  any  old  iron  vessel,  and  then  making  a  lye  of  it 
— say  about  one  pound  of  the  salts  to  a  gallon  of  water — and  washing  tlie 
trees  with  a  brush.  It  is  best  to  put  it  on  in  the  spring.  A  piece  of  old 
stove-pipe,  battered  up  at  one  end,  and  stuck  into  one  of  the  stove-holes, 
answers  very  well  to  heat  the  soda  in.  The  wash  should  be  too  caustic  to 
put  your  hands  in,  and,  while  putting  it  on,  it  will  not  be  worth  while  to 
wear  a  fine  broadcloth  coat. 

The  Liijuid  Brimstone  Rcincdij. — M.  Letellier  states  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Paris  Horticultural  Society,  that  a  liquid  formed  by  boiling  63  grains  of  red 


Sko.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  225 

American  potash,  and  the  same  quantity  each  of  flour  of  sulphur  and  soap, 
in  13  pints  of  water,  is  most  excellent  and  efficacious  in  destroying  insects. 
If  it  requires  to  be  stronger,  the  quantity  of  potash  and  sulphiir  may  be 
doubled,  but  the  soap  must  remain  the  same.  Upon  immersion,  the  insects 
— ants,  caterpillars,  cockchafers,  grubs,  etc. — are  instantly  killed,  while  the 
solution  occasions  no  injury  to  plants.  The  liquid  will  destroy  ants  and 
grubs  when  poured  into  their  places  of  resort. 

Preventive  of  Canker-  Worins  from  Apple-Trees. — A  letter  from  Maiden, 
Mass.,  gives  a  most  sensible  plan  for  a  cheap  preventive  of  canker-worms, 
which  climb  the  boles  of  apple-trees : 

"  Take  pine  boards  of  suitable  width  for  four  to  box  a  tree.  Cut  them  in 
pieces  two  feet  long  on  one  edge,  and  four  feet  long  on  the  other  edge.  Nail 
them  together  in  a  box  around  the  tree,  with  four  sharp  points  up.  This  box 
is  to  be  adjusted  about  the  tree  before  the  grubs  come  from  the  ground,  and 
a  peck  of  powdered  lime  or  ashes  thrown  between  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and 
the  inside  of  the  box.  The  caustic  lime  or  ashes  will  destroy  the  grubs  near 
the  tree,  and  the  boxes  will  invite  all  the  grubs  near  them  to  ascend  and  de- 
posit their  eggs.  I  found  the  pinnacles  covered  with  grubs  and  eggs,  and 
the  insects  apparently  contented  with  this  highest  point  as  a  safe  place,  and 
tliere  the  eggs  were  deposited.  1  then  removed  the  boxes  to  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  trees,  and  heard  no  more  from  canker-worms ;  they  all  died 
for  want  of  proper  food." 

Anotlier  plan,  lately  patented,  to  prevent  worms  climbing  trees,  looks  as 
though  it  would  be  efiectual.  A  tin  trough  is  made  in  two  parts,  large 
enough  to  encircle  the  tree  and  leave  a  space  four  or  five  inches  between  the 
trough  and  bole  of  the  tree.  From  the  outside  edge  of  the  trough  a  strip 
of  cloth  extends  all  around,  wide  enough  to  have  its  upper  edge  tacked  to 
the  tree,  by  which  the  trough  filled  with  oil  is  sheltered  from  rain  and  sus- 
tained in  its  place,  so  that  worms  creeping  upward  come  first  in  contact  with 
the  cloth,  and  if  they  crawl  down  that  to  get  around  the  edge  and  so  up  the 
tree,  they  are  caught  in  the  oil,  which,  being  sheltered,  remains  in  good  con- 
dition longer  than  when  exposed.  Now  it  is  au  experiment  worth  trying, 
and  for  which  there  is  no  patent,  whether  a  strip  of  cloth  nailed  around  the 
tree  at  one  edge,  and  having  the  other  extended  six  inches  from  the  bole  by 
a  wire  or  limber  rod,  would  not  answer  the  purpose  without  the  oil-trough. 
The  under  side  of  the  cloth  could  be  coated  M-ith  some  kind  of  pitch  that 
would  not  harden  soon,  being  protected  from  sun  and  rain,  which  would 
etiectually  prevent  the  ascension  of  insects — certainly  much  more  so  than 
the  belt  of  tar  as  it  is  usually  applied. 

Dr.  Trimble,  in  answer  to  the  question,  what  remedy  to  apply  to  this  pest, 
said  that  the  only  remedy  is  the  ichneumon  parasites.  These,  in  their  proper 
time,  will  attack  the  worms  and  destroy  them.  In  the  mean  time,  while 
one  section  of  the  country  is  ravaged,  another  is  extraordinarily  fruitful. 

He  introduced  specimens  of  the  caterpillar  that  preys  upon  the  grapevine, 
to  show  that  it  has  its  parasite,  one  of  which  had  just  emerged  from  the 


226  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  H. 

body  of  the  caterpillar.    This,  he  hoped,  M'ould  prove  a  sufficient  check  to 
the  ravages  of  this  particular  pest. 
254.  Another  Couvcrsatiou  at  the  Club  about  insects. — "Wm.  S.  Caepentee— 

All  classes  of  insects  have  tlicir  favorite  plants,  but  if  these  favorite  plants 
fail,  the  insects  will  take  to  others.  Last  year  I  saw  ailanthus  trees  iu  this 
city  completely  covered  with  a  worm  known  iu  the  country  as  the  canker- 
worm.  The  trees  were  wholly  stripped  of  foliage.  We  are  continually  im- 
porting insects  iu  various  ways.  I  am  told  that  every  banana  stem  contains 
a  worm,  and  some  of  the  same  sort  of  worms  have  been  discovered  preying 
upon  the  quince. 

The  rose-slug  is  easily  killed  by  hand  in  the  after  part  of  the  day,  by  an 
application  of  quassia  decoction,  sprinkled  upon  the  leaves,  as  the  slugs  are 
then  on  the  upper  surface. 

Extra  cultivation,  by  which  the  plants  grow  rapidly,  is  the  best  remedy 
for  squash  bugs. 

Mr.  Pakdee  said  that  the  best  remedy  is  to  expose  the  soil  dug  from 
a  deep  hole  several  days  to  the  sun,  and  then  put  it  back  in  the  hole, 
patting  it  down  solid,  and  then  putting  in  the  seed,  and  covering  it  lightly, 
and  then  spreading  fine  charcoal  over  the  hill. 

Mr.  Fuller—  I  tried  this  charcoal  remed}',  last  year,  most  thoroughly, 
without  deriving  a  particle  of  benefit. 

Mr.  Pakdee — I  have  used  charcoal,  and  was  not  troubled  with  bugs. 
Now  it  is  possible  that,  without  it,  the  plants  would  not  have  been  troubled. 
So,  after  all,  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  charcoal  was  the  preventive,  or 
whether  there  were  no  bugs  to  be  eradicated. 

Mr.  Gakvet — I^have  tried  a  great  many  remedies,  and  have  never  found 
anything  so  good  as  careful  watering,  and  hand  killing  the  bugs. 

E.  G.  Pardee — I  wish  every  man  would  try  the  solution  of  aloes — two 
ounces  to  the  gallon  of  water.  It  is  such  a  bitter  vegetable  that  it  is 
offensive  to  all  insects.  It  may  be  used  just  as  strong  as  it  can  be  made — 
from  one  fourth  to  a  whole  pound  to  the  gallon. 

Mr.  Caepextee — The  canker-worm,  iu  the  northern  part  of  Connec- 
ticut, is  now  ravaging  the  orchards  to  an  extent  that  is  destructive 
to  all  prospects  of  fruit.  On  some  large  orchards  there  are  no  apples — 
in  fact,  nearly  all  the  foliage  of  the  trees  has  been  destroyed.  Can  this  be 
prevented  ? 

Was/ling  Insects  from  Fruit-Trcts. — Mr.  Pardee  read  a  letter  from  Charles 
Lincoln,  of  North  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  which  stated  tliat  he  succeeded  in  saving 
his  plum-trees,  last  spring,  from  insects,  by  washing  them  fi-equently  with 
clear  cold  water,  using  for  the  purpose  a  little  hand  instrument  called  the 
"  hydropnlt." 

Dr.  Trimble  contended  that  all  the  rot  in  plums  is  caused  by  the  sting  of 
the  curculio. 

Mr.  Pardee  thought  that  this  statement  was  incorrect ;  that  plums  fre- 
quently rot  where  there  are  no  curculio.     He  said,  thirty  years  ago,  at  Seneca 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  227 

Falls,  there  was  no  curculio  to  disturb  the  plum,  and  we  grew  great  crops, 
and  sometimes  nearly  all  on  a  tree  rotted,  almost  all  at  once. 

Geisharsfs  Comjwund  for  Insects. — P.  B.  Mead  (editor  of  the  Horticul- 
turist) said  that  he  has  tried  the  above  compound  upon  several  kinds  of  in- 
sects, and  found  it  sure  death  to  all  he  had  applied  it  upon.  The  objection 
to  it  is  its  liigli  price — too  high  for  common  use ;  if  it  would  rid  us  of  the 
curculio,  it  would  make  the  j)lums  too  costly. 

John  G.  Beegen — It  is  a  fact  that  we  have  a  prospect  this  year  of  a  larger 
crop  of  plums  than  we  have  had  in  many  years,  and  therefore  persons 
should  be  careful  of  their  liasty  conclusions  about  this  or  that  nostrum 
driving  them  off. 

Mr.  Mead — ^Tlie  preparation  I  mentioned,  dissolved  in  water  and  used  as 
a  syringe  upon  plum-trees,  had  the  effect  to  drive  off  the  curculio,  even  upon 
one  side  of  a  tree,  while  the  other  was  still  infested. 

Remedy  for  Bose-Shtgs. — Geo.  H.  Hite — I  have  found  an  effectual  rem- 
edy against  the  depredations  of  these  pests,  in  sifting  dry  dust  upon  the 
bushes.  It  is  just  as  good  as  snuff,  or  any  other  bug-powder.  Of  course,  it 
wants  frequent  renewal. 

Bark-Lice. — Andrew  S.  Fuller — If  a  tree  is  properly  cultivated,  it  will 
grow  so  vigorously  that  it  will  outgrow  all  bad  effects  from  attacks  of  plant- 
lice. 

Worms  Destroying  Gooseberry  Bushes. — R.  Dixie,  of  Painesville,  Ohio, 
inquires  for  a  remedy  for  a  pest  upon  his  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes. 
He  says  "  they  have  been  stripped  of  their  leaves  entirely,  in  one  summer,  by 
hosts  of  green  caterpillars  or  worms  about  an  inch  in  length — a  number 
of  broods  during  the  season.  What  shall  we  do  to  get  rid  of  the  pests?  I 
have  used  lime  in  powder,  and  dry  unleached  ashes,  without  any  apparent 
beneficial  effect." 

Solon  Roeinson — I  would  try  the  new  preparation  of  "  attenuated  coal- 
tar,"  which  we  have  had  exhibited  here  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder.  So 
for  as  I  have  been  able  to  try  it,  I  have  found  it  particularly  offensive  to 
all  insects. 

A.  B.  Dickinson — If  soft  soap  is  placed  in  the  crotch  of  a  tree,  and  left  to 
work  down  by  the  rain,  it  will  keep  off  all  insects,  even  the  curculio.  Many 
insects  are  kept  away  by  offensive  smells,  which  do  not  kill  them.  Smoke, 
for  instance,  keeps  off  many  insects. 

iVsfe  of  Grapevines  arni  other  PJemts. — Dr.  Trimble — Here  is  a  specimen 
of  tlio  insect  that  curls  the  grape-leaf  Spring  is  the  time  to  look  after  them, 
and  i)!ck  them  off  by  hand  and  destroy  them,  or  they  will  destroy  the  vines. 
Here  is  another  curious  insect  that  infests  the  currant  bushes.  It  is  what  we 
call  lice,  and  these  lice  furnish  food  for  a  colony  of  ants,  by  their  exudation 
of  a  sort  of  sweet  substance.  Here  is  the  worm  that  curls  the  currant-leaf; 
and  here  is  another  curious  insect  that  binds  itself  up  in  a  web  and  a  leaf, 
and  what  is  remarkable,  this  insect  is  itself  full  of  other  insects— parasites 
that  live  upon,  and  in  a  great  measure  destroy  it.     I  wish  that  some  para- 


1  \ 


228  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 


site  could  be  found  to  destroy  the  curculio.  Perhaps  it  may  be  destroyed  in 
time,  as  the  Ilcssian-fly  has  been. 

T/ie  Measuring  Worm. — Solox  Robinson — If  any  one  desires  to  extirpate 
the  worms  that  infest  the  trees  in  our  parks,  now  is  the  time  to  do  it  by  de- 
stroying the  eggs.  Scraping  and  washing  with  potash  is  the  best  protection 
of  the  boles  of  the  trees.  If  we  had  plenty  of  birds  we  should_get  rid  of  the 
worms.  It  is  only  in  cities,  where  there  are  so  few  birds,  that  these  pests 
are  so  troublesome.  Insects  are  the  natural  food  of  all  birds.  Even  the 
domestic  ones  that  we  keep  about  our  homestead  destroy  untold  quantities 
of  pestiferous  insects  that  could  not  be  got  rid  of  in  any  other  way.  The 
greatest  profit  in  keej>ing  poultry  is  the  good  the  animals  do  in  theu-  inces- 
sant pursuit  of  bugs  and  worms,  which,  if  not  destroyed,  would  in  their  turn 
destroy  the  food-plants  that  we  cultivate.  I  know  of  no  contrivance  of  man 
that  will  protect  him  from  insects. 

Mr.  Pardee — In  New  Haven,  trees  have  been  protected  by  zinc  troughs, 
filled  with  oil,  around  the  boles. 

Destroying  Trees  to  Get  Bid  of  Woi^ms. — Andrew  S.  Fuller  stated  that 
the  worms  in  Brooklyn  were  so  bad  that  the  city  councils  were  talking  of 
cutting  down  all  the  trees  in  that  citj',  to  get  rid  of  the  worms. 

Solon  Eoblnson — They  had  better  cut  down  the  boys  who  destroy  the 
birds. 

More  than  forty  years  ago,  the  "  canker-worms"  were  terribly  destrnctive, 
for  several  years,  of  apple-trees  in  Connecticut,  and  attempts  Avere  made  to 
prevent  their  ravages  by  making  a  band  of  tar,  two  or  tliree  inches  wide, 
around  the  bole  of  the  tree.  It  proved  cftectual  while  the  tar  was  soft ;  but, 
unless  renewed  every  day,  and  sometimes  twice  a  day,  the  surface  dried  so 
that  the  worms  crawled  over;  and  I  have  seen  them  so  thick  that  they 
crawled  into  the  tar  and  stuck,  and  then  others  went  over  them,  and  so  oa 
until  they  formed  a  bridge,  and  thus  defeated  tlieir  strong  ojiponent. 

Dr.  Trimble — ^The  lindens  of  Xew  Jersey,  in  former  yeai-s,  have  been  very 
much  affected,  but  tliis  year  tiiey  have  not  been  injured.  I  believe  the  in- 
sect has  been  dctitrovcd  by  parasites,  and  I  hope  it  will  be  in  Brooklyn.  1 
hope  that  no  one  will  think  of  cutting  down  trees  to  get  rid  of  the  worms. 

Origin  of  "  Bug-Poicdtr."' — Tlie  Secretary  stated  that  Lyon,  the  great 
bug-powder  man,  has  gone  home  to  Europe,  worth  an  immense  sum,  and  it 
is  now  published  tliat  tlie  ])owder  is  made  of  a  common  French  tield-plant 
of  a  species  of  the  (;hamomile. 

All  the  eflective  insect  powders  now  offered  for  sale  owe  their  eflBciency 
to  red  chamomile.  It  is  sold  by  some  of  tlie  druggists.  Hub  it  to  a  fine  dust, 
mix  it  with  some  cheap  divisor,  and  it  is  the  best  insect  powder  known. 
"When  dusted  into  the  cracks  and  corners  of  ceilings,  etc.,  out  walk  the 
cockroaches  and  all  other  intruders  without  fail.  Dust  the  affected  plants, 
and  you  may  keep  them  clear  of  insects. 

Mons.  P'ldiguet  states  to  the  Society  of  Agricnltnre,  Paris,  that  the  p[ant 
known  as  "  Whiteflower  Margaret"  (Chrysanthemuvi  cuanthemum),  used  as 


Sec.   12]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  229 

a  decoration,  is  very  destructive  to  insect  life.  Tliis  plant  is  not  a  native  of 
tliis  country,  but  is  cultivated  here,  iind  can  be  easily  multiplied. 

Disease  of  the  CoJf\e-Trcc. — Dr.  Montague  stated,  at  a  meeting  of  tlie 
Society,  that  a  disease  has  attacked  the  cofl'ee-trees  of  Ceylon,  similar  to  the 
oidiuiii  of  the  grapevines.  The  same  disease  has  been  observed  in  the  West 
Indies.  Olives  and  mulberries  are  attacked ;  insects  are  observed  upon 
them,  something  like  the  cochineal  insect.  There  is  also  an  exudation  of  a 
sweet  gum  that  attracts  insects.  Milk  of  lime  and  purin — an  extract  of 
manure — are  used  as  a  preventive. 

Ailanthus,  as  a  food  for  silk-worms,  has  been  used  in  France  with  success. 

Kerosene  Oil  for  Insects. — Wm.  G.  Le  Due,  of  Hastings,  sends  us  a  rem- 
edy for  caterpillars  and  other  insects,  easily  applied.  It  is  kerosene  oil. 
lie  says : 

"Finding  some  large  nests  of  caterpillars  on  my  plum-trees,  I  took  a  can 
of  illuminating  oil,  as  it  is  called,  and  applying  a  few  drops  (sufficient  to 
f  aturatc  the  web  of  the  nest),  found  that  it  worked  like  a  charm.  It  is  in- 
stant death  to  the  vermin.  Cai-e  should  be  taken  not  to  apply  it  to  the 
leaves  of  the  plant  or  tree,  as  they  will  be  scalded  at  once.  I  have  but  little 
doubt  that,  in  the  hands  of  your  careful  experimentalists,  it  will  prove  of 
value.  The  coarser  oils  of  coal  will  no  doubt  be  equally  efficacious  in  many 
instances.  I  may  as  well  mention  here,  also,  that  I  have  found  kerosene  oW 
a  most  excellent  diluent  of  printers'  ink,  which  I  use  in  mj  flouring-mill  for 
stencil-plate  marking.  It  would  be  a  thorough  cleanser  of  tj'pe,  though,  per- 
haps, not  so  cheap  as  potash." 

Coal-Tar  for  Insects. — Prof.  Mapes — "We  are  very  free  of  destructive  tree 
insects,  this  year  (1S60),  in  New  Jersey,  but  have  a  tair  show  of  other  pests  of 
the  farm  and  garden,  and  wo  are  obliged  to  resort  to  some  remedy.  We  can 
not  grow  early  turnips  witlioiit  using  something  to  keep  the  insects  off,  and 
I  am  glad  that  the  necessity  stimulates  invention  to  assist  farmers  in  the  de- 
struction of  these  pests.  I  have  lately  tried  one  called  "  attenuated  coal- 
tar,"  and  find  it  effectual.  It  is  likely  to  be  a  very  valuable  aid  to  fruit- 
growere  and  gardeners.  It  is  in  the  fiu'm  of  powder,  and  wherever  sprinkled 
upon  insect-infested  plants,  tlio  insects  leave  at  once.  It  is  coal-tar  mixed 
with  some  substance  so  as  to  reiaiu  all  its  odor,  and  yet  remain  in  the  form 
of  a  dry  powder. 

Mr.  Lawton — The  Black  Tartarian  is  a  good  sort  of  cherry,  but  I  prefer 
the  Black  Eagle ;  it  is  a  very  hardy  variety,  and  very  productive.  The  En- 
glish Morello  is  an  acid  cherry,  and  the  tree  very  free  from  insects.  We 
have  not  had  a  rose-bug  with  us  this  year. 

Solon  Kobinson  stated  that,  only  five  miles  from  Mr.  Lawton,  the  rose- 
bugs  infested  his  cherry-trees  by  myriads,  destroying  more  than  half  the 
fruit.  Mr.  R.  inquired  of  Mr.  Lawton  what  it  was  that  ate  his  cherry-leaves, 
if  it  was  not  rose-bugs,  as  they  were  evidently  eaten  by  some  insect,  and  if 
coal-tar  or  anything  else  will  prevent  their  ravages,  it  should  be  extensively 
known. 


230  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

Whishjfor  Ants. — Win.  Davis,  of  ilarengo,  Morrow  County,  Ohio,  otfers 
the  following  plan  for  i)rotL"cting  fniit-trees  from  ants,  which,  lie  says,  have 
killed  many  trees  for  him.  It  is  the  same  plan  pursued  in  this  city  to  make 
loafers,  and  then  get  rid  of  them — that  is,  feed  them  with  whisky  and  make 
them  drunk,  and  then  wipe  them  out.     He  says : 

"  Mix  wiiisky,  molasses,  and  water,  in  equal  parts,  and  fill  a  tumbler  about 
two  thirds  full,  and  set  it  partly  in  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  infested 
by  auts.     Wlicn  it  gets  full  of  the  drunkards,  scoop  them  out  and  kill  them." 

We  suggest  feeding  them  to  fowls. 

Do  Worms  liain  Down? — A  person  at  Angola,  Ind.,  who  notices  that  the 
Club  talks  about  all  sorts  of  miscellaneous  matters,  wants  us,  in  the  absence 
of  more  important  questions,  to  talk  about  this :  "  Do  fish,  worms,  and  small 
toads,  such  as  are  often  seen  after  a  shower,  in  places  where  it  appears  they 
must  have  fallen  with  the  rain,  actually  come  from  the  clouds?" 

Dr.  Watehbuky  replied — They  do  not ;  it  is  one  of  the  popular  erroi-s 
which  are  so  hard  to  eradicate. 

The  Locust  Question. — A  long  discussion  ensued  upon  the  locust  question 
between  Professor  Mapes,  Professor  Nash,  Wm.  Lawto'n,  Wn;.  E.  Prince, 
Dr.  Trimble,  and  Andrew  S.  Fuller,  about  the  habits  of  the  seventeen-year 
locust,  which  appeared  in  great  numbers  in  the  summer  of  1800,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  New  York.  Every  schoolboy  of  any  pretension  should  read  all  about 
these  locusts,  and  study  tlicir  natural  history.  Wherever  they  appear,  try  to 
learn  their  habits,  and  wliether  they  do  injury  to  plants,  either  above  or  be- 
low the  surfiice  of  the  earth. 

Prof.  Mapes  exhibited  the  effects  upon  branches  punctured  by  the  females 
to  lay  their  eggs,  he  still  thought  without  permanent  injury  to  the  trees. 

Wm.  R.  Pkince  declared  the  whole  theory  of  the  seventeen-year  locusts  a 
humbug. 

Prof.  Nash  thought  they  return  in  some  localities  in  thirteen  years,  and 
inquired  if  the  nature  of  the  soil  had  any  eflect  upon  their  maturity. 

Varieties  of  the  Locust. — ^Anduew  S.  Fulleu^AVc  have  maiiy  varieties 
of  what  are  called  locusts,  among  which  arc  the  Cicada  Sejytemdeeiin,  Cicada 
Canicidaris,  Cicada  liimosct,  Cicada  Marginata,  Cicada  Suj>erba,  Cicada 
liobertsonia,  and  perhaps  several  others.  The  habits  of  these  are  well 
known,  and  have  been  for  many  years.  The  seventeen-year  locust  has  ap- 
peared regularly  every  seventeen  years  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  as  is 
well  attested  by  numerous  Mn-iters  upon  natural  history. 

Dr.  Tkimblk,  of  New  Jersey,  gave  a  lengthy  lecture  upon  the  locust,  show- 
ing how  the  insect  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  limbs  of  almost  every  variety  of 
trees.  A  great  number  of  these  twigs  were  distributed  among  the  company, 
to  show  the  curious  manner  in  which  these  eggs  are  deposited. 

This  peculiar  insect  appears  once  in  seventeen  years  ;  but  the  year  of  its 
appearance  differs  in  every  part  of  the  country.  In  1S55  it  infested  south- 
ern Illinois.  In  1800,  1817,  and  1834  the  trees  of  Delaware  and  Maryland 
were  literally  covered  by  them ;  and  in  1843  many  of  the  river  counties  on 


Sec.  12.] 


ENTOMOLOGICAL. 


2ai 


the  Hudson  were  infested  with  the  CieadaB.  Tlie  male  insect  has  a  pair  of 
drums  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and,  when  infesting  an  orchard  or  woods, 
the  noise  is  frequently  so  great  that  no  conversation  can  be  heard  in  the 
vicinity.  The  insect  appears  about  the  25th  of  May,  and  remains  six  weeks. 
The  female  is  armed  with  an  ovi_positor,  with  which  she  inserts  her  eggs  in 
the  smaller  portions  of  limbs  of  fruit-trees,  oaks,  chestnuts,  etc.,  always 
selecting  new  growth,  of  an  eighth  to  a  qxiarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Tlie  incisions,  about  twelve  in  number,  are  made  at  an  angle  of  forty  to  fifty 
degrees,  with  an  egg  in  each,  and  sometimes  the  twig  is  girdled  near  the 
eggs,  so  that  when  the  end  of  the  twig  dies  it  falls  to  the  ground,  and  the 
eggs  ai'e  carried  in  by  dews  and  rains.  Miss  Morris,  of  Germantown,  Pa.,  a 
Avell-known  entomologist  of  close  observation,  claims  that  she  found  them 
attached  to  the  roots  of  pear-trees. 

"  While  plowing  at  our  place,  May  10,  these  insects  were  thrown  out  in 
large  quantities.  Tlie  holes  through  which  they  ascend  in  the  soil  may  be 
traced  to  a  depth  of  four  feet  or  more.  This  locust  is  not  to  be  dreaded,  as 
they  do  but  little  liarm ;  are  not  known  to  feed,  and  the  shortening-in  of 
limbs  by  the  depositing  of  their  eggs  may  give  a  useful  hint  to  those  who 
do  not  understand  the  benefits  of  the  shortening-in  process." 

He  also  gave  an  account  of  a  maple-tree  in  Newark,  which  appears  to 
have  a  sort  of  bohun  upas  eflect  upon  flies ;  they  lay  dead  by  tiiousands  under 
this  tree.  * 

Prof.  Mapes  stated  that,  in  plowing  upon  his  farm  near  Newark,  in 
May,  the  seventeen-year  locusts  were  turned  up  in  vast  quantities. 

Dr.  TEnnjLE  stated  that  this  insect  does  not  consume  vegetation.  They 
are  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  waiting  for  the  right  condition  of  the 
temperature  to  issue  forth.  Seventeen  years  ago  these  insects  came  forth  on 
the  25th  of  May,  and  immediately  commenced  their  musical  notes.  They 
remain  about  six  weeks  above  ground,  eating  nothing.  The  injury  they  do 
vegetation  is  by  puncturing  the  limbs  to  deposit  their  eggs.  This  kills  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  The  apple-tree  and  elm-trees  are  favorite  trees  with 
these  seventeen-year  locusts.  The  time  of  their  appearance  varies  in  differ- 
ent localities.  This  is  tlie  year  for  all  this  vicinity  and  up  the  Hudson  River. 
My  opinion  is  that  the  life  of  the  insect  is  sustained  under-ground  by  attach- 
ing to  the  roots  of  plants.     Tlie  limb  selected  for  puncture  is  always  small. 

Tlie  Secretary  stated  that  the  size  of  the  limb  punctured  is  not  usually  over 
an  eighth  of  an  inch. 

Mr.  Dodge  stated  tliat  the  locusts  were  very  plentiful  on  Long  Island  five 
years  ago,  and  that  he  has  seen  them  every  year  in  this  city. 

Prof.  Mapes  thought  that  these  fellows  would  be  a  little  too  much  for 
"  insect  powder."  Still,  he  had  received  great  benefit  from  one  called  the 
"  Persian  Powder."  That  will  enable  me  to  grow  early  turnips,  and  it  will 
kill  caterpillars. 

Mr.  Gale — In  1809,  in  Orange  County,  the  locusts  were  plentiful  enough 
to  allow  me  to  gather  bushels  of  them,  and  the  apple-trees  were  covered. 


233  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  U. 

The  only  injury  was  to  the  small  twigs.  Wheat-fields  were  covered,  but  not 
inj  ured. 

Andrew  S.  Fuller — In  1855  (lie  locusts  were  very  abundant  in  Illinois, 
and  came  forth  out  of  heavy  clay  land,  from  more  than  four  feet  in  depth, 
in  oak  forests.     They  appeared  to  prefer  the  oak-trees. 

The  Chairman  stated  that  he  had  observed  their  preference  for  oak  in  some 
instances,  but  upon  the  whole,  he  thought  they  had  very  little  care  for  any 
particular  sort  of  trees. 

Dr.  Triiible  thought  the  chestnut  was  their  favorite.  I  found,  yesterday, 
the  eggs  of  the  locust  are  beginning  to  hatch,  and  the  young  insect  is  as 
perfect  in  shape  as  the  old  ones,  of  a  pure  white  color,  and  no  larger  than 
one  of  the  eggs. 

Habits  of  Grasshoppers. — A  Goliad  correspondent  of  the  Colorado  (Texas) 
Citizen  gives  some  curious  facts  in  relation  to  the  grasshoppers  which  have 
recently  swarmed  in  that  region.     He  says : 

"They  have  an  especial  fondness  for  wheat  and  cotton,  but  don't  take  so 
kindly  to  corn.  The  only  vegetable  they  spare  is  the  pumpkin.  Tlie  most 
deadly  poisons  have  had  no  effect  upon  them  ;  fumes  of  suljihur  they  rather 
like  than  otherwise ;  musketo-nets  they  devour  greedily ;  clothes  hung  out 
to  dry  they  esteem  a  rarity  ;  blankets  and  gunny-bags  they  don't  appear  to 
fancy.  Tliey  swim  the  broadest  creeks  in  safety,  sun  themselves  a  while, 
and  then  go  on.  T!ie  whole  mass  appear  to  start  and  move  at  the  same 
time,  traveling  for  an  hour  or  two,  devouring  everything  in  their  way,  and 
then  suddenly  cease,  not  moving  perhaps  for  a  week,  during  which  time  no 
feeding  is  noticed  ;  and  finally,  they  carefully  avoid  the  sea-coast." 

Grosshopptr  Parasites. — Solon  Kobinson — I  have  a  letter  from  L.  B. 
Rice,  Middlebury,  Vt.,  inclosing  sj^ecimens  of  grasshoppers,  showing  a  para- 
site that  is  preying  upon  them,  wliich,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  help  to  annihilate 
this  pest.  This  parasite  is  a  small  red  insect,  which  attaches  itself  to  the 
grasshopper  just  under  the  wing. 

255.  Cankf  r-Worm  Preventives.— The  following  letter  to  the  autlior,  from  a 
Kew  York  city  friend,  is  worthy  of  attention  by  all  whose  trees  are  eaten  by 
worms : 

"  Sir  :  Your  recent  discussions  upon  the  canker-worm,  which  is  so  seriously 
devastating  the  foliage  of  the  city,  stir  me  up  to  lay  before  your  readers  the 
information  which  some  years  of  careful  observation  have  enabled  me  to 
gain  respecting  this  pest  of  our  neighborhood.  I  do  this  the  more  because  I 
notice  some  suggestions  in  your  conversations  whicli  look  to  the  adoption 
of  remedies ;  and  before  any  remedy  is  tried,  it  is  essential  that  we  have 
some  assurance  that  it  will  be  effectual. 

"  I  was  a  student  in  New  llavcn  at  the  time  when  the  ravages  of  the  in- 
sect were  so  severe  in  that  city,  and  witnessed  the  e.xtreme  desolation  which 
the  creature  produced.  The  magnificent  elms  wliich  are  the  glory  of  that 
beautiful  city,  stood  bare  and  wintry  at  the  end  of  June,  with  every  vestige 
of  their  foliage  utterly  consumed.     I  noticed,  and  have  since  repeatedly  ob- 


Sec.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  233 

served,  how  perfect  a  protection  is  afforded  by  tlie  metallic  girdle  winch  you 
describe.  Whether  the  plan  of  a  Mr.  Taylor,  spoken  of  in  the  papers,  is 
an  improvement,  I  am  not  able  to  say. 

"The  whole  merit  of  the  plan,  however,  consists  in  its  adaptation  to  the 
habits  of  the  insect.  Tiie  female — which  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  body 
and  brandies  of  the  tree  before  the  opening  of  the  spring — is  wingless, 
apterous,  as  we  say  in  Entomology  ;  and  being  incapable  of  flying,  is 
effecliially  arrested  by  the  barrier  which  is  presented  by  such  an  open  tube 
encircling  the  tree.  The  protection  is  complete,  the  application  is  easy,  and 
the  remedy  is  effectual. 

"  One  fact,  however,  is  to  be  taken  into  view,  which  effectually  alters  the 
case  with  us.  After  familiar  study  of  our  New  York  insect,  for  several 
years  past,  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  a7i  entirely  different  species,  of  different 
habits  in  many  respects ;  and,  above  all,  different  in  the  one  particular  which 
gives  all  its  value  to  the  ^e\w  Haven  remedy ;  our  species  fulli/  possesses  the 
power  of  flight.  Its  progress,  therefore,  to  the  body  and  limbs  of  the  tree 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  eggs  can  never  be  in  the  least  arrested  by 
any  such  measure  as  your  correspondent  proposes  to  adopt.  Protection  against 
the  worm  in  our  city  can  be  obtained  only  by  the  same  method  by  which 
New  Haven  derived  hers,  viz.,  the  thorough  and  careful  study  of  the  habits 
of  our  own  species  of  insect. 

"  The  very  positive  assurance  of  your  correspondent,  Mr.  Webb,  that '  it 
is  a  law  of  nature  that  all  the  millers  which  produce  the  measuring  worm 
have  no  wings  by  which  they  can  fly  one  inch,'  is  in  the  main  true,  though 
perhaps  rather  strongly  stated ;  but  it  applies  only  to  the  canker-worm  of 
New  England.  Our  species  may  be  seen  flying  abundantly,  botli  males  and 
females,  ascending  above  the  tops  of  our  highest  trees,  and  reaching  the 
large  branches  with  absolute  ease.  After  having  observed  the  whole  process 
very  carefully,  I  am  in  a  position  to  speak  confidently  about  it ;  and  I  beg 
to  assure  your  readers  that  any  attempt  blindly  to  imitate  the  New  Haven 
method  will  only  prove  a  mistaken  and  unprofitable,  because  ignorant, 
attempt.  In  order  to  ascertain  with  greater  certainty  the  truth  upon  this 
point,  I  transmitted  specimens  of  our  New  York  miller,  last  suujmer,  to  Mr. 
E.  C.  Herrick,  the  accomplished  librarian  of  Yale  College,  whose  investiga- 
tions of  the  New  Haven  canker-worm  were  published  at  length,  some  years 
ago,  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  smd  received  from  him  the  assur- 
ance that  my  impression  that  the  two  species  were  entirely  distinct  was  no 
doubt  correct.  Mr.  II.  also  concurred  with  me  in  thinking  that  the  power 
of  flight  possessed  by  the  New  York  moth  would  require  entirely  different 
methods  for  the  prevention  of  its  ravages. 

"  The  one  method  which  ray  observation  has  suggested  as  effectual,  con- 
sists in  thoroughly  scraping  the  tree  after  the  eggs  of  the  moth  have  been 
deposited  upon  it.  The  worm  with  us  does  not,  as  in  New  Haven,  go  into 
the  ground  and  remain  there  till  tlie  winter,  but  goes  through  its  changes  in 
a  very  brief  period.     After  coming  down  from  the  tree,  it  lays  itself  up  in  a 


234  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  H. 

cocoon,  formed  of  a  few  thin  fibers  of  silk,  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark  of  ihj 
trees  which  it  frequents,  or  upon  posts  and  fences  near  the  tree.  There  the 
insect  may  then  be  found,  undergoing  its  change.  After  about  a  fortnight, 
it  comes  forth  in  the  shape  of  a  white  moth,  soincwliat  less  than  an  inch 
long.  At  that  period  our  parks  and  public  squares  are  alive  with  these 
millers;  the  grass  is  studded,  the  paths  covered,  the  air  filled  with  them. 
Any  one  may  easily  satisfy  himself  of  their  power  of  flight  by  a  careful  ob- 
servation of  them.  The  antenure,  or  feelers,  projecting  from  the  head,  are  in' 
the  males  feathered,  or,  entomologically,  pectinated ;  a  row  of  fine  fibers, 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  lines  each  antenna  upon  one  side;  the  females  have 
the  antenna  plain  and  straight ;  and  they  may  also  be  distinguished  by  the 
larger  size  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  distended  by  eggs.  No  diflerence, 
however,  in  the  power  of  flight  will  be  observed  between  the  two  sexes.  On 
coming  out  from  the  cocoon  the  sexes  meet,  and  the  impregnated  eggs  are  at 
once  laid  upon  the  bark  of  the  tree.  They  may  be  seen  in  patches,  varying 
from  a  dozen  to  fifty,  or  even  more — minute,  green  globules,  which  soon  change 
to  a  dusky  gray  or  brown,  scarcely  distinguishable  in  tint  from  the  bark. 
They  adhere  by  a  glutinous  secretion  very  firmly  to  the  tree,  and  remain 
through  the  year  until  the  warmth  of  another  spring  hatches  them  into  life. 

"  At  any  time  after  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  beginning  of  July,  and  before 
they  are  hatched  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  May,  a  careful  scraping 
of  the  tree  will  remove  most  of  them,  and  so  prevent  their  ravages  for  the 
next  summer. 

"  Having  frequent  occasion  to  pass  through  "Washington  Parade  Ground, 
I  have  pointed  out  the  eggs  upon  the  bark  to  the  persons  intrusted  with  the 
care  of  that  spot,  and  the  trees  have  been  sometimes  scraped  in  the  spring, 
with  very  good  results.  This  year  it  was  omitted,  and  the  deserted  shells 
of  the  eggs  of  last  year  may  now  be  seen  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees  so  seri- 
ously injured  by  them  this  summer.  No  other  method  than  this  afi"ords  the 
least  security ;  but  this,  if  faithfully  carried  out  under  any  competent  super- 
vision, can  be  made  entirely  effectual.  The  eggs  remain  for  nearly  a  year 
before  they  are  hatched,  quite  obvious,  and  tolerably  accessible.  A  couple 
of  men  would  in  two  or  three  days  clean  any  one  of  our  parks  of  this  de- 
stroying agent  for  the  next  summer ;  and  careful  attention  for  a  few  years 
throughout  the  city  would  nearly  exterminate  the  pest." 

256.  Garden  and  Field  Crop  Pests.— The  amount  of  damage  done  to  farmers 
every  year  by  bugs  and  worms,  if  it  could  be  exhibited  in  figures  represent- 
ing dollars  and  cents,  would  exceed  the  whole  value  of  the  wheat  crop,  or 
corn  crop,  or  cotton  crop,  and  it  would  not  surprise  me  if  it  exceeded  the 
value  of  all  of  them.  If  we  could  give  certain  preventives  of  the  ravages 
of  any  one  of  the  pests,  we  could  afford  to  devote  much  more  space  than  we 
shall  allot  to  this  head.  But  we  will  urge  farmers  to  give  the  subject  more 
attention.  Buy  the  best  works  upon  entomology,  and  devote  many  a  winter 
evening  to  the  careful  study  of  the  appearance,  character,  and  habits  of  all 


Ssc.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  235 

the  insects  that  consume  your  crops.  Give,  we  pray  you,  good  attention  to 
wliat  we  have.already  said  and  shall  say  in  this  section.  You  can  not  fail 
to  find  sometiiing  that  will  repay  you  well.  You  certainly  will  find  valuahle 
information  in  the  following  paragraph,  written  by  A.  S.  Ilall,  of  Maiden, 
Mass.,  in  May,  1860  : 

257.  Salt  for  the  Onion  Slaggot. — ^Much  has  been  said  and  written  about 
the  onion  maggot,  and  I  don't  know  that  there  is  any  cure  for  him ;  but  I 
will  tell  you  how  I  treated  mine  last  year,  and  with  good  success  for  once, 
and  shall  try  it  again  this  year,  and  will  tell  it  to  you  and  the  farmers  free 
of  charge,  for  I  don't  think  I  could  get  "  $60,000"  for  it  if  1  should  ask  it. 

I  sowed  last  year  in  my  garden,  on  good  soil,  three  rows,  about  thirty  feet 
long  each,  to  onion  seeds.  I  expected  the  maggots,  and  watched  diligently 
their  progress.  When  they  were  first  up  about  one  or  two  inches  high,  I 
put  some  strong  salt  and  water  on  about  three  feet  of  one  row,  to  see  if  it 
would  kill  the  onions,  and,  in  case  it  did  not,  perhaps  it  might  kill  the  mag- 
gots, if  they  came.  The  young  onions  stood  it  well,  and  it  did  not  hurt 
them. 

After  the  onions  had  got  about  as  large  as  a  pail-bail  wire,  there  came 
a  spell  of  warm,  wet  weather,  and  my  onions  began  to  be  affected.  I 
watched  them  several  days,  and  they  grew  worse,  and  were  fast  dying  out, 
for  about  one  in  every  eight  or  ten  were  wilting  and  dying,  and  I  found  a 
maggot  at  the  roots  of  every  one  that  appeared  wilting,  and  sometimes  the 
maggot  was  nearly  as  large  as  the  little  stock  itself,  and  had  eaten  the  bot- 
tom all  away,  and  was  making  its  way  up  the  stem ;  at  the  rate  of  havoc 
they  were  making,  it  appeared  there  would  not  be  one  onion  left  in  the  bed 
at  the  end  of  four  weeks  more.  I  took  a  pailful  of  strong  pickle  from  my 
pork-barrel,  and,  with  a  watering-pot,  put  it  all  on  to  the  three  rows,  as 
though  I  were  watering  them ;  the  onions  never  faltered  or  changed.  The 
salt  killed  all  the  grass,  young  clover,  and  weeds,  except  purslane,  which 
came  up  later,  and  the  maggots  were  entirely  killed,  and  I  never  saw  any 
after,  though  the  flies  continued  to  lay  their  eggs  down  the  side  of  the  little 
plant,  and  between  it  and  the  dirt,  just  as  flies  will  blow  apiece  of  fresh 
meat ;  biit  the  salt  prevented  their  maturing  or  hatching,  and  I  raised  a 
good  crop  of  fair-sized  onions.  I  think  they  did  not  ripen  as  well  as  usual, 
but  I  am  not  convinced  that  the  salt  prevented  them,  for  I  have  often  seen 
patches  remain  as  green  as  mine  were  at  harvest-time. 

I  put  on  two  or  three  slighter  sprinklings  of  brine  after  the  first,  during 
the  summer. 

258.  Essay  on  the  Cat-Worm,— Head  before  the  Chicago  Gardener'' s  Soci- 
ety^ August  Qth,  1860,  It/  Jno.  Periam. — I  acknowledge  my  inability  to  do 
justice  to  this  subject,  from  not  having  given  it  my  attention,  except  in  a 
general  way.  It  is,  nevertheless,  one  which  interests  agriculturists,  and  par- 
ticularly horticulturists,  as  much,  perhaps,  as  any  other  entomological  sub- 
ject with  which  they  have  to  do.  The  farmers,  working  on  a  more  extended 
scale,  using  larger  fields,  and  planting  fewer  varieties  of  hoed  crops,  do  not 


236  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  K. 


notice,  nor  perhaps  suffer  as  much  from  the  ravages  of  these  families  of  tho 
Lepidoptera  as  the  horticulturist  proper.  And  the  great  order  of  iii.sects  to 
which  tliis  class  belongs  are,  jierhaps,  the  greatest  scourge  with  which  the 
worker  in  the  soilTias  to  contend.  According  to  Dr.  Fitch,  the  most  of  this 
species  belong  to  the  genus  Agrotis,  of  the  family  Noctuidffi,  or  Owlet-moths. 
In  England,  the  insects  of  this  genus  arc  named  Dart-moths,  from  a  peculiar 
spot  or  streak  which  many  of  them  have  near  the  base  of  their  fore  wings, 
resembling  the  point  of  a  dart  or  spear,  and  he  says  that  niucli  the  most 
common  species  of  this  genus  in  the  State  of  New  York  can  be  nothing  else 
tiian  the  Gothic  dart,  Agrotis  suhgofhica  of  the  British  entomologists.  They 
are  the  same  which  flit  about  the  lights  in  summer  evenings,  and  are  found 
hid  by  day  within  crevices  and  shutters.  To  show  still  further  the  im[)oi-t- 
ance  of  this  class  of  insects,  I  will  quote  from  Dr.  Harris,  showing  some  of 
tlie  families.  He  has  divided  them  into  three  sections,  called  IJutterflies, 
Ilawk-moths,  and  moths  corresponding  to  the  genera  Papilio,  Sphinx,  and 
riiala^na  of  Linnseus. 

To  the  first  of  these  orders  belong  the  caterpillars  of  our  common  butter- 
flies, many  of  which  are  very  destructive  to  vegetation.  To  the  second  be- 
longs that  class  of  caterpillars  which  infect  the  potato,  the  grapevine,  etc. ; 
the  Algerians,  or,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  Borers,  which  latter  name, 
however,  is  equally  applicable  to  the  larvaj  of  insects  of  many  other  orders. 
The  third  great  section  includes  a  vast  number  of  insects,  sometimes  called 
Millers,  from  their  dusty  covering,  or  Night  Butterflies,  but  more  frequently 
Moths.  Among  these  are  the  Cut-worm,  the  Bee-moth,  and  all  other  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  Lepidoptera  which  can  not  be  arranged  among  the 
butterflies  and  hawk-moths. 

The  most  common  of  the  Cut-worm  tribe  which  have  come  under  my  ob- 
servation the  present  season,  are  the  Stri^jed  Cut-worm,  the  lied-headed 
Cut-worm,  and  the  Black  "Worm. 

The  first  is  of  a  dirty  whitish  color,  inclining  to  brown,  with  darker 
stripes.  Tliis  worm  works  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  may  be  found 
at  any  hour  of  the  day,  if  damp  and  cloudy.  Tiie  red-headed  cut-worm 
has,  as  its  name  implies,  a  red  head,  and  is  of  a  uniform  pale  brown  color, 
and  has  this  season  been  particularly  destructive;  and  as  it  worlvs  under 
gionnd,  it  is  death  to  whatever  it  attacks. 

The  Black,  or  (as  it  is  sometimes  called)  Tiger  worm  may  easily  be  known 
when  seen  by  its  dark,  dull  brown  color  and  black  head.  It  works  under 
ground,  just  below  the  surface,  drawing  the  stems  and  leaves  after  it  into 
its  hole. 

There  arc  a  number  of  others,  among  which  are  the  fiiintly-lined  cut- 
worm and  the  white  cut-worm.  Of  the  latter,  I  have  not  found  a  single 
specimen  this  season,  though  last  j'ear  I  found  several.  They  are  rare,  and 
consequently  do  but  little  damage.  In  this  day  of  patent  discoveries,  any 
one  who  has  plenty  of  monc}'  and  ample  time  to  spend  may  furnish  himself 
with  a  thousandrand-one  nostrums  which  arc  said  to  be  effectual  extermi- 


Sso.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  237 

natom.  Snuff,  strong  liquid  manure,  powder,  charcoal  dust,  etc.,  will  pro- 
feet,  pi-ovided  they  can  find  plenty  to  eat  elsewhere ;  if  not,  they  care  about 
as  much  for  them  as  I  should  about  wetting  my  feet  in  wading  a  brook  for 
my  dinner,  if  I  could  not  get  it  by  any  other  means.  I  am  satisfied  that 
they  might  be,  in  a  great  measure,  exterminated  by  neighbors  joining,  dur- 
ing the  prevalence  of  the  moths,  and  setting  toi"ches  or  building  fires  for 
them  to  fly  into.  I  saved  my  tomato  crop,  the  present  season,  by  having  my 
men  go  over  the  ground  in  the  morning,  soon  after  daylight,  and  pick  up  the 
worms  by  hand.  The  first  morning  we  secured  over  two  thousand  by  count, 
and  the  next  morning  we  gathered  over  a  half  peck  of  them  on  about  an  acre 
and  a  half.  After  that  they  began  to  diminish,  and  in  a  few  days  scarcely 
one  could  be  found.  I  protect  dahlias,  and  other  choice  plants,  by  wrapping 
paper  about  the  stems ;  vines,  by  planting  plenty  of  seed,  and  killing  the 
worms  ;  vine  shields,  if  set  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface,  will  gen- 
erally protect.  I  have  never  succeeded  in  trapping  them  in  holes,  because, 
if  they  fall  into  them,  they  can  dig  out,  if  they  can  not  crawl  out.  The  best 
way  to  protect  against  their  ravages  is  to  plant  plenty  of  seed,  protect  the 
birds,  and  then  help  them  kill  the  worms. 

The  London  Gardeners  Chronicle  says  there  is  a  prospect  of  a  total  de- 
struction of  the  grass  in  the  London  parks,  by  the  grub  of  an  insect  known 
as  "  Daddy  Longlegs,"  which  eats  the  roots  of  the  turf  and  totally  destroys 
it.  "  Various  remedies  have  been  tried  without  success."  Have  any  of 
those  remedies  been  a  heavy  dressing  of  salt  ?  If  not,  it  should  be  tried  at 
once.  And  besides  that,  we  should  like  to  know  what  this  "Daddy  Long- 
legs"  is.  It  can  not  be  our  cut-worm,  that  sometimes  destroys  the  turf  in 
old  meadows ;  and  certainly  it  can  not  be  the  "  Daddy  Longlegs"  of  our  ac- 
quaintance, for  that,  so  far  as  our  youthful  entomological  researches  went, 
was  a  very  harmless  Daddy,  which  had  very  long,  slim,  crooked  legs,  attached 
to  a  round  body,  the  size  of  a  small  pea. 

259.  Wire  Worms.— "A  Young. Farmer"  wants  to  know  what  he  shall  do 
to  get  rid  of  wire  worms.     He  says : 

"  An  old  gentleman  not  far  from  me  says ;  '  Soak  the  seed  over  night  in 
copperas  water,  and  the  wire  worm  will  not  trouble  it.'  Who  knows  whether 
this  is  so  or  not  ?" 

Ah!  who  knows?     Does  anybody  Z,7iow  anything? 

Another  says  soaking  seed  in  a  solution  of  niter  will  prevent  destruction. 
If  so,  how  easily  practiced  !     Again,  who  knows  ? 

Probably  the  best  remedy  against  wire  worms  is  not  to  grow  them.  Keep 
no  old  meadows.  Break  them  up.  Plow  all  your  sod  and  stubble  land  in 
the  fall.  Either  bury  your  worm  seed  too  deep  to  get  out  in  time  in  the 
spring,  or  else  freeze  it  to  death  in  the  winter.  There  is  probably  no  remedy 
equal  to  deep  plowing  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 

Perhaps  we  might  all  learn  useful  lessons  from  nature  if  we  would  more 
carefully  read  her  printed  pages.  For  instance,  one  who  does  try  to  read 
Buch  lessons  says : 


238  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  n. 


"So  far  as  my  observation  goes,  the  wire-worm  is  most  troublesome  in 
seasons  after  a  mild  winter,  or  when  tliere  has  been  a  heavy  coat  of  snow  on 
lh(?  ground  during  winter,  thus  preventing  the  frost  jjenetrating  the  eartii  to 
any  considerable  depth.  Consequently,  the  worms  remain  near  the  surface, 
and  are  not  frozen  to  death  or  driven  so  far  below  the  surface  that  they  must 
starve  before  they  can  return.  Two  successive  crops  of  buckwheat  will 
generally  rid  any  soil  of  wire-worms." 

And  we  add,  so  will  ten  bushels  of  salt  per  acre,  and  every  worm  that  is 
killed  by  it  will  fertilize  a  whole  handful  of  grass.  Salt,  alone,  is  an  e.xcel- 
lent  manure ;  salt  and  lime  still  better,  prepared  according  to  the  formula 
under  the  head  of  "  salt  and  lime  mixture."  Thirty  bushels  of  lime,  in 
powder,  sown  broadcast,  will  destroy  the  worms  in  many  a  field  that  has  been 
almost  barren,  and  make  it  productive  of  fine  crops  of  wheat,  clover,  corn. 

"  How  to  get  rid  of  the  worms,"  is  one  of  the  most  important  questions 
that  a  farmer  can  ask,  and  the  want  of  a  knowledge  how,  is  not  confined  to 
voung  farmers.  Hence,  all  we  say  upon  the  subject  is  worth  treasuring  up 
in  the  great  store-house  of  knowledge,  the  human  mind. 

260.  Worm-KillerSi — A  reliable  South  Carolina  acquaintance,  Col.  A.  G. 
Summer,  of  Pomaria,  declares  that  China  berries  applied  like  manure  to  soil 
will  expel  all  grubs  and  worms.  "China  trees"  are  as  common  all  over  the 
South  as  locust  or  ailanthus  here,  and  they  are  very  fruitful,  the  berries  resera- 
hling  small  cherries  in  size,  and  pulp  surrounding  a  hard  seed.  Only  a  few  years 
ago,  the  fact  v»'as  discovered,  rather  accidentally,  that  the  wood  of  this  tree 
would  bear  a  high  polish,  and  that  furniture  made  of  it  was  as  strong  and 
handsome  as  that  of  some  of  our  most  expensive  imported  woods,  and  that 
its  natural  pleasant  odor,  like  that  of  cedar  or  camphor  wood,  remains,  and 
is  a  great  preventive  of  moths.  The  botanical  name  of  the  "  China  tree"  is 
Mdia  azedaraeh',  sometimes  called  the  great  Indian  lilac.  It  is  a  hot- 
house shrub  here ;  at  Charleston,  it  grows  fifty  feet  high,  and  is  a  beautiful 
shade-tree,  its  greatest  objection  being  its  abundance  of  berries  falling  upon 
the  ground,  notwithstanding  which  it  is  a  great  fixvorite  in  all  the  most 
Southern  States,  and  its  berries,  if  of  any  value,  could  be  had  here  at  a  small 
price. 

261.  Tobacco-WormSi — These  destructive  pests  of  the  tobacco-planter,  it 
is  well  known,  can  be  subdued  with  a  flock  of  turkeys  better  than  in  any 
other  way.  As  both  turkeys  and  worms  are  large,  the  operation  can  be  seen 
and  appreciated ;  yet  we  have  no  doubt  that  a  flock  of  wrens  do  just  as 
much  toward  the  destruction  of  some  other  family  of  worms,  and  really 
eflect  as  much  good  to  the  farmer.  And  so  of  every  other  class  of  birds. 
Cultivators  of  other  crops  ought  to  take  lessons  from  the  tobacco-growers. 
The  first  glut  of  worms,  in  July,  is  easily  subdued  by  the  turkeys,  while 
tobacco  is  small,  and  the  worms  are  doing  but  little  damage.  The  trouble 
comes  in  August,  but  the  destruction  of  the  worms  a  month  sooner  may  save 
the  crop. 

Mr.  Wm.  Sheppard,  of  Ann  Arundel  Co.,  Md.,  has  been  very  successful 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  239 

iu  jjoisoning  the  moth  that  produces  the  tobacco-worm,  by  the  use  of  cobalt 
— a  quarter  of  a  pound  to  a  half  pint  of  water.  This  is  made  quite  sweet 
witii  refined  sugar,  and  the  mixture  is  put  into  a  small  bottle,  with  a  quill  in 
the  cork,  and  two  or  three  drops  through  the  quill  deposited  in  the  blossom 
of  the  Jamestown  weed,  or  in  the  blossom  of  the  tobacco-plants.  The  horn- 
blower  will  suck  the  jjoison  till  he  dies. 

The  trumpet  blossoms  of  the  Jamestown  weed  are  favorite  resorts  of  the 
moth,  and  arc  gathered  fresh,  and  fastened  to  the  tobacco  plants,  or  upon  sticks 
set  through  the  field.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  grow  the  weed  on  purpose 
for  traps. 

The  cobalt  is  the  same  black  powder  often  sold  by  druggists  as  "fly 
poison."  It  should  be  reduced  in  a  mortar  to  a  fine  powder  before  using. 
It  is  worth  while  to  try  it  for  other  insects,  placing  it  upon  plates  in  their 
haunts. 

Mr.  Sheppard  thinks  any  planter  may  protect  himself  against  the  tobacco- 
worm  with  this  poison. 

John  G.  Bergen,  of  Long  Island,  stated  to  us,  in  the  spring  of  1860,  that 
he  had  been  obliged  to  send  all  his  laborers  into  his  tomaio-field  to  kill 
worms  that  are  destroying  the  plants  and  young  fruit.  He  thinks  it  identical 
with  the  tobacco-worm,  having  grown  tobacco  a  few  years  ago  and  been 
troubled  with  the  same  kind  of  M-ornis.  One  of  Mr.  B.'s  neighbors  told  us 
afterward  that  the  worms  were  not  only  very  troublesome  on  the  tomato- 
vines,  but  were  eating  the  potato-vines  ravenously. 

Tlie  New  Haven  Courier  said  the  potato-vines  in  that  State  were  being 
eaten  by  worms,  so  as  to  destroy  the  prospect  of  a  crop,  and  these  worms, 
we  judge,  are  the  same  kind  as  those  on  Long  Island. 

In  this  city,  worms  have  been  for  years  destroying  the  trees ;  none  but 
the  ailanthus  escapes  them. 

Is  it  not  worth  while  to  try  to  poison  the  insects  while  on  the  wing,  in  the 
way  indicated  above,  or  some  other  way  ? 

The  Jamestown  weed  mentioned  above,  we  take  to  be  the  same  weed  that 
grows  along  many  New  England  waysides,  called  "  Jimson  weed,"  or  "  stink- 
weed."     It  is  the  Datura  stramonium. 

262.  Bug  Remedies. — Here  is  a  good  one !  "We  haven't  a  doubt  as  to  its 
efficacy — not  one !  try  it.  A  correspondent  says :  "  I  have  seen  many  plans 
recommended  for  removing  and  keeping  bugs  and  other  insects  from  vines, 
and  among  them,  snuff,  soap,  mustard,  etc.,  all  or  any  of  which  articles 
must,  in  my  opinion,  more  or  less  injure  the  plant.  I  have  found  this  the 
case  from  experience ;  and  I  have  also  found,  by  the  same  means,  that  the 
best  preparation  for  this  purpose  is  a  cold  and  very  strong  decoction  made 
with  water  and  manure  from  the  henroost  and  cow-yard,  and  applied  morn- 
ing and  evening.  The  insects  do  not  relish  this  preparation,  while  the  plants 
to  which  it  is  applied  do." 

Another  one  sa^-s :  "  I  preserved  my  vines  last  year  from  the  ravages  of 
the  striped  bugs  by  placing  little  wads  of  cotton,  saturated  with  spirits  of 


2i0  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

turpentine  among  the  vines  ne;ir  the  roots,  using  care  to  have  them  not  touch 
the  vines.     The  turpentine  should  be  renewed  from  to  time." 

Another  says:  "These  pests  of  the  vines  may  be  easily  got  rid  of  by 
building  a  fire  of  light  wood  that  will  blaze  freely  in  the  evening.  All 
insects  fly  into  a  blaze,  and  are  thus  destroyed  in  myriads." 

It  is  recommended  by  J.  M.  Dlmond,  of  Eaton  Co.,  Mich.,  to  plant  in  the 
s:imG  hill  with  summer  squashes  or  melons,  etc.,  some  seeds  of  the  winter 
scpiash,  such  as  have  the  largest  succulent  leaves.  He  says  the  bugs  will  not 
molest  the  smaller  vines  under  such  circumstances.  When  danger  from 
bugs  has  ceased,  then  the  plants  can  be  removed. 

Another  one  gives  the  following  as  a  sure  specific  for  bugs  on  vines: 
"  Having  seen  by  your  paper  that  many  truckers  in  your  section  are  anxious 
to  ascertain  a  simple  and  sure  remedy  to  destroy  bugs  on  squashes,  cucum- 
bers, and  the  like,  I  will  give  you  one  which  is  almost  a  specific,  and  within 
the  reach  of  every  one,  especially  those  living  on  the  sea-board. 

"  Procure  fresh  fish — of  any  kind  whatever,  the  commonest  and  cheapest 
just  as  good — a  sufficient  quantity  according  to  circumstances,  say  one  peck 
to  a  barrel  of  water.  Let  them  stand  therein  a  day  or  two,  in  order  to  com- 
mence decomposition  and  emit  their  7iecessarily  unpleasant  odor;  then 
dampen  the  leaves  with  the  liquid. 

"  In  addition  to  driving  away  the  bugs,  your  plants  will  become  green  and 
healthy,  and  soon  grow  beyond  the  reach  of  any  future  swarm  of  depreda- 
tors. It  may  be  necessary  to  use  the  water  two  or  three  times  in  the  course 
of  two  weeks,  but  remember  that  every  application  is  equivalent  to  a  dress- 
ing of  manure,  which  will  amply  repay  for  the  labor,  which  is  very  trifling. 
Fresh  fisli  offal  is  of  equal  value  with  the  fish."' 

263.  Potato  Bugs* — It  is  quite  as  useful  to  i-eport  failure  as  success  in 
farming.  AVe  are  therefore  obliged  to  Horatio  J.  Cox,  of  Zanesville,  Ohio, 
for  telling  us  that  he  tried  powdered  lime,  and  also  ashes,  sifted  upon  his 
potato  vines  to  prevent  them  from  being  eaten  by  the  potato  bugs,  but  ho 
found  them  at  work  as  usual,  with  their  backs  white  with  lime.  His  con- 
clusion, therefore,  is,  that  that  is  no  remedy  against  the  depredations  of  these 
pests.  He  remarks  that  "  there  arc  two  kinds  working  in  concert,  but,  from 
my  observation,  keeping  up  separate  breeds — the  black  shell  and  the  striped 
shell ;  the  latter  is  more  active  than  the  other,  and  not  quite  so  plump." 

A  French  paper  gives  an  opinion  that  nearly  all  the  diseases  of  plants, 
including  potato-rot,  are  occasioned  by  insects.  The  insects,  in  many  cases, 
are  microscopic.  The  little  aucaris,  for  instance,  although  so  very  minute, 
is  a  great  destroyer.  It  causes  little  scabby  pustules  upon  fruits,  particularly 
fine  pears. 

Whether  the  potato  bug  always  found  on  the  diseased  vines  is  the  cause 
or  eflfect  of  the  disease,  is  a  mooted  question. 

Although  Mr.  Cox  did  not  stop  tlieir  depredations,  we  still  recommend 
liberal  dressings  of  ashes  and  plaster,  and  if  these  do  not  kill  the  bugs,  they 
will  give  the  vines  a  vigorous  growth.     So  with  lime  and  salt. 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  241 

204.  Protection  of  Tlirnips. — Tlie  following,  from  an  English  newspaper,  is 
equally  wortliy  of  attentiou  in  America : 

"In  the  list  of  patents  lor  wliich  provisional  protection  has  been  taken 
out  is  a  machine  of  a  novel  and  somewliat  curious  character.  The  speciiica- 
tion,  as  taken  from  the  list,  describes  tlie  machine  as  a  'blast  drill,'  the 
object  of  which  is  to  protect  tiie  turnip  crop  from  the  ravages  of  the  fly  and 
the  slug,  and  its  other  numerous  enemies,  and  secure,  as  far  as  human  inge- 
nuity can  accomplish  it,  this  most  valuable  of  all  bulbous  I'oots.  The  com- 
mon practice  of  protecting  the  turnip  from  the  fly  is  by  dusting  the  row  with 
lime  during  the  night  and  while  the  dew  is  upon  the  plant.  Tliis  operation 
is  difhcult,  and  imperfecily  performed.  Besides  the  slow  process  of  doing 
tliis  by  liand,  the  ditficulty  of  dusting  the  under  side  of  the  plant  as  well  as 
the  top  side  ofi'ers  an  insuperable  objection  to  tliis  mode  of  ajtplying  lime, 
soot,  or  any  otlicr  compost,  to  the  young  turnip-plant.  This  difficulty  is  now 
overcome,  and  the  lime  (a  mixture  of  one  sixth  of  soot  with  it  is  recom- 
mended) is  thrown,  by  means  of  a  l)last  fan,  upon  every  part  of  the  plant, 
both  on  the  upjjer  and  under  side.  The  fan  is  put  in  niotion  by  tlie  travel- 
ing wheels  of  the  drill,  and  receives  its  velocity  in  the  usual  manner  by 
gearing  wheels.  Tlie  blast  tlius  created  by  the  fan  is  brought  to  bear  upon 
tlie  plant,  which,  yielding  to  its  action,  bends  fiom  the  current,  and  as  it 
acts  upon  a  falling  stream  of  lime  or  other  composition,  the  plant  becomes 
completely  covered  with  the  jjowder.  But  this  is  not  the  only  object  the  blast 
drill  will  accomplish.  The  fly,  disturbed  by  a  simple  contrivance,  liops 
away,  but  is  at  that  moment  caught  by  a  current  of  air  entering  the  blast 
fan  and  instantly  destroyed,  and  thrown  out  again  with  violence  from  tlie 
vortex  into  wliich  it  had  been  drawn.  This  operation  is  simple,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  annihilation  is  similar  to  that  of  a  mouse  or  rat  going  down  a  thrash- 
ing-machine. The  fly  and  the  lime  are  so  completely  mixed  and  incorpo- 
rated that  the  mischievous  yet  delicate  insects  are  destroyed  by  the  atmo- 
spheric pressure  thrown  upon  them,  and  the  plant  is  also  secured,  by  the 
dusting  of  compost,  from  all  future  attacks  of  the  enemy.  All  farmers  can 
not  fail  to  know  something  about  the  insect  which  does  so  much  annual  mis- 
chief to  the  turnip  crops.  Sometimes  a  fallow,  -which  in  tillage  and  labor 
has  cost  £5  or  £6  an  acre  in  preparing  it  for  a  crop  of  Swedes,  has  had  all 
the  labor  and  capital  expended  made  vain  by  the  fly.  Can  this  evil  be  i-em- 
edic-d  i  It  seems  possible  ;  and  if  this  invention  of  a  blast  drill  should  be  the 
means  of  securing  a  turnip  crop,  or  even  improving  it,  by  the  application  of 
a  top-dressing  of  soot  or  guano,  or  any  other  soluble  manure,  a  great  good 
has  been  accomplished,  not  to  farmers  only,  but  to  the  community  at  large."' 

2Go.  Pea-Weevil — How  Destroyed. — One  of  the  greatest  pests  that  growers 
of  peas  have  to  contend  with  is  the  pea-weevil,  Bruchus  pisi,  which  some- 
times attacks  every  pod,  and  leaves  an  egg  to  liatch  into  a  disgusting  insect 
in  every  pea,  so  that,  if  intended  for  food,  when  dry,  we  shall  find  a  modi- 
cum of  meat  ready  mixed  in  our  pea-soup.  If  intended  for  seed,  when  we 
are  ready  to  plant  in  the  spring,  we  find  the  life  of  our  peas  eaten  out. 


242  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [CnAP.  n. 

Although  several  birds,  of  whicli  the  crow  and  Baltimore  oriole  aic  the  chief, 
feed  upon  the  pea-weevil,  they  are  very  fiir  from  destroying  it,  and  the  evil 
is  annually  increasing.  IIow  can  this  insect  he  destroyed,  is  a  question 
worth  solving.  We  think  it  can  be,  if  farmers  and  gardeners  would  make  a 
united  cflbrt,  totally  annihilated  from  the  country.  The  remedy  is  very 
simple.  It  is  to  steam  all  the  seed  peas.  This  can  be  done  in  a  small  way 
in  families  by  taking  the  seed,  so  soon  as  gathered,  shelled,  and  dried,  and 
placing  it  iu  a  cullender,  covered  vith  a  cloth  or  plate,  and  placed  over  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water  until  the  steam  is  thoroughly  passed  through  the  peas, 
■when  they  are  to  be  dried  in  the  sun  and  put  away  in  paper  bags.  Upon  a 
large  scale,  the  peas  may  be  steamed  in  bags  or  barrels,  by  inserting  a  steam- 
pipe  from  a  boiler  at  so  low  a  pressure  that  it  will  not  cook  the  peas,  but  it 
will  the  pupae  of  the  pea-weevil.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  steam,  prop- 
erly applied,  will  totally  eradicate  the  pea-weevil  from  the  land  And  if 
from  peas,  why  not  from  wheat,  corn,  and  rice,  easier  and  better  than  by 
kiln-drying  ?  It  would  be  very  easy  to  dry  the  steamed  grain.  Passing  it 
through  a  fanning-miil  would  probably  be  sufficient;  or  pouring  it  out  of  a 
basket,  where  it  would  fall  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  through  the  air. 

266.  Preserving  InsectSi — Insect  collectors  will  find  the  following  method 
of  killing  the  insects  they  wish  to  preserve  one  of  the  most  convenient  of 
any  they  have  ever  tried.  Dissolve  cyanide  of  potassa  in  M-ater  to  satura- 
tion, and  keep  it  tightly  corked  in  a  small  vial,  and  it  will  always  remain 
in  good  order  for  use.  When  you  catch  a  fly,  moth,  insect  of  any  kind, 
or  a  beautiful  butterfly  that  would  be  injured  in  fluttering,  dip  a  needle- 
poiut  in  the  solution,  and  prick  your  captive  just  under  the  wing,  and 
see  how  quick  and  calmly  they  will  lie  down  and  die.  Some  large  or 
hard-to-kill  insects  may  require  more  than  one  stab  to  make  them  die- peace- 
ably. This  solution  is  used  by  scientific  entomologists  in  making  their 
collections. 

267.  Household  InsectSi — UalVs  Medical  Jownal  states  that  household 
vermin  may  be  got  rid  of  as  follows :  Half  an  ounce  of  soap  boiled  in  a  pint 
of  water,  and  put  on  with  a  brush  while  boiling  hot,  infallibly  destroys  the 
bugs  and  their  eggs.  Flies  are  driven  out  of  a  room  by  hanging  up  a  bunch 
of  common  plantain  (fleawort)  after  it  has  been  dipped  in  milk.  Kats  and 
mice  speedily  disappear  by  mixing  equal  quantities  of  strong  cheese  and 
powdered  squills.  They  devour  this  mixture  with  greediness,  while  it  is  in- 
nocent to  man.  When  it  is  remembered  how  many  persons  have  lost  their 
lives  by  swallowing  mixtures  of  strychnine,  etc.,  it  becomes  a  marter  of  hu- 
manity 1o  publish  these  items. 

^]ni  Si-'untific  Airiivkan  says:  " Common  red  wafers  scattered  abont  the 
haunts  of  cockroaches  will  often  drive  away  if  not  destroy  them."  These 
wafers,  like  candies,  are  (olored  red  by  oxyd  of  lead,  a  most  deadly  poison ; 
and  60  is  the  acetate  of  lead,  or  sugar  of  lead,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  on 
visiting  cards,  which,  being  a  little  sweetish,  l>as  been  known  to  destroy 
young  children,  to  whom  they  were  handed  to  be  amused  M-ith.     Fashion 


Sec.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  243 


for  once  acts  sensibly  in  discarding  glazed  cards,  using  instead  Bristol  board, 
more  pliant,  less  cumbersome,  and  really  more  delicate. 

Wc  have  found  that  bugs  can  not  stand  hot  alum  water.  Take  two  pounds 
of  alum,  bruise  and  reduce  nearly  to  powder,  and  dissolve  in  three  quarts 
of  boiling  water,  letting  it  lemain  in  a  warm  place  till  the  alum  is  dissolved. 
Tlie  alum  M'atcr  is  to  be  applied  hot,  by  means  of  a  brush,  to  every  joint  and 
crevice.  Brush  the  crevices  in  the  floor  of  the  skirting-board,  if  they  arc 
suspected  places.  "Whitewash  the  ceiling,  put  in  plenty  of  alum,  and  there 
Mill  be  an  end  to  their  dropping  from  thence. 

To  kill  moths  in  carpets,  spread  a  wet  cloth  on  the  carpet,  and  iron  witli  a 
liot  flat-iron  round  the  edges  and  places  where  you  suspect  them  to  be.  Do 
this  a  few  times  in  the  course  of  the  summer,  and  you  will  save  your  carpet 
from  the  moths. 

SiIk-tco)-j)is  have  been  induced  to  work  in  France  by  electricity.  M. 
Sauvageon  reports  to  the  Academy  his  experience  in  the  matter.  Finding 
tlie  little  things  torpid  and  unwilling  to  work,  the  idea  struck  him  to  stir 
tlieni  up  by  electricity.  The  results,  as  he  gives  them,  are  really  marvelous. 
He  took  fifty-three  worms  at  random  from  among  thousands  belonging  to  a 
neighbor,  put  them  every  day  on  a  sheet-iron  plate,  through  which  a  current 
of  electricity  was  passed,  kept  them  each  time  as  long  as  they  could  stand  it, 
and  now  has  fiftj^-three  beautiful  cocoons,  an  amount  which  his  neighbors 
will  not  obtain,  to  all  appearances,  from  several  thousand  ungalvanized 
worms.  If  these  results  may  be  relied  on,  he  has  made  a  very  valuable 
discovery. 

208.  Moth  ProtcctorSt — Camjyhor  is  one  of  the  most  useful  moth  protectors 
about  the  household.  A  trunk  full  of  furs,  with  an  ounce  of  cam])hor  gum 
scattered  through  tliem,  will  be  safe  from  moths.  Furs  or  woolens  packed 
in  a  chest  made  of  camphor-wood  or  cedar  will  generally  be  safe.  Some 
housewives  pack  in  a  linen  sheet,  or  bag  of  close  texture.  Others  use  to- 
bacco. Others  keep  their  furs  or  woolens  in  drawers  or  trunks  where  they 
will  be  often  exposed  to  the  light,  and  where  they  can  frequently  take  them 
out  to  the  air  and  sun,  and  beat  them,  which  will  eflfectually  prevent  the 
ravages  of  the  moth.  A  very  good  preventive  is  to  carefully  kill  the  miller 
that  makes  the  worm  which  is  so  destructive  to  woolens  and  furs.  It  is  not 
a  hard  matter  to  do  so  in  a  house  not  already  overrun  with  them.  They 
may  be  attracted  to  a  light  blaze ;  and  they  may  be  caught  in  plates  with  a 
little  s\veetened  water  and  vinegar ;  or  a  piece  of  an  old  blanket  may  be 
used  as  a  trap ;  or  they  all  may  be  caught  and  destroyed  by  hand,  by  de- 
voting half  an  hour  to  the  work  each  evening,  in  the  proper  season. 

269.  Anls  in  the  HousCi— These  troublesome  pests  may  be  overcome  by 
various  remedies.  Perhaps  one  of  the  best  things  for  the  red  ants  is  to  mix 
a  few  grains  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  a  spoonful  of  lard,  with  a  little  sugar, 
and  then  draw  rough  strings  of  cotton  or  woolen  yarn  through  the  mixture, 
and  lay  them  in  the  cracks  where  the  ants  harbor,  or  in  the  corners  of  closet 
shelves.     They  may  also  be  poisoned  with  cobalt,  pulverized  fine  and  mixed 


244  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

with  something  sweet  that  they  like  to  feed  upon.  Tliese  and  otlier  insects 
can  be  poisoned  by  arsenic.  Tliey  may  be  kcjit  from  tlie  sngar-bowl  by 
setting  it  in  a  plate  covered  with  powdered  chalk.  The  whisky  remedy 
recolnmended  in  No.  254,  to  protect  trees  from  ants,  may  be  adopted  in  the 
house.  The  bug-powder  mentioned  in  the  same  number,  made  of  red  chamo- 
mile, can  also  be  used  in  the  house  for  ants  and  other  pests.  For  the  large 
black  ant,  the  best  vehicle  for  poison  is  old  cheese.  Dip  a  piece  of  it  in  a 
poisonous  solution,  or  moisten  it  if  dry,  and  dust  it  with  corrosive  sublimate 
or  arsenic. 

Be  very  careful,  in  the  use  of  poisons,  not  to  get  them  mixed  with  food. 
There  is  no  more  danger,  with  proper  care,  than  there  is  in  keeping  gun- 
powder in  the  house. 

270.  Insects  Bene flcial  to  Farmers. — It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  because  an 
animal  is  called  an  insect,  it  is  pestiferous.  The  contrary  should  be  taught 
in  all  schools,  as  well  as  in  home  lessons.  The  false  idea  is  prevalent  tliat 
all  sorts  of  insects,  bees  excepted,  are  mischievous,  hurtful,  and  hateful ;  so 
that  evei'Y  worm,  bug,  fly,  moth,  miller,  or  little  crawling,  creeping,  flying 
thing  is  looked  upon  by  almost  everj'  one  witli  a  feeling  of  desire  to  crush 
it.  A  contrary  feeling  must  be  cultivated.  Children  must  be  taught  to  dis- 
criminate between  good  and  evil  insects,  as  well  as  between  good  and  evil 
deeds.  A  cloud  of  moths  might  be  seen  hovering  around  the  wheat,  and 
the  farmer,  under  the  supposition  that  they  had  come  to  destroy  the  grain, 
might  destroy  them,  and  afterward  find  that  he  had  killed  his  best  friends — 
the  parasites  of  the  wheat  destructors.  Before  we  declare  a  war  of  annihila- 
tion, as  many  have  against  the  birds,  ujwn  any  class  of  animals,  let  us  first 
inquire  which  are  and  which  are  not  noxious.  "We  will  here  briefly  point 
out  a  few. 

The  common  angle-worm,  instead  of  being  detrimental  to  the  farmer,  is 
actually  a  co-laborer,  and  often  a  better  one  than  the  biped  owner  of  the  soil. 
A  scientific  writer  on  Zoology  says  : 

"The  burrowing  of  earth-worms  is  a  process  exceedingly  useful  to  the 
gardener  and  agriculturist ;  and  these  animals  are  far  more  useful  to  man  in 
this  way,  than  they  arc  injurious  by  destroying  vegetables.  Tliey  give  a 
kind  of  under  tillage  to  the  land,  performing  the  same  below  the  ground 
that  the  spade  docs  above  for  the  garden,  and  the  plow  for  arable  land, 
loosening  the  earth  so  as  to  render  it  jiermeable  to  air  and  water.  It  has 
lately  been  shown  that  they  will  even  add  to  the  depth  of  soil ;  covering 
barren  tracts  with  a  layer  of  productive  mold.  Tiius,  in  fields  that  have  been 
overspread  with  lime,  burnt  marl,  or  cinders,  these  sidjstanccs  are  in  time 
covered  with  finely  divided  soil,  well  adapted  to  the  support  of  vegetation. 

"That  this  result — which  is  most  commonly  attributed  by  farmers  to  the 
'  working  down'  of  the  material  in  (picstion — is  really  due  to  the  action  of 
the  earth-worm,  appears  from  the  fact  that  in  the  soil  thus  formed,  large 
numbers  of  '  worm-casts'  niay  be  distinguished.  These  are  produced  by  the 
digestive  process  of  the  worms,  which  take  into  their  intestinal  canal  a  large 


Seo.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  245 

quantity  of  the  soil  through  wliich  they  burrow,  extract  from  it  a  great  part  of 
(lie  decaying  vegetable  matter  it  may  contain,  and  eject  the  rest  in  a  finely 
divided  state.  In  this  manner  a  field  manured  with  marl  has  become 
covered,  in  the  course  of  80  years,  with  a  bed  of  earth  averaging  13  inches 
in  thickness." 

White,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  Selborne,"  says  : 

''  Worms  seem  to  be  great  promoters  of  vegetation,  which  would  proceed 
but  slowly  without  them,  by  boring,  perforating,  and  loosening  the  soil  and 
rendering  it  pervious  to  rains  and  fibers  of  plants,  by  drawing  straws  and 
stalks  of  leaves  and  twigs  into  it,  and  most  of  all,  by  throwing  up  such 
infinite  numbers  of  lumps  of  earth,  called  worm-casts,  which,  being  their 
excrement,  is  a  fine  manure  for  grain  and  grass." 

It  is  a  part  of  the  system  of  comminution  spoken  of  under  another  head ; 
and  if  all  the  earth  could  be  eaten  by  worms,  it  would  serve  as  a  manure  for 
crops,  simply  because  it  had  been  pulverized,  and  thereby  fitted  for  their 
use. 

Some  time  since,  in  company  with  several  gentlemen,  we  listened  to  a 
conversation  with  reference  to  the  value  of  the  earth-worm,  one  gentleman 
claiming  that  they  were  a  nuisance  in  the  garden,  and  others  asserting  that 
tliey  were  a  great  blessing,  as  mole  drainers,  and  always  an  index  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Here  is  a  paragraph  from  the  EncydojpcRdia  Britan- 
nicii,  right  to  the  point : 

"  The  common  earth-worm,  though  apt  to  be  despised  and  trodden  on,  is 
really  a  useful  creature  in  its  way.  Mr.  Knapp  describes  it  as  the  natural 
manurer  of  the  soil,  consuming  on  the  surface  the  softer  part  of  decayed 
vegetable  matter,  and  conveying  downward  the  more  woody  fibers,  which 
there  molder  and  fertilize." 

271.  Plant-Lice  Destroyers. — ^There  is  an  ichneumon  fly,  a  very  small 
blackish  insect  with  yellowish  legs  and  abdomen,  not  quite  the  twentieth  of 
an  inch  long,  which  destroys  myriads  of  aphides.  The  female  lays  an  egg  in 
each  louse,  and  the  grub  from  that  devours  its  nest,  leaving  only  the  skin 
attached  to  the  leaf,  serving  for  a  shelter  for  the  larva  in  its  pupa  state.  The 
fly  comes  out  of  a  hole  in  the  louse's  back,  and  repeats  the  ojieration. 
Careful  examination  will  disclose  a  great  many  of  these  perforated  empty 
aphis  skins  upon  plants  that  would  be  entirely  destroyed  hy  a  long-continued 
multiplication  of  their  consumers,  but  for  this  little  parasite. 

The  Syrphus  is  the  name  of  another  destroyer  of  the  aphis  that  abounds 
upon  cotton-plants.  This  is  not  a  parasite ;  the  eggs  being  laid  on  the  leaf 
among  the  aphis,  the  maggot,  wliich  is,  when  full  grown,  about  one  fifth  of 
an  inch  long,  makes  its  food  of  the  lice.  Tlie  pupa  is  formed  on  the  leaf,  in 
a  case  made  by  the  worm  of  a  glutinous  secretion— the  juices  it  has  sucked 
out  of  the  lice  it  fed  upon.  The  fly  is  seven  tenths  of  an  inch  across  the 
wings,  which  are  double  ;  the  body  appearing  like  a  diminutive  wasp,  banded 
witli  brown,  black,  and  j-ellow.  It  hovers  much  on  the  wing,  without  much 
motion,  unless  disturbed,  when  it  shows  its  power  of  swift  flight.     This 


246  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

louse  destroyer  does  not  confine  its  operations  to  the  aphis  of  cotton-plants, 
tiiough  it  seems  to  prefer  them.  It  is  of  immense  service  to  Southern 
farmers. 

The  Lady-linl  (Coccinella)  is  another  valuable  assistant  to  the  cotton- 
planter,  in  particular.  "Where  the  lice  most  abound,  there  will  be  found  the 
lady-bird  doing  its  work.  Yet  there  are  numerous  planters  who,  seeing  this 
insect  hovei'ing  over  the  cotton,  suppose  it  the  parent  of  the  pest  they  stand 
60  much  in  fear  of,  and  direct  the  negroes  to  destroy  all  they  can.  It  was  a 
negro  who  first  discovered  that  the  worms  hatched  from  their  eggs,  which 
are  deposited  on  the  leaf  near  the  aphis,  actually  consume  them,  instead  of 
the  cotton-plant.  The  worms  are  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  bluish-black, 
and  voracious  as  an  alligator,  to  which  they  bear  some  slight  resemblance. 
They  seize  and  cat  the  lice  alive,  until  all  upon  tlie  leaf  are  consumed,  when 
the  grub  fastens  itself  by  the  tail  to  the  leaf  to  await  its  change.  The  insect 
while  on  the  wing  is  also  a  louse-eater.  A  disagreeable  odor  emitted  by  tins 
insect  will  serve  to  identify  it.         , 

The  larva  of  the  Jace-wwgfl)j  is  another  cotton-aphis  cater.  These  wonns 
are  hatched  from  filaments  of  eggs,  which  the  fly  attaches  to  the  under 
side  of  the  leaf  near  an  aphis  colony.  This  larva  is  not  quite  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  long.  It  may  be  known  by  the  way  it  holds  by  the  tail,  while  sti-eteh- 
ing  out  full  length  looking  for  its  favorite  food.  It  spins  a  little  cocoon,  out 
of  which,  in  due  time,  comes  a  bright  green  fly,  with  brilliant  eyes,  and 
four  transparent  greenish  wings,  delicately  netted  like  fine  lace — hence  the 
name.     This  insect  also  belongs  to  the  fetid-odor  family. 

272.  Other  Insect  Destroyers. — The  Carolina  tlgcr-heetle  is  a  beantiful  insect, 
seven  tenths  of  an  inch  long,  of  metallic  blue,  violet,  and  green  color,  and 
savage  propensities  toward  all  other  insects. 

The  Ilarpalus  is  another  insect-consuming  beetle,  with  very  strong 
hooked  jaws  adapted  to  a  predatory  Hfe.  If  it  can  not  find  living  food,  it 
will  consume  dead,  putrescent  substances. 

The  Mantis,  an  insect  known  in  Maryland  as  the  "  rear  horse,"  is  a 
voracious  consumer  of  insects.  In  fact,  it  is  said  that  they  will  sometimes 
consume  one  another.  Tlie  largest  are  over  two  inches  in  length,  of  a  very 
awkward-looking  form.  The  eggs  attached  to  a  limb  look  like  an  excres- 
cence, and  are  often  attacked  by  an  ichneumon  fly,  as  a  place  of  deposit  for 
its  eggs.  Tlie  young  mantis  conies  out  in  June,  at  first  without  wings,  but 
with  a  strong  appetite  for  aphides  and  other  insects.  It  stands  upon  four  hind 
legs,  with  body  elevated  and  forward  feet  closed,  and  head  constantly 
moving.  It  walks,  or  jumps,  when  alarmed,  but  is  capable  of  domestication 
so  as  to  come  and  take  food  out  of  the  hand,  and  is  perfectly  harmless  cxce])t 
to  things  obnoxious  to  man,  and  for  that  it  should  be  preserved.  Its  color 
is  brownish  gray  to  light  green,  and  its  form  will  be  remembered  from  a 
picture  of  it,  or  after  being  once  seen  or  known. 

The  licduvius  novenarius  measures  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and 
destroys  multitudes  of  insects  in  all  their  stages  of  transformation.     The 


Sko.  12.]  ENTOMOLOGICAL.  247 

eggs  deposited  in  autunm  hatch  in  May  or  June;  the  young  worms  are 
marked  with  a  bh\ck  head  and  thorax,  and  bi-ight  red  abdomen,  and  black 
spots  on  the  back.  They  afterward  appear  of  a  grayish  color,  with  rudi- 
ments of  wings,  which  at  length  enable  them  to  fly  with  strength.  It 
approaches  its  prey  cautiously,  and  makes  a  dart,  and  pierces  it  to  death,  and 
then  Bucks  out  the  substance.  It  cats  the  common  tree-caterpillar  voraciously, 
and  it  sometimes  wounds  a  person  handling  it  incautiously  with  its  sharp 
piercer. 

There  are  numerous  other  parasites  of  noxious  insects,  and  insects  like 
those  named,  which  prey  upon  others,  which  are  really  beneficial  to  the 
farmer,  as  are  many  quadrupeds  and  other  animals  that  are  natural  insect- 
eaters,  such  as  toads,  moles,  skunks,  etc.  The  most  important  of  all,  perhaps, 
we  mention  in  the  next  jiaragraph. 

273.  The  Wheat  niidge  Parasite. — The  only  hope  of  relief  from  the  blasting 
eflects  of  the  wheat-midge  (323),  with  those  who  have  thought  upon  the  sub- 
ject, has  been  a  parasite  that  would  work  its  destruction.  That  hope,  we 
trust,  is  about  to  be  realized.  A  correspondent  of  the  Canadian  Agricul- 
turist, writing  to  that  paper  in  the  autumn  of  1860,  says : 

"I  am  rejoiced  that  this  week  I  can  announce  the  arrival  of  a  deadly 
enemy  to  the  wheat  midge  or  fly.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Sparta,  township 
of  Yarmouth,  the  farmers  have  discovered  some  species  of  ichneumons  which 
deposit  their  eggs  on  the  larva.  One  of  these  is  very  small,  black,  and 
shining ;  the  other  is  also  black,  with  red  feet  and  a  blunt  tail.  These  are 
often  mistaken  for  the  wheat-fly ;  but  as  it  has  only  two  wings,  and  they 
have  four,  the  distinction  is  obvious.  To  observe  the  proceedings  of  the 
ichneumons,  place  a  number  of  the  maggots  or  larvre  of  the  wheat-fly  on  a 
sheet  of  paper,  apd  set  a  female  ichneumon  in  the  midst  of  them  ;  she  soon 
pounces  upon  her  victim,  and,  intensely  vibrating  her  antennfe,  bending  her- 
self obliquely,  plunges  her  ovipositor  into  the  body  of  the  larva,  depositing 
in  it  a  single  egg.  She  will  then  pass  to  the  second,  and  so  on,  depositing  a 
single  egg  in  each.  You  will  observe  the  maggot  writhing  in  seeming 
agony,  when  sometimes  the  fly  stings  them  three  times.  These  ichneumons 
appear  in  myriads  on  the  outside  of  the  ear,  but,  as  if  impatient  of  bright 
light,  sheltering  themselves  from  the  sun's  rays  among  the  husks." 

The  same  thing  has  been  noticed  in  other  sections ;  and  Dr.  Fitch,  the 
entomologist  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  is  so  much  en- 
couraged that  a  remedy  has  come  at  last,  that  he  writes  confidently,  in 
iSTovember  of  that  year:  "The  days  of  the  wheat-midge  pest  are  numbered. 
I  fully  believe  that  farmers  may  again  sow  wheat  without  fear  of  its  destruc- 
tion by  the  Ceddomyia  trUici^'' 


248 


SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS. 


[Chap.  II. 


SECTION  XIII.-MISCELLANEOUS-AVILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE 
FAIIM-DOMESTIC  FISH-BREEDING,  ETC. 

'olcs. — Wo  liavo  for  four  years  (1S59-1862)  occu- 
/^  pied  our  little  farm  in  AVestchestor  County — 
one  of  the  many  sadly-abused  pieces  of  land,_ 
some  of  that  in  mowing,  not  planted  for  thirty 
years  or  more — and  in  this  land  we  found  the  moles 
as  thick  as  we  ever  saw  them  anywhere  in  our  life, 
and  therefore  have  a  right  to  speak  of  them  from  expe- 
rience. In  some  respects  we  have  sufiercd  severely  by 
them.  Tliey  have  killed  many  choice  things  that  we 
have  planted,  including  several  valuable  grapevines ;  but 
we  are  not  yet  willing  to  destroy  the  moles.  We  do  not 
look  upon  them  as  pests,  although  they  have  pestered  us. 
They  xmdermine  the  plants,  but  do  not  eat  them  What 
for?  It  is  not  for  sport,  nor  merely  accidental  in  boring 
their  subterranean  galleries.  It  is  in  pursuit  of  food.  And  as  that  food  consists 
of  insects  noxious  to  the  farmer,  this  paragraph  upon  moles  comes  in  coui-se 
very  well  after  the  section  devoted  to  insects.  In  fact,  we  believe  that  tlie 
mole  is  one  of  man's  best  friends,  and  that  it  never  occupies  land  that  is  not 
already  so  preoccupied  with  destructive  worms  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  culli- 
vation.  So  impressed  with  this  belief  are  some  European  people  —  all 
Prussia,  we  believe — that  they  have  enacted  laws  to  prohibit  the  killing  of 
moles.  As  with  the  crow,  opinions  vary  in  this  country  whether  the  mole  is 
beneficial  or  injurious  to  farmers.  For  our  own  part,  we  must  say  that  we 
never  see  an  account  of  a  "new  mole-trap"  without  Avishing  the  inventor 
might  get  his  own  fingers  caught  in  it.  It  is  a  great  pity  that  farmers  can 
not  learn  that  moles  are  one  of  the  good  things  that  Providence  has  bestowed 
upon  them — that  they  do  not  destro}^  seeds  and  plants,  but  the  insects  that 
are  great  pests  to  the  farm  and  garden.  In  this  opinion  we  shall  continue 
until  better  informed  upon  this  question.  In  the  mean  time  we  give  some 
opinions  of  others.  Tiie  following  is  the  sketch  of  a  report  of  a  convcrsafion 
at  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club  about  moles : 

Solon  Hobinson  read  a  letter  upon  the  subject  of  moles,  which  elicited  a 
lengthy  discussion.     Tlie  following  portion  of  the  letter  we  print : 

"  This  animal,  as  you  probably  know,  has  a  very  small  apology  for  eyes, 
which  can  not  be  discovered  till  the  skin  is  removed,  and  it  can  not  be  ascer- 
tained that  they  are  of  any  practical  use.  His  sense  of  hearing  and  of  smell 
is  very  acute,  and  he  is  enabled  to  elude  observation,  and  to  avoid  anything 
unusual  that  may  be  placed  in  his  track.  No  device,  however,  with  whicli 
I  am  acquainted  will  force  him  to  abandon  a  well-cultivated  track,  abound- 
ing with  earth-worms,  whicli  are  his  chief  attraction.     He  will  pass  from  hill 


Seo.  13.]  WILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FAKM.  249 

to  hill,  severing  the  corn,  melon,  or  other  seeds  from  the  tender  plant,  thus 
greatly  impeding  its  progress,  and  in  many  instances  wholly  destroying  it. 
In  a  scarcity  of  earth-worms  he  will  prey  upon  beets,  potatoes,  and  other 
roots  with  voracity ;  still  the  damage  he  thus  does  is  of  little  account  com- 
pared with  that  produced  by  his  relentless  plowing  or  rooting.  Where 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  not  too  wet,  this  intruder  will  be  found  undermining  all 
vegetation,  and  is  a  source  of  discomfort  to  the  agriculturist,  which  must  be 
realized  to  be  appreciated. 

"  Failures  in  field  and  garden,  which  are  often  attributed  to  drouth  or  in- 
sects, are  many  times  produced  in  a  great  measure  by  moles.  At  morning, 
noon,  and  evening  the  mole  goes  forth  on  his  depredations,  making  the  most 
rapid  movements  (for  an  underground  performance),  and  in  less  than  twenty 
minutes  finishes  his  repast,  and  returns  again  to  his  hiding-place  deep  in  the 
earth,  beyond  the  reach  of  all  intruders. 

'•  The  Yankee  mole  is  too  shrewd  for  the  English  trap,  or,  indeed,  for  any, 
with  a  single  exception.  I  have  examined  several  traps,  beautiful  in  theory, 
but  they  are  splendid  practical  failures." 

Wm.  S.  Carpenter — I  am  satisfied  about  the  injury  of  moles  to  the  farmer^ 
being  much  more  than  all  liis  benefit  in  eating  worms.  I  had  a  bed  of 
tulips  destroyed  by  moles.     I  traced  them  by  their  paths  from  root  to  root. 

Prof.  Mapes — I  have  tried  careful  experiments  with  moles  in  confinement, 
and  have  never  succeeded  in  getting  them  to  eat  any  kind  of  vegetable 
matter. 

Mr.  Moody,  of  New  Jersey — 1  have  found  that  moles  do  cut  off  the  stems 
of  thorns  in  my  hedge.  I  can  not  say  that  they  eat  thorns.  I  am  satisfied, 
too,  that  they  will  eat  potatoes. 

Pruf  Mapes — I  find  that  potatoes  are  eaten  in  the  vicinity  of  moles,  but  I 
am  satisfied  that  they  are  eaten  by  grubs  that  the  moles  feed  upon. 

Dr.  Trimble— The  potato  is  eaten  by  the  grub  of  the  cockchafer,  and  not 
by  the  mole. 

Mr.  Fuller — I  have  known  moles  to  gnaw  potatoes,  but  not  for  food. 

The  Chairman,  Egbert  L.  Pell,  made  the  following  remarks  upon  this 
subject : 

Ifolc-U/Ils.— In  rich  alluvial  soils,  mole-hills  are  thrown  up  in  immense 
numbers,  because  such  soils  usually  abound  with  the  food  that  these  subter- 
raneous creatures  seek  for.  They  destroy  the  roots  of  grass  immediately 
contiguous  to  their  mounds,  besides  often  impeding  the  free  action  of  tho 
scythe,  for  these  reasons.  Some  think  it  well  to  exterminate  them ;  still  they 
no  doubt  do  a  vast  deal  of  good  by  destroying  obnoxious  worms  and  grubs. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  spread  out  these  mounds 
over  the  surrounding  ground,  as  they  are  dry  and  powdery,  and  act  to  a 
certain  extent  as  an  enriching  top-dressing. 

The  mole  can  not  bear  access  to  the  atmosphere,  being  wholly  subterra- 
neous by  nature ;  they  never  drink,  but  live  entirely  upon  worms,  insects, 
and  the  roots  of  grass,  and  are  never  foundHn  gravelly  or  clay  soils. 


SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 


They  breed  in  April  and  May,  and  generally  ])roduce  four  at  a  birth. 
Tlie  tunnels  that  tliej'  make  are  invariably  parallel  to  the  surtace  of  the 
ground,  and  about  six  inches  deep,  unless  they  become  alarmed,  when  tlay 
inimediately  sink  to  the  deptli  of  fourteen  inches,  rarely  deeper.  They  have 
cities  under  ground,  wliicli  consist  of  houses,  or  nests,  where  tliey  feed  and 
nurse  their  young  ;  communicaiing  with  these  are  wider  and  more  frequented 
streets,  made  by  tiie  perpetual  journeys  of  the  female  and  male  parents,  us 
well  as  many  other  less  frequented  streets,  with  diverging  branches,  whicli 
they  extend  daily  to  collect  food  for  theniselves  and  Ainiilies. 

Moles  arc  exceedingly  active  in  April  and  May,  during  the  pairing 
season,  when  the  tunnels  become  very  numerous,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting 
each  other.  I  do  not  believe  tliat  they  are  blind,  from  the  fact  that  I  have 
never  observed  that  the  mole-hills  increase  except  in  the  day-time,  showing 
that  they  do  not  work  by  night,  whicli  they  would  probably  do  if  deprived 
of  sight.  They  commence  very  early  in  the  morning,  when  you  may  oiten 
see  the  mold  or  grass  moving  over  them ;  you  may  then  readily  cut  olf 
their  retreat  by  thrusting  in  the  ground  a  spade  directly  behind  thcjn,  when 
they  may  be  dug  out  very  easily  and  killed  by  the  attendant  terrier.  By 
placing  your  car  on  a  newly-raised  hill  you  may  hear  tliem  scratching  at  a 
considerable  distance,  and  thus  be  able  to  find  them.  You  may  always  dis- 
cover the  locality  of  their  young  by  observing  the  hills,  which  are  larger 
and  the  color  difl'erent,  a  portion  of  the  subsoil  being  thrown  upon  top.  If 
you  desire  to  set  traps  in  their  tumiels,  it  will  be  necessary  to  discover  which 
are  the  frequented  streets  and  which  the  by-roads. 

This  may  be  accomplislicd  by  pressing  the  foot  lightly  on  the  hill,  and  if 
the  mole  passes  that  way  he  will  nearly  obliterate  the  mark.  You  may  then 
set  a  subterranean  trap,  and  he  will  be  caught.  These  may  be  made  from  a 
piece  of  wood,  in  a  hollow,  semi-cylinder  form,  with  grooved  rings  at  each 
end,  in  which  are  placed  the  nooses  of  horse-hair,  one  at  each  end,  fastened 
\>y  a  peg  in  the  center,  and  stretched  above-ground  by  a  bent  stick ;  wb.en 
the  mole  has  passed  through  one  of  the  nooses,  and  removed  the  central  jieg, 
the  bent  stick,  by  its  elasticity,  rises  and  strangles  the  animal.  Tlie  structure 
of  this  quadruped  adapts  it  admirably  to  the  underground  life  that  it  leads. 
Its  head  is  very  long,  conical  in  shape,  and  tapers  to  the  snout,  M'hich  is 
much  strengthened  by  a  bone,  gristle,  and  very  powerful  muscles.  The 
body  is  cylindrical,  very  thick  on  the  back  of  the  head,  from  which  it  dimin- 
ishes to  the  tail.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  any  neck,  but  where  it  should 
be,  there  is  a  mass  of  muscles,  all  of  which  appear  to  act  upon  the  fore  legs 
and  head.  These  are  the  instruments  with  which  he  excavates  the  ground  ; 
they  are  harder,  shorter,  and  stronger,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
than  in  any  other  of  the  niammiferous  class.  I  have  never  destroyed  one  of 
these  little  animals,  because  I  consider  the  damage  they  do  to  a  few  roots  of 
grass  is  entirely  counterbalanced  by  their  immense  destruction  of  wire- worms, 
slugs,  etc.,  besides  aerifying,  disintegrating,  and  lightening  the  soil,  and  thus 
fitting  it  admirably  for  the  purposes  of  top-dressing. 


Sko.  13.] 


WILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM. 


251 


I  never  permit  the  common  crow  to  be  destroyed,  because  he  preserves 
my  corn-fields  from  numerous  enemies,  keeps  off  liawks,  destroys  shio-s, 
snails,  grubs,  and  eats  carrion.  Nor  tlie  black  snake,  whose  constant 
employment  seems  to  be  the  destruction  of  field-mice,  and  other  enemies  to 
the  orchard.  Nor  the  cherry  bird,  because  he  is  always  on  hand  ready  to 
eat  the  first  cherries  that  ripen  prematurely,  which  invariably  contain  the 
worm.  Nor  the  king-bird,  wren,  or  robin,  all  of  which  are  employed  from 
dawn  to  dusk  in  relieving  me  from  my  enemies. 

275.  An  English  Opinion  about  Moles.— The  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society's 
Transactions  contains  the  following  opinion  about  moles.  The  report  affirms 
that  "in  one  year,  and  every  year,  60,000  bushels  of  seed-wheat,  worth 
£30,000,  are  destroyed  by  wire-worms !  This  prevents  720,000  bushels  from 
being  grown,  worth  £300,000.  If  our  farmers  and  others,  instead  of  killing 
moles,  partridges,  and  pheasants,  ^^•  onld  jyroiect  them-,  720,000  bushels  more 
wheat  would  go  every  year  into  the  English  market.  But  the  creature  designed 
by  a  kind  Providence  to  perform  the  chief  part  of  this  immense  good  is  the 
mole/  Some  years  since  I  had  two  fields,  one  of  which  was  full  of  wire- 
worms,  the  other  perhaps  a  third  full.  My  crops  failed  on  these  fields  for 
the  first  two  or  three  years,  but  afterward  improved  rapidly,  for  I  bought  all 
the  live  moles  I  could  find  at  three  shillings  a  dozen,  and  then  two  shillings 
a  dozen,  and  turned  them  into  these  fields.  I  had  eight  quarters  of  barley 
per  acre  and  seven  of  wheat  where  the  moles  were  at  work  all  summer, 
making  the  ground  like  a  honey-comb.  Next  year,  the  wire-worms,  being  all 
cleared  out,  my  innocent  little  workmen,  who  had  performed  for  me  a  service 
beyond  the  powers  of  all  the  men  in  my  parish,  emigrated  to  my  neighbor's 
lands  to  perform  the  same  service,  but  of  course  they  met  death  wherever 
they  moved,  so  that  my  little  colony  was  wholly  destroyed.  Now  I  will 
receive  all  the  moles  that  the  farmers  will  give  me,  and  turn  them  into  my 
glebe."  "-  •' 

276.  An  American  Opinion  about  Bloles.— An  American  writer  undertakes 
to  criticise  what  is  said  above,  and  says :  "  This  I  know  from  every-day 
observation  to  be  very  erroneous.  I  do  not  know  that  moles  eat  insects  ;  be 
that  as  it  may,  I  have  no  doubt  their  living  is  principally  seeds,  and  roots,  and 
other  vegetables.  In  the  winter  time,  when  snow  is  deep  and  the  ground 
not  frozen,  I  have  known  them  to  destroy  whole  nurseries  of  apple-trees, 
and  even  young  orchards  that  have  commenced  bearing." 

Now  this  man  don't  know  what  he  is  talking  about."  He  has  confounded 
mice  and  moles  together.  It  is  the  mice,  and  not  the  moles,  that  have  been 
running  about  in  this  man's  orchard  eating  his  trees.  But  he  believes  it  is 
moles,  and  has  a  fi.xed  prejudice  in  his  mind  against  them,  which  no  argument 
perhaps  can  remove.  We  beg  of  farmers  to  learn  facts  about  things  in 
which  they  are  so  much  interested. 

277.  Mice  and  their  Mischief.— Mice,  we  willingly  concede,  are  mischievous 
— m  young  orchards  excessively  so.  Wet  seasons  are  favorable  to  the  rai^d 
increase  of  field  mice,  and  when  followed  by  snowy  winters  and  unfrozen 


252  SMALL   ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

turf,  so  they  can  have  access  to  the  clover  root*,  thcj'  become  a  scourge. 
The  hitc  dry  summers  nearly  exterminated  both  rats  and  mice — probably  more 
from  thirst  than  hunger. 

The  variety  of  mice  that  does  most  damage  to  trees  is  known  as  the 
''meadow  mouse,"  which  always  works  under  cover,  girdling  the  trees  most 
wlieii  the  snow  lies  deepest,  particularly  if  it  lies  lightly  or  is  held  up  by 
weeds  and  grass,  so  as  to  allow  the  vermin  easily  to  make  their  paths  from 
tree  to  tree,  or  from  the  tree  to  their  resting-place. 

2TS.  Remedies  for  Mice  Ealing  Trees. — Tramping  the  snow  down  around 
the  trees  is  a  pretty  sure  remedy,  and  where  tlie  orchard  or  nursery  is  not 
extensive,  will  answer  to  be  put  in  practice,  but  it  would  be  troublesome  on 
a  large  scale,  as  it  may  have  to  be  repeated  several  times  in  the  winter. 
Some  persons  have  found  it  a  good  plan  to  tramp  down  the  snow  and  wet  it. 
It  then  forms  ice,  that  often  remains  nearly  all  winter,  keeping  the  ground 
warm,  as  well  as  keeping  the  mice  off. 

Downing,  in  his  "  Fruits  and  Fruit-Trees,"  says:  "The  following  mixture 
will  be  found  to  be  an  effectual  prevention.  Take  one  spadeful  of  hot- 
slacked  lime ;  one  spadeful  of  clean  cows'-dung  ;  half  spadeful  of  soot ;  one 
handful  of  flour  of  sulpluu- — mix  the  whole  together  with  the  addition  of 
sufficient  water  to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paint.  At  the 
approach  of  winter,  paint  the  trunks  of  the  trees  sufficiently  high  to  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  these  vermin.  Experience  lias  jn-oved  that  it  does  no 
injury  to  the  tree.     A  dry  day  should  be  chosen  for  the  application." 

Coal-tar  has  been  recommended,  but  we  advise  great  caution  in  its  use, 
since  many  persons  have  destroyed  their  trees  by  it.  "We  would  sooner  try 
a  coating  of  strong  alkaline  soup ;  that,  at  Jeast,  would  not  injure  the 
trees. 

279.  Mice  aud  Osage-orange. — J.  D.  Cattell,  of  Salem,  Columbiana  Co., 
Ohio,  says  the  iield-mice  are  eating  up  all  the  roots  of  Osage-orange  hedges 
in  that  region,  so  that  they  are  utterly  destroyed,  and  their  cultivation  must 
be  abandoned  unless  somebody  can  give  a  remedy.     He  says  : 

"  It  has  been  my  understanding,  heretofore,  that  one  of  the  greatest  excel- 
lences of  this  plant  for  fencing  was  its  freedom  from  all  animal  destroyers. 
If  no  remedy  against  the  ravages  of  the  mice  can  be  found,  it  will  be  folly 
to  set  a  plant  of  the  kind  in  this  part  of  the  country.  One  of  my  neighliors 
has  already  given  np  half  of  his  for  lost,  and  grubbed  out  the  balance.  No 
doubt  others  are  troubled  in  the  same  way.  I  have  tried  traps,  terrier  dogs, 
and  poison,  but  all  in  vain.     "What  shall  I  do?" 

"Who  can  tell? 

"We  heard  one  nurseryman  siy  t'lat  he  should  dig  up  an  Osage-orange 
hedge,  because  it  attracted  mice,  and  also  because  it  entirely  exhausted  the 
soil  of  a  wide  space,  so  that  he  lost  the  growth  of  one  row  of  trees. 

280.  RatSi— This  species  of  tiie  genus  mm  is  an  almost  intolerable  nuisance 
in  some  portions  of  the  United  States.  In  fact,  we  do  not  know  of  any 
portion  now  exempt.     They  follow  man  into  the  wilderness.     "When  we 


Sec.  13.]  WILD   AND   TAME   ANIMALS   OF   THE   FARM.  253 


located  on  the  prairie,  in-183-i,  about  1.5  miles  from  neighbors,  and  40  miles 
out  from  what  has  since  grown  to  be  the  city  of  Chicago,  there  was  not  a 
rat  to  seen  or  heard  of.  For  several  years  we  were  exempt  from  this  pest. 
There  came  abundance  of  shipping  to  Chicago,  and  with  it  abundance  of 
rats,  and  they  soon  spread  over  the  whole  land,  multiplying  and  devastating. 
Xow  they  are  great  pests  in  the  barns  and  stacks  of  prairie  farmers. 

Our  common  breed  is  called  "  Norway  rats,"  from  the  supposition  that  they 
originated  in  that  country.  British  naturalists,  however,  assert  that  they 
were  introduced  into  the  British  Islands  from  India.  If  they  are  tropical 
animals,  all  we  have  to  say  is,  that  they  easily  adapt  themselves  to  a  rigoi'- 
ous  climate,  where  they  multiply  at  a  most  prolific  rate.  What  we  are  yet 
to  do  Avith  them  is  a  problem  not  easily  so';ved.  All  the  receipts  to  cure  the 
nuisance  are  only  preventive,  not  eradicative. 

2S1.  Rat  AntidoteSi — A  correspondent  of  the  Ga)'dener''s  Montldy  says  : 
"  I  tried  the  effect  of  introducing  ioto  the  entrance  of  their  numerous  holes, 
runs,  or  hiding-places,  small  portions  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  bleaching  pow- 
der, wrapped  in  calico,  and  stuffed  into  the  entrance  holes,  and  thrown  loose 
by  spoonfuls  into  the  drain  from  the  house.  This  drove  the  rats  away  for  a 
twelvemonth,  when  they  returned  to  it.  They  were  again  treated  in  the  same 
manner,  with  like  effect.  The  cure  was  most  complete.  I  presume  it  was 
the  chlorine  gas,  which  did  not  agree  with  their  olfactories." 

Another  correspondent  writes:  "Some  four  or  five  years  since,  my  cellar 
became  musty,  to  overcome  which  my  wife  sprinkled  a  solution  of  copperas 
(pretty  strong)  over. the  bottom.  Since  that  time  we  have  seen  no  sign  of 
rats  about  the  house,  notwithstanding  there  have  been  plenty  of  them  about 
the  barn  and  other  buildings  on  the  premises." 

Arsenic  is  considered,  by  some  who  have  tried  it,  a  failure,  when  used  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  premises  of  rats,  because  they  are  too  cunning  to 
partake  of  it  after  witnessing  the  death  of  two  or  three  of  the  family.  It  is 
effectual,  if  the  vermin  will  take  the  bait. 

Strychnine  we  consider  far  preferable,  and  although  so  much  more  costly, 
it  requires  but  a  few  cents'  worth  to  do  the  work  of  death  upon  a  hundred 
rats.  It  is  also  the  very  best  thing  to  use  upon  a  troublesome  dog  or  cat 
that  comes  prowling  about  your  premises.  One  grain  for  a  dose  is  sufficient. 
We  have  killed  numerous  wolves  by  inserting  one  grain  of  strychnine  in  the 
center  of  a  piece  of  fresh  meat,  just  large  enougli  for  a  mouthful  for  a  wolf. 
As  rats  do  not  bolt  their  food,  it  is  a  little  more  diflicult  to  get  them  to  take 
strychnine,  it  is  so  intensely  bitter.  If  it  is  mixed  with  corn-meal,  and  a  few 
drops  of  oil  of  anise  are  added,  it  will  attract  the  rats. 

Tarring  and  feathering  rats,  and  then  letting  them  run,  has  been  practiced, 
to  give  the  tribe  a  hint  that  it  would  be  well  for  them  to  leave.  One  rather 
smart  individual,  not  having  tar,  used  spirits  of  turpentine.  He  was  going 
to  drive  the  rats  out  of  his  house  cellar.  He  was  entirely  successful ;  for 
when  he  let  the  rat  loose  in  his  kitchen,  with  a  "  Shoo !"  to  it  to  go  down  the 
cellar  stairs,  it  took  the  kitchen  fire  in  its  course,  and  then  a  pile  of  fla.x  thi.t 


254  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  H. 


lay  in  the  cellar  way.  lu  two  hours  there  was  not  a  rat  in  the  house,  unless 
it  might  be  a  roasted  one. 

Planter  of  I'aris  has  proved  a  successful  poison  for  rats;  audit  has  the 
advantage  of  being  quite  harmless  to  have  about  the  house.  A  tablcspoon- 
ful  of  the  flour  of  plaster,  mixed  in  a  cup  of  Indian  meal,  and  slightly  sweet- 
ened, will  be  eaten  by  rats,  and  kill  them.  A  little  grated  cheese  makes  the 
food  more  attractive.  Oil  of  anise  M'ould  be  still  more  so.  In  fact,  by  the 
use  of  it,  rats  may  be  coaxed  out  of  a  house  to  eat  poison,  and  die  where 
their  dead  bodies  would  not  be  a  nuisance. 

Phosphorus,  powdered  and  mixed  with  meal,  a  few  grains  to  a  teacupful, 
has  been  often  used  successfully  as  a  rat  poison. 

Powdered  jwtash,  strewn  in  the  paths  frequented  by  rats,  has  been  known 
to  drive  them  away  from  a  house.  The  theory  is,  that  it  gives  them  very  sore 
feet,  and  disgusts  them  witli  the  place. 

282.  English  Rat-fatchers. — In  England,  rat-catching  is  a  profession,  sons 
often  following  it  as  the  business  of  their  fathers.  The  rat-catcher  visits  a 
farmer,  and  contracts  with  him  at  so  much  a  head  for  all  tiie  rats  he  destroys. 
His  XvA\>  is  a  large  bag,  which  is  set  with  the  mouth  open,  baited  with  a 
piece  of  bread  scented  with  oil  of  anise  and  oil  of  rhodium,  the  scent  of 
which  attracts  the  rats,  and  thus  he  bags  enough  to  fill  the  contract.  He 
does  not  desire  to  rid  the  premises,  as  that  would  •'  sjwil  business."  A  rat- 
destroyer  would  not  be  tolerated  by  the  honorable  company  of  rat-catchers. 

283.  Rat-Traps. — ^Among  the  many  devices  for  trapping  rats,  we  will 
mention  a  few  of  the  best.  A  large  M'ire  cage-trap,  where  the  second  rat 
will  go  in  because  he  sees  the  first  in  there,  often  proves  successful.  A  large 
brass  kettle,  half  full  of  water,  with  a  small  stone  island  in  the  center,  just 
big  enough  for  one  rat  to  rest  upon,  the  top  of  the  kettle  being  covered  with 
parchment,  similar  to  that  of  a  drum-head,  having  a  cross  cnt  in  the  center, 
is  a  first-rate  trap.  Fasten  a  small  bait  upon  the  points  of  the  cut,  and  the 
rat  jumps  down  from  a  board  arranged  for  tlic  purpose,  and  through  he 
goes  into  the  water.  He  scrambles  on  the  island  and  squeals  fur  help.  An- 
other hears  him,  and  comes  looking  around,  sees  the  bait,  jumps  for  it,  takes 
the  plunge,  and  goes  down  upon  the  other  fellow's  head.  Then  comes  a 
scramble  for  place,  the  strongest  pushing  the  weakest  oft'  to  take  his  chance 
in  the  water.  This  muss,  as  with  men,  attracts  others,  and  in  they  go.  We 
have  heard  of  twenty  in  a  night  thus  inveigled  to  destruction. 

A  barrel,  one  third  full  of  water,  with  an  island,  the  surface  covered  with 
chaflf,  and  a  bait  suspended  over  it,  avo  have  been  told,  is  an  excellent  trap. 

Ferrets  and  weasels  have  been  highly  recommended  to  be  kept  about  the 
burn,  to  drive  away  rats.  The  objection  to  tiiem  is,  that  they  drive  away  the 
poultry  also.  Ferrets  have  been  trained  so  as  to  be  obedient  to  the  call  of 
their  master,  and  used  not  only  to  hunt  rats,  but  to  drive  rabbits  out  of  their 
burrows. 

2S4.  Domestic  Cats. — Perhaps  the  best  thing  for  a  farmer  to  do,  who  is 
troubled  with  rats,  is  to  multiply  his  stock  of  cats.     We  knew  one  farmer 


Seo.  13.]  WILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM.    .  255 

who  kept  fourteen  eats,  keeping  np  th.at  number  for  more  tlian  a  year,  by 
which  means  he  got  rid  of  all  annoyance  from  rats,  and  they  also  hunted  the 
rabbits  out  of  an  adjoining  grove. 

Tlie  variety  of  the  fdis  tribe  known  as  the  domestic  cat,  once  wild,  easily 
gets  wild  again  if  neglected  by  man,  and  is  tlien  as  great  a  pest  as  the  rats, 
and  is  given  to  the  very  bad  habit  of  eating  eggs  and  chickens,  and  catch- 
ing pigeons  and  other  birds. 

To  2)>'eveni  cats  killing  chiclicns,  Harriet  Martineaii  gives  the  following  as 
a  sure  preventive  both  against  the  killing  of  chickens  and  birds  b}'  the  cats : 
"When  a  cat  is  seen  to  catch  a  chicken,  tie  it  round  her  neck,  and  make  her 
wear  it  for  two  or  thi-ee  days.  Fasten  it  securely,  for  she  will  make  incred- 
ible efforts  to  get  rid  of  it.  Be  firm  for  that  time,  and  the  cat  is  cured — she 
will  never  again  desire  to  touch  a  bird.  This  is  what  m'o  do  with  our  own 
cats,  and  what  we  recommend  to  our  neighbors  ;  and  when  they  try  the  ex- 
jjoriment,  they  and  their  pets  are  secure  from  reproach  and  danger  hence- 
forth. Wild,  homeless,  hungry,  ragged,  savage  cats  are  more  difficult  to 
catch  ;  but  they  are  outlaws,  and  may  be  shot,  with  the  certainty  that  all  the 
neighbors  will  be  thankful." 

The  abundance  of  food  and  shelter  obtained  by  the  domestic  cat  makes 
ilicm  much  more  prolific  than  in  a  wild  state.  She  is  generally,  though  veiy 
tame  and  gentle,  much  more  attached  to  the  house  than  to  its  inmates,  which 
is  quite  the  reverse  with  the  dog.  There  are  some  remarkable  singularities 
about  cats.  Gentle  as  they  appear,  they  are  very  nervous,  and  easily 
startled,  and  act  for  a  moment  as  wildly  as  tJiough  never  tamed.  They  are 
also  accused  of  being  very  treacherous.  Their  affection  for  their  own  spe- 
cies or  ours  is  certainly  doubtful.  Their  conduct  at  times,  when  a  member 
(f  the  family  dies,  is  singular.  Their  anxiety  also  to  get  at  a  corpse  has 
led  to  curious  superstitions.  In  the  opinion  of  the  sujierstitious,  the  black 
cat  has  ever  been  attendant  upon  witchcraft.  It  is  our  opinion  that  a  portion 
of  this  black-cat  superstition  originated  from  the  fact  that  the  hairs  of  a 
black  cat  exhibit  sparks  of  electricity  to  a  remai-kablc  degree,  when  the 
atmosphere  is  in  the  right  condition.  To  see  this,  take  such  a  cat  into  a  dark 
room,  upon  a  clear,  cold  November  night,  and  stroke  the  fur  the  wrong  way, 
and  if  you  never  have  seen  it  before,  you  will  be  surprised  at  the  effect. 

Cats,  particularly  females,  are  generally  very  cleanly  animals  to  keep  as 
house  pets.  They  are  fond  of  warm  quarters  and  soft  beds,  and  their  song 
of  satisfaction,  called  purring,  is  very  pleasant  to  all  who  have  a  fondness  for 
cats.     We  have  known  this  fondness  become  a  cat  mania. 

We  look  upon  cats  as  a  necessary  part  of  farm  stock,  and  they  should  be 
properly  treated  as  much  as  any  other  kind  of  animals. 

285.  DogSi — If  there  is  any  more  unmitigated  nuisance  in  a  farming  com- 
munity than  dogs,  such  dogs  as  farmers  generally  keep,  we  are  imable  to 
name  it.  In  the  country  where  we  live,  there  are  some  hundreds  of  farms 
better  fitted  for  sheep  husbandry  than  any  other  purpose,  but  upon  which 
no  sheep  are  kept,  because  the  country  is  so  full  of  worthless  dogs.     The 


256  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 


country  might  l)c  a  hundred  thousand  dollars  a  year  riclier,  if  the  people 
could  stock  tlieir  farms  with  sheep.  A  man  who  keeps  a  worthless  cur  to 
prowl  through  a  neighborhood,  is  neither  a  good  Christian,  moral  man,  nor 
good  neighbor.  He  does  not  do  as  he  would  be  done  by.  A  well-trained 
terrier  is  the  only  kind  of  a  dog  that  is  useful  to  farmers  in  general.  Of 
these  there  are  several  varieties ;  the  best  is  the  wire-haired  terrier,  an  ugly- 
looking  brute,  but  a  ferocious  enemy  to  rats.  The  black-and-tan  terrier  is  a 
handsome  and  more  agreeable-looking  dog  to  have  about  a  place,  and  a 
good  ratter,  when  trained,  but  does  not  have  such  an  apparent  natural  pro- 
pensity to  destroy  i-ats  as  the  wire-haired  one.  He  is  also,  for  his  size,  a  very 
strong  dog,  and  knows  nothing  about  fear  of  anything,  and  is  therefore  a 
very  good  house  watch-dog.  But  we  do  not  believe  a  farmer  ever  should 
keei)  a  dog  for  his  services  alone,  as  a  watch  or  guard  of  his  premises.  A 
dog  to  be  worthy  of  a  home  upon  a  fivrm  should  have  several  good  qualities 
combined.  No  conscientious  man  can  keep  a  dog  when  he  knows  that  the 
keeping  of  such  dog.s,  whether  his  par'.ieular  one  or  not,  has  a  tendency  to 
prevent  the  keeping  of  sheep  ;  for  sheep,  of  all  animals,  have  greater  adapt- 
ation to  the  pnrposo  of  furnishing  the  poor  with  cheap  food  than  any 
other  domestic  animal  in  use  in  this  country,  and  they  are  capable  of  con- 
verting the  coarsest  herbage  of  the  farm  into  the  most  healtliful  meat  of  the 
shambles. 

286.  Shepherd's  Do^S. — Wlienever  sheep  are  kept  in  sucli  numbers  as  to 
constitute  a  considerable  flock,  the  owner  can  well  afford  to  keep  a  good 
shepherd's  dog.  One  who  has  never  seen  a  well-trained  shepherd's  dog  can 
form  no  idea  of  their  extraordinary  sagacity  and  usefulness.  Wo  have 
ridden  leisurely  across  a  wide  prairie  in  a  wagon,  accompanied  by  a  Scotch 
coUey,  half-breed  slut,  driving  five  hundred  slieuji  better  than  three  men 
could  have  done  without  a  dog. 

If  there  M-ere  none  but  such  dogs  in  the  country,  there  would  be  ten  times 
as  many  sheep  kept.  One  man  would  be  entirely  competent  to  manage  a 
thousand.  He  should  have  two  dogs,  so  tliat  they  would  be  company  for 
each  other,  and  so  that,  in  case  of  accident  to  one,  the  other  would  remain 
serviceable. 

The  Scotch  colley  very  much  resembles  a  prairie-wolf,  having  a  broad 
forehead  and  pointed  nose.  The  ears  are  short  and  upright,  the  fleece 
shaggy  and  slightly  curly,  Avith  a  bushy  tail.  These  dogs  are  very  intelli- 
gent, docile,  and  faithful,  and  possess  an  instinctive  sagacity  in  everything 
that  relates  to  the  care  of  sheep.  In  a  pleasant  little  book  called  "  Anccilotes 
of  Dogs,"  some  wonderful  evidences  of  the  sagacity  of  Scottish  shepliLr  1 
dogs  are  to  be  found,  and  they  should  be  read  by  all  farmers'  boys. 

The  English  shepherd  dogs  vary  considerably  in  appearance  from  the 
Scotch.  The  hair  is  smoother,  and  they  do  not  appear  so  distinct  a  breed  as 
the  other.  Both  are  of  medium  size,  jierhaps  about  fifteen  inches  high. 
Tlie  Irish  shepherd  dog  is  larger  and  more  ferocious;  some  of  them  would 
tcai-  a  man  sadly,  if  he  interfered  with  the  flock  at  night  while  in  charge  of 


Seo.  13.]  WILD  AND  TAME   ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM.  257 

the  dog.  The  Scotcli  clog  is  always  gentle,  and  generally  very  afFectionate. 
In  France,  the  shepherd  dogs  are  somewhat  like  the  Scotch,  but  smaller. 
The  Spanish  shepherds  have  a  breed  of  dogs  peculiar  to  that  country.  They 
are  the  size  of  a  full-grown  wolf,  with  large  head,  thick  neck,  mastifl-lookin"-, 
fierce  and  strong,  and  are  often  armed  with  a  spiked  collar,  to  make  them 
more  formidable  to  dogs,  wolves,  and  bears,  if  they  should  attack  the  flock. 
Their  color  is  generally  black  and  white — their  daily  rations  two  pounds  of 
black  bread,  with  milk  and  meat  when  it  can  be  had.  In  Spain,  the  f-pcat 
flocks  of  the  country,  always  in  charge  of  shepherds  and  dogs,  make  lone 
migrations  every  year  from  their  lowland  home  to  the  mountain  pastures, 
two  or  three  hundred  miles  distant,  feeding  all  the  way  in  the  roads  and 
commons. 

Sheep  arc  the  wealth  of  Spain,  and  without  the  aid  of  shepherd  dogs,  that 
wealth,  under  the  present  system  of  management,  could  not  be  produced. 

287.  Do?  LawSi — In  New  Jersey  there  is  a  dog  law  which  siiould  be 
entitled,  "  An  act  to  encourage  the  keeping  of  the  most  ordinary  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  no  others,  and  to  induce  owners  to  have  them  killed  by  doo-s." 
This  act  provides  that  all  sheep  killed  by  dogs  shall  be  paid  for  out  of  the 
public  funds,  at  five  dollars  a  head.  To  improve  your  flock,  if  you  get  a 
buck  worth  a  hundred  dollars,  and  the  dogs  kill  him,  you  get  five  dollars. 
If  your  neighbor  has  one  killed  that  you  would  not  have  on  your  farm,  if 
paid  five  dollars  for  taking  him,  he  gets  five  dollars.  It  is  not  a  law  to 
encourage  improvement  in  sheep-breeding. 

The  number  of  sheep  annually  killed  by  dogs  in  Ohio  has  been  ascertained 
by  the  assessors.     The  number  and  value  are  astounding. 

Tiiereupon  a  correspondent  of  the  Ohio  Farmer  says :  "  Shall  we  have  a 
dog  law,  or  must  we  give  up  keeping  sheep?  That  is  the  real  question. 
There  would  be  kept  fifty  per  cent,  more  sheep  in  this  country,  but  for  dogs ; 
not  that  quite  that  amount  are  dogged,  but  most  farmers  lose  some,  and  this, 
with  other  risks,  discourages  them,  and  compels  them  to  abandon  the  business. 
Now  lot  every  fixrmer  make  this  a  test  question  in  the  elections  this  fall. 
Let  it  be  sheep  vs.  dogs,  and  let  all  Republicans  and  Democrats  see  to  it  that 
every  man  put  in  nomination  for  the  Legislature  is  sound  on  dogs.  Let  the 
candidate  choose  whom  he  will  serve — sheep  or  dogs.  I  am  in  earnest,  Mr. 
Editor.  The  sight  of  a  few  fine  Leicesters,  each  worth  more  than  all  the  dor^s 
in  Ohio,  mangled  and  torn  by  worthless  curs,  who  are  only  kept  because 
their  owners  are  too  lazy  to  kill  them,  has  made  me  in  dead  earnest ;  and 
wo  to  the  Ohio  legislator,  if  he  depends  on  my  vote,  whose  fear  of  doo- 
constituents  shall  induce  him  to  oppose  or  dodge  a  severe  dog  law !  Now  is 
the  time,  wool-growers  of  Ohio,  to  look  to  this  matter,  and  see  that  anti-dog 
men  are  put  in  nomination  by  your  respective  parties." 

Tiiere  is  no  use  in  talking  about  taxing  dogs.  Tlie  dogs  that  really  do  the 
miscliief  are  the  dogs  of  gentlemen  of  elegant  leisure,  who  are  too  lazy  to 
hunt  M'ith  them,  and  of  the  democratic  loafer,  who  don't  like  to  work,  but 
glories  in  the  luxury  of  a  house  full  of  children  and  a  dozen  do^-s.     Honest 


258  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

working  people,  who  earn  their  bread,  don't  keep  wortliless  dogs  about  them  ; 
it'  they  keep  a  dog,  they  feed  liiin,  and  train  liini  up  properly ;  but  your 
roaming  worthless  vagabond  will  keep  a  score,  and  expect  tlieni  to  take  care 
of  tiieniselves.  But  these  fellows  have  votes,  my  dear  sir;  it  will  never  do 
to  tax  their  dogs.  They  would  kick  up  such  a  dust  about  our  ears  that  wc 
could   never  find  our  way  into  the  State-house  again. 

28S.  \  Trap  for  (ate hiug  Shcep-killiag  DojSi — Make  a  pen  of  fence  rails, 
begiuuing  with  four,  so  as  to  have  it  square,  and  as  you  build  it,  draw  in 
cucli  rail  as  you  ■would  the  sticks  of  a  partridge-trap,  until  your  pen  is  of 
sufficient  height,  say  five  feet.  In  this  way  you  Avill  construct  a  pen  that, 
Mhen  finished,  will  peiniit  a  dog  to  enter  at  the  top  at  pleasure,  but  out  of 
which  he  will  find  it  difficult  to  csca^jc,  should  he  have  the  agility  of  an 
antelope.  All  that  you  have  to  do  to  catch  the  dog  that  has  killed  your 
sliecp,  is  to  construct  the  trap  where  the  dead  sheep  is  left,  as  directed,  as 
soon  as  possible  after  an  attack  has  been  made  on  your  flock ;  put  a  part  or 
the  whole  of  a  sheep  that  has  been  killed  in  it,  and  remove  the  balance  to 
some  other  field.  In  a  majority  of  cases  the  rogue  and  murderer  will  return 
the  succeding  night,  or  perhaps  the  next,  and  you  will  have  the  gratification 
next  morning  of  finding  him  securely  imprisoned.  Some  may  object  to  the 
plan,  perhajis,  on  the  ground  that  you  might  catch  an  innocent  dog.  If  he 
is  so,  he  can  content  hrmself  with  not  trying  it. 

289.  A  Serniou  OU  Dogs. — Tiie  Texas  Christian  Advocate  gets  off  the  fol- 
lowing short  sermon  upon  dogs,  from  a  text  to  be  found  in  Philiiipians  iv.  2 — 
"  Beware  of  dogs !"     Upon  this  the  preacher  sa3's  : 

"The  Apostle  well  knew  the  mischievous  and  meddlesome  spirit  of  dogs. 
Ilonce  his  caution  against  them. 

I.  Dogs  in  general  are  a  nuisance. 

Because : 

1.  They  excite  fears  of  hydrophobia. 

2.  Tiiey  wwry  and  destroy  sheep. 

3.  They  disturb  our  slumber. — HoM'ling  in  horrid  concert  under  our  win- 
dow, simultaneously  baying  at  tlie  moon. 

4.  They  frighten  us  when  out  at  night. — A  snap  or  growl  at  a  neighbor's 
gate,  or  when  turning  down  a  dark  alley,  has  a  wonderfully  nervous  tendency. 

5.  They  are  too  lamiliar. — "Will  sleep  on  the  front  gallery,  scatter  fleas, 
come  into  the  dining-room  and  parlor,  and  go  to  church  on  Sunday  mornings. 

From  these  and  other  considerations  I  observe  : 
II.  All  dogs  should  be  watched. 

1.  To  prevent  their  depredations. — Killing  neighbors'  cats,  tearing  pants, 
scaring  children,  and  going  mad. 

2.  To  correct  their  bad  maimers. — Teach  them  they  are  only  dogs,  and  not 
quite  equal  to  "  white  folks." 

3.  Keep  them  in  their  places. — "Wherever  else  they  belong,  I  question  as 
to  the  propriety  of  their  getting  between  the  sheets  with  gentlemen,  or  using 
the  church  as  a  dog-kennel. 


Seo.  13.]  WILD   AND   TAME   ANIMALS   OF   THE   FARM.  259 

Application. — Have  you  a  dog?  Tlien  keep  him  in  a  dog's  place,  and 
watcli  liim.  If  you  admit  him  to  undue  ftimiliarity,  don't  forget  that  other 
folks  will  still  think  him  to  be  but  a  dog.  If  he  has  a  shaggy  coat  and  turn- 
up nose,  these  will  not  entitle  him  to  the  privilege  of  following  you  to 
church  and  disturbing  the  worship  of  the  entire  congregation. 

Though  he  may  be  as  nice  and  sensible  as  his  fond  master  or  foolisli  mis- 
tress, it  is  not  very  probable  the  preaching  will  do  him  any  good.  The  intel- 
ligent fellow  might  be  allowed  the  pleasure  of  trotting  across  the  floor,  and 
barking  his  approbation  at  the  occasional  flights  of  the  preachei-'s  eloquence, 
were  a  dog's  gratification  more  important  than  the  people's  edification. 

Hence,  in  conclusion,  I  would  say.  Beware  of  dogs!  and  what  I  say  to  one 
I  say  to  all.  Beware  of  dogs ! 

Finally,  to  the  sexton,  or  that  good  brother  who  raises  the  tunes,  I  would 
say  with  emphasis.  Beware  of  dogs!  and  if  those  canine  interlopers  persist 
in  coming  to  the  place  of  worship,  just  take  them  out  and  cut  oflF  their  tails 
close  to  the  ears." 

290.  Rabbits — To  Prevent  Gnawing  Trees. — Tiie  American  Hare,  commonly 
called  Rabbit,  is  common  to  all  the  Atlantic  States  and  Canada.  It  is  used 
for  food  by  most  people,  but  abhorred  by  others.  Although  clothed  in  a 
thick  coat  of  soft,  whitish-gray  fur,  the  skin  is  not  valuable,  because  it  is  too 
tender  to  be  serviceable,  and  the  fur  is  not  much,  if  any,  better  than  cotton, 
for  such  purposes  as  fur,  separated  from  the  skin,  is  used  for.  These  animals 
are  prolific,  and  generally  prefer  to  live  in  and  about  farms  that  have  been 
suflcred  to  grow  up  badly  to  bushes.  They  do  the  most  of  their  feeding  at 
night,  and  farmers  general!}'  do  not  feel  any  dread  of  their  mischief. 
Nurserymen  do ;  and  so  do  those  who  plant  young  orchards  near  where  rab- 
bits abound.  When  hunger  presses  them  'n  winter,  they  will  gnaw  apple- 
trees  with  tender  bark  so  as  to  destroy  them.  Young  nursery  trees  are  often 
cut  off  by  rabbits  so  smoothly  that  one  not  knowing  how  it  was  done  would 
suppose  it  was  by  a  knife. 

To  prevent  the  depredations  of  rabbits,  English  nurserymen  dip  rags  into 
melted  brimstone,  and  fasten  them  about  among  the  trees.  The  remedy 
mentioned  in  278,  to  prevent  mice,  is  recommended  to  keep  the  rabbits 
away.  Some  persons  have  daubed  their  trees  with  grease  scented  with  some 
oftensive  odor,  and  found  that  rabbits  would  not  touch  them.  Some  have 
plastered  them  with  fresh  cow-dung.  A  very  good  remedy  is  to  ofl'er  a 
bounty  for  every  rabbit  killed  in  the  neighborhood. 

Where  trees  have  been  injured,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  bind  up  the  wound 
with  a  plaster  of  clay  and  cow-dung,  made  plastic  enough  to  adhere  well ; 
this,  when  firmly  bound  on,  will  often  save  a  valuable  tree. 

Domesticated  rabbits,  if  suflcred  to  run  at  large,  are  very  ornamental,  par- 
ticularly if  of  the  finest  fancy  sorts,  but  they  are  sometimes  unpleasantly 
mischievous.  Where  they  can  bo  conveniently  kept  under  restraint,  we 
have  no  doubt  they  can  be  made  as  profitable  as  poultry  or  other  small  farm 
stock.     In  England,  rabbit-breeding  is  quite  a  business,  and  men  of  wealth 


2G0  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

and  good  stai^ing^  engage  in  it,  and  form  rabbit  clubs,  and  exhibit  tlicir 
stock  for  prizes.  Some  of  the  6pecimens  imported  from  London,  that  we 
have  seen,  were  very  beautiful.  Some  years  ago,  Francis  Rotch,  of  Butter- 
nuts, Otsego  County,  N.  Y.,  imported  some  of  the  best  we  have  ever  seen, 
and  bred  them  to  a  considerable  extent,  finding  ready  sale  for  all  he  chose 
to  dispose  of  in  that  way. 

We  do  not  know  of  any  large  establishment  in  this  country  where  rabbits 
are  bred  for  sale  in  market  for  food.  The  common  American  wild  rabbit  is 
often  seen  in  the  New  York  market. 

Rabbits  may  be  kept  in  very  inexpensive  hutches,  and  in  tolerably  close 
confinement.  Their  feed  in  summer  is  clover  and  various  green  things.  In 
winter  they  will  eat  grain,  sweet  apples,  parsneps,  and  other  roots,  cabbage, 
and  a  little  sweet  hay.  A  full-sized  rabbit  wants  about  a  gill  of  oats  night 
and  morning,  with  a  piece  of  rutabaga  or  parsncp,  or  its  equivalent,  say  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  a  day,  and  a  little  handful  of  hay.  A  doe,  while  suck- 
ling her  young,  which  is  most  of  the  time,  should  be  fed  high,  say  three  gills 
of  oats  a  day,  or  wheat  shorts,  or  pea  meal,  and  roots  and  hay.  Or  in  sum- 
mer, upon  almost  anything  that  grows  green,  if  given  fresh. 

A  dozen  or  fifteen  years  ago,  we  remember  having  seen  in  "The  Boy's 
Own  Book"  an  elaborate  treatise  upon  rabbit-breeding,  and  to  that  Ave  refer 
the  boy  who  reads  this  and  desires  to  go  into  the  business.  They  will  also 
find  frequent  hints  in  agricultural  papers,  and  in  several  books  devoted  io 
fancy  poultry  breeding.  From  what  wc  have  said  of  the  food  which  rabbits 
consume,  it  will  be  easy  to  calculate  whether  keeping  them  will  be  profitable. 

Newspapers  bound  around  trees,  it  is  declared  in  an  article  before  us,  will 
wholly  prevent  depredations  of  rabbits,  and  also  keep  off'  the  borers,  and  a 
wrapper  well  tied  on  will  last  for  months.     The  writer  says : 

"  I  find  no  other  remedy  necessary  for  either  rabbit  or  borer.  The  wrap- 
pers, if  properly  put  on,  keep  whole  through  all  the  changes  of  our  variable 
winters.  The  trees  are  thus  secure  from  damage  by  the  rabbit.  In  the  latter 
part  of  spring  and  early  part  of  summer,  when  the  beetles  of  the  Sapcrda 
and  the  Biijyrcsiis  are  about,  a  few  eggs  will  be  deposited  in  the  axils  of  ihc 
lower  branches  of  trees,  and  at  the  tops  of  the  paper  wrappers.  Even  these 
jioints  of  attack,  however,  can  in  general  be  successfully  guarded,  by  simply 
depositing  a  small  piece  of  brown  soap  in  the  main  axils,  after  the  season's 
growth  is  well  started,  to  be  dissolved  and  washed  down  the  stem  by  subse- 
quent raiiis. 

"  But  I  do  not  find  it  necessary  to  resort  to  this  precaution  ;  for  if  eggs  are 
deposited  at  those  points,  I  am  certain  to  find  the  fact  out,  and  make  all 
right  the  latter  part  of  August  and  first  i>art  of  September,  when  I  go  among 
my  young  trees  with  a  bucket  of  strong  soap-suds  and  a  hard  scrubbing- 
brush,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them  a  good  hard  wash,  such  as  would  make 
some  people  open  their  eyes  with  astonishment,  and  cutting  out  snckcrs  or 
small  shoots  that  may  have  pushed  through  the  papers,  and  renewing  the 
wrappers." 


Sec.  13.]  WILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM.  261 

291.  Squirrels  and  GopherSi — All  of  our  Eastern  and  Nortliern  readers  will 
understand  about  squirrels,  and  how  much  mischief  the  smallest  of  the 
family  does  in  the  corn-field ;  but  they  know  nothing  of  gophers — they  belong 
to  the  "West.  In  California  they  are  almost  intolerable,  and  it  is  about  as 
Iiard  to  demise  a  plan  to  get  rid  of  them  as  it  is  here  to  get  rid  of  the  ''  chip- 
mucks" {Tamias  tysteri).  In  our  opinion,  tlie  best  way  to  prevent  them 
from  digging  up  the  seed-corn  is  to  give  them  plenty  to  eat  on  the  surface. 
Wliat  is  half  a  bushel  of  corn  sown  broadcast  for  the  squirrels  to  pick  up  ? 
It  would  save  the  seed  of  a  large  field  harmless.  "We  would  willingly  give 
that  every  year  to  see  the  dear  little  things  around  a  farm.  It  is  worlli  that 
to  see  the  old  dog  chase  them,  and  "  bark  at  the  hole"  where  one  ran  through 
a  stone  wall.  We  have  concluded  never  to  kill  a  chipmuck.  If  others  w'ish 
to  do  it,  they  may  perform  the  work  by  poisoning  corn,  or  they  may  prevent 
them  from  eating  it  by  coating  the  seed  with  tar,  which  is  done  by  mixing  a 
pint  of  tar  in  a  pail  of  warm  water,  and  putting  the  corn  in  it ;  then,  to  make 
it  pleasant  to  handle,  roll  it  in  dry  plaster.  If  a  little  flour  sulphur  is  sprinkled 
on  the  wet  seed,  it  will  adhere  and  give  it  an  odor  that  all  little  pests  dislike. 

At  tlie  AVest,  in  woody  districts,  gray,  black,  and  fox  squirrels,  particularly 
the  first  named,  are  sometimes  very  destructive  to  the  corn-fields  in  autumn. 
The  gray  and  black  squirrels  increase  so  rapidly  after  one  or  two  seasons  of 
an  abundant  supply  of  beech-nuts,  that  the  rcguhir  squirrel-hunts  do  not 
appear  to  diminish  their  numbers.  They  are  to  some  extent  migratory,  as 
tlieir  supplies  change,  from  beech  to  oak  lands.  At  such  times  tlie  strong 
and  healtiiy  will  swim  large  rivers,  and  uniformly  take  one  direction,  leaving 
the  young  and  feeble  at  home. 

In  Ohio,  about  the  year  1835,  squirrels  became  so  numerous  over  the 
whole  country  as  to  threaten  the  entire  destruction  of  corn-fields  while  in  the 
milk.  The  following  year  they  were  all  starved.  In  the  winter  they  ran 
desperately  over  the  fields,  indifferent  of  danger,  sometimes  feeding  npon 
tiie  bark  of  the  beech. 

The  red  and  striped  or  ground  squirrel  are  not  liable  to  sufler  from  these 
vicissitudes,  as  they  lay  up  a  store  for  winter.  I  think  the  flying  squirrel 
docs  also,  but  this  is  a  nocturnal  creature,  and  less  is  known  about  it. 
There  are  also  several  kinds  of  winter  birds  which  deposit  seeds  in  knots 
and  loose  bark  of  trees  for  winter  use. 

Tlie  fox  squirrel  is  the  largest  of  the  American  species.  It  is  of  a  reddish- 
gray  color,  and  inhabits  the  prairie  groves  of  northern  Indiana,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  other  States.  It  is  very  shy  of  man,  is  hard  to  get  a 
hight  of,  and  difticult  to  kill. 

202.  Striped  Gophers  {SjKnnophilus  tndecemlineahis). — Perhaps,  when 
you  see  the  name  given  to  this  animal  by  natural-history  writers,  you  may 
imagine  it  is  as  big  as  its  name.  But  it  is  not  half  as  formidable  to  look  at. 
We  give  the  scientific  name  for  identification,  because  the  word  "  Gopher," 
in  Florida,  means  a  small  land-turtle.  In  Wisconsin  it  means  a  squirrel 
somewhat  like  a  chipmuck.     In  California  it  represents  a  different  animal. 


2G-2  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

The  striped  gopher  abounds  in  tlio  Xorthwcstern  prairie  region.  In  tbe  first 
scttlcnieut  of  the  country  a  liundrod  miles  around  Chicago,  it  inhabited  all 
the  prairie  groves  and  dry  ravines.  The  following  is  its  description :  The 
ears  are  short  and  rounded  ;  the  tail  slender  and  liairy,  about  lialf  tlie  Icng'.h 
of  the  body  ;  the  body  is  of  a  dark  browu  above,  longitudinally  marked  with 
altcruale  rows  and  si)ots  of  a  light  fawn-color,  which  correspond  nearly  with 
the  belly  and  sides.  The  lighter  lines  on  the  npper  part  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  brown  intervals  between,  wliich  arc  occupied  by  the  single  rows  of 
li<»ht  spots,  which  are  generally  indistinct  on  the  anterior  half  of  the  body. 

Although  these  animals  are  considered  grain-eaters,  and  called  mischiev- 
ous, we  believe  they  are  among  the  many  real  friends  of  the  farmer.  Like 
the  weasel,  which  occasionally  cats  a  chicken  for  lack  of  more  favorite  food, 
the  gopher  sometimes  eats  the  farmer's  seed-corn,  but  lie  should  not  be  con- 
demned as  an  enemy  for  that  act,  without  a  fair  hearing. 

There  may  be  some  of  the  gopher  family  that  are  destructive  of  farm 
crops.  The  evidence  is  very  strong  to  that  effect  against  tbe  Californian 
gopher,  which  lives  in  holes  all  through  the  cultivated  fields,  and  does  not 
seem  to  be  very  particular  wluxt  it  eats,  whether  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  beets, 
melons,  pumpkins,  so  that  it  is  somctliiug  which  the  farmer  has  grown  for 
his  own  use. 

It  is  not  so  with  the  small  striped  gopher.  This  beautiful  little  animal 
should  be  carefully  preserved  npnn  all  farms  where  it  now  exists,  and  we 
have  no  doubt  it  would  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the  stock  of  any  farm 
where  it  is  not  found  in  a  natural  condition.  It  is  a-grcat  destroyer  of  field- 
mice,  and  in  our  opinion  a  whole  troop  of  gophers  do  less  damage  in  one 
season  than  the  mice  which  one  of  them  would  kill  in  a  single  day.  For 
they  are  real  epicures,  eating  nothing  but  the  blood  and  brains,  when  the 
supply  is  abundant.  These  animals  have  such  an  appetite  for  flesh,  that 
if  deprived  of  it,  a  mother  will  cat  her  young.  Such  carnivorous  animals 
must  be  better  hunters  than  cats,  and  should  be  carefully  preserved,  and  not 
"  drowned  out,"  as  they  often  are,  wlien  their  homes  are  discovered  by  the 
boys,  just  for  the  "  sport"  (cruelty)  of  killing  them.  Tiicsa  animals  seem  to 
have  a  natural  instinct  that  man  is  their  common  enemy.  We  liave  seen  them 
often  in  situations  where  they  could  never  have  had  any  acquaintance  with 
man,  at  least  civilized  ones,  who  are  the  only  ones  who  ever  kill  such  small 
game  for  "sport,"  and  we  found  tliem  wild  in  the  extreme.  They  utter  a 
cry  when  discovered,  and  dart  away  into  some  shelter  with  great  rapidity. 
In  this  respect,  quite  unlike  the  chipmuck,  which  will  play  around  a  dog  or 
man  in  tbe  most  tantalizing  manner. 

The  striped  gopher  never  gna^vs  trees,  roots,  fruiis,  nor  green  vegetable^, 
and  in  fiict  does  the  farmer  no  damage  except  to  eat  a  little  seed-corn.  For 
all  that  they  eat  in  the  harvest  field,  they  save  twice  as  much  in  driving 
away  mice  and  squirrels.  Chipmucks,  red  squirrels,  and  mice  can  not 
inhabit  the  same  locality  with  gophers;  and  yet  there  are'))erson5  Avho  liave 
offered  bounties  to  have  them  destroyed.     Let  such  learn  this  fact  from  this 


Seo.  13.]  WILD   AND   TAME  ANIMALS   OF   THE   FARM.  263 

Yolume,  if  they  learn  no  other,  tliat  the  striped  gopher  is  worth  its  weiglit 
in  gold  upon  any  farm  where  field-mice  are  so  abundant  that  they  destroy 
fruit-trees. 

293.  SknskSi — "We  don't  know  tliat  we  can  afford  to  stem  the  current  of 
popular  opinion  so  far  as  to  recommend  the  protection  instead  of  destruction 
of  skunks  [Mephitis  Americana).  AYe  are  aware  that  these  animals  are 
troublesome  visitors  to  the  poultry-yard,  and  on  that  account  they  are  hunted 
and  killed  without  mercy,  and  without  a  thouglit  about  what  they  live  upon 
all  the  time  that  they  do  not  eat  chickens.  As  they  are  flesh-eaters,  they  must 
find  somelhing  of  the  flesh  kind  to  eat,  and  that  something  is  the  very  thinp 
that  the  farmer  is  most  anxious  to  get  rid  of — it  is  mice,  and  worms,  and 
bugs.  The  quantity  of  these  pesls  destroyed  by  a  single  skunk  is  enormous. 
It  is  very  rare  that  they  come  about  a  house,  tliougli  we  have  known  tliem 
to  live  for  weeks  in  cellars,  or  store-rooms,  or  under  a  crib,  without  producing 
any  nuisance.  They  never  emit  their  fetid  odor  iinless  attacked  by  man  or 
dog;  and  it  has  been  contended  tliat  if  was  practicable  to  domesticate  a 
skunk  so  that  he  would  be  quite  a  harmless  pet.  We  can  not  recommend 
making  }>ets  of  these  animals,  but  we  do  recommend  farmers  to  learn  the 
important  fact,  that  if  they  do  him  a  little  damage  occasionally,  they  also  do 
liim  an  incalculable  amount  of  good.  Generally  speaking,  there  is  not  a 
farmer  in  all  tl;e  region  inhabited  by  t\\c.  Ilephitis  who  could  not  Avell  afford 
to  exchange  dogs  for  skunks,  and  pay  ten  dollars  each  for  tlie  bargain. 
There  is  one  other  thing  tliat  skunks  are  good  for.  As  an  article  of  food  we 
don't  think  there  is  any  wild  animal  that  makes  a  more  dainty  dish,  and  we 
liold  that  we  are  tolerably  well  qualified  to  judge.  A  fat  skunk,  nicely 
dressed  and  roasted,  hung  by  a  string  before  an  old-fashioned  wood  fire 
till  beautifully  browned,  and  then  served  upon  a  platter  flanked  with  boiled 
mealy  potatoes,  covered  with  the  brown  gravy  made  of  the  fat  driji,  is 
beyond  dispute  "  a  dish  fit  to  set  before  the  king." 

204.  Toads.— Although  not  among  the  quadrupeds,  of  which  this  chapter 
treats,  toads  are  among  the  friends  of  the  farmer,  and  as  sueii  sliould  have  a 
place  in  this  connection.  Every  man  wlio  owns  or  cultivates  a  garden  or 
field,  who  knows  anything  about  tlie  natural  history  of  the  toad,  will  never 
allow  one  to  be  destroyed.  Tliere  is  no  animal  more  harmless,  and  few  that 
do  the  fanner  more  good  than  toads.  Their  whole  food  is  of  insects  injuri- 
ous to  the  farmer.  The  prejudice  against  "the  ugly  things"  is  a  foolish  one, 
and  should  be  done  away  with.  We  once  had  a  toad  in  the  garden  wliich, 
by  some  particular  mark,  was  known  to  the  children,  who  called  it  "fiither's 
pet  toad,"  because  it  really  ajipeared  as  though  it  knew  that  we  were  its 
friend  and  protector.  Tiiis  toad  cauio  year  ai'icr  year  to  lend  us  its  valua'  i  - 
aid  in  exterminating  the  insect  pests  of  the  garden.  We  liad  anotiier  that 
made  the  milk-room  its  summer  home,  where  it  v/as  constantly  engaged  in 
catching  flies  and  bugs.  Toads  and  bats  should  both  be  protected  from  harm, 
and  children  taught  to  encourage  them  to  come  about  the  house.  Bats  are 
great  insect-eaters,  and  never  visit  the  house  of  an  evening  for  any  other 


264:  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

purpose  tliau  eatcliiug  insects  for  food.  It  is  charged  against  them,  that  they 
sustain  bed-bugs  as  parasites. 

295.  ("amels— Their  lutroduction  into  the  Tnited  States.— It  is  a  great  jump 
from  the  back  of  a  toad  to  that  of  a  camel,  but  not  so  great  as  politicians 
sometimes  make.  As  we  have  to  make  the  leap  somewhere,  it  may  as  well 
be  done  here  as  anywliere,  and  after  a  very  short  ride  we  will  jump  down 
again  upon  the  back  of  a  goat.  We  have  introduced  camels,  because  we 
want  all,  particularly  the  farmers'  boys  who  read  this  book,  to  learn  the 
fact  that  camels  have  already  been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and 
put  to  service  as  beasts  of  burden.  The  fii*st  imported  were  in  1S57,  we 
believe,  under  the  auspices  of  the  general  government,  since  which  time 
they  have  been  in  active  government  service,  principally  in  Texas,  and  have 
made  one  or  more  trips  to  the  Pacific  with  army  otficers. 

The  Galveston  jVews  gives  the  following  account  of  the  strength  of  one 
of  the  camels.     It  says : 

"There  were  near  a  dozen  on  the  wharf,  of  all  ages.  The  camel  loaded 
was  one  of  the  largest.  On  the  word  of  command  being  given,  the  camel 
lay  down,  ready  to  receive  liis  load,  which  consisted  of  five  bales  of  hay, 
weighing  in  the  aggregate  over  1,400  pounds,  which  was  firmly  bound  to  the 
pannier  placed  upon  tiie  animal's  hump.  Upon  the  utterance  of  command 
by  the  native  keeper,  the  huge  animal  arose,  Avithout  any  apparent  effort,  to 
his  feet,  and  walked  off  in  a  statel}'  manner  along  the  wharf  and  through 
the  city.  We  were  informed  that  the  same  camel  had  1,600  ponnds  placed 
upon  him,  with  which  enormous  weight  he  arose.  Tlie  animals  arc  all  ex- 
ceedingly tractable,  and  seem  to  possess  much  afi'ection  for  any  one  who 
treats  them  kindly,  as  an  example  of  which  Mrs.  W.  informs  us  that  one  of 
them,  a  pretty  white  one,  which  she  had  petted,  would  always  kiss  her  when 
she  vcas  within  kissing  distance,  which  fact,  we  really  thought,  certainly 
proved  the  animal  to  possess  an  excellent  taste  as  well  as  an  affectionate  dis- 
position. In  thein  native  country  the  average  load  for  a  full-grown  camel  is 
some  800  pounds,  with  which  the}'  perform  their  long  journeys  over  deserts, 
with  but  little  food  or  water." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  camels  will  become  one  of  the  ordinary  beasts  of 
burden  in  this  country,  where  there  are  such  vast  arid  plains,  as  in  northern 
Texas,  Xew  Mexico,  M-estern  Kansas,  and  Utah,  that  no  other  animals  can 
traverse  them. 

It  is  stated  that  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  is  about  to  introduce  dromedaries 
into  that  country.  This  animal  can  go  long  journeys  without  water,  and 
therefore  will  be  found  valuable  upon  some  of  the  deserts  and  plains  of  th.at 
country.  A  common  load  of  an  ordinary  dromedary  is  500  pounds.  One 
of  the  camels  in  Texas  has  carried  two  bales  of  cotton,  of  500  pounds  each. 
One  of  the  best  kinds  of  dromedaries  for  riding  can  travel  400  miles  with- 
out stopping  to  eat,  drink,  or  rest. 

At  the  Xorth,  where  horses,  mules,  and  oxen  are  in  such  common  use,  we 
do  not  think  that  camels  will  ever  supersede  them. 


Sec.  13.]  WILD  AND  TAME  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM.  265 

296.  Goats.— lutroductioa  of  the  Cashmere  Goats  into  the  Uuited  States.— 

About  the  most  unprofitable  of  all  varieties  of  I'arm-stock  is  the  common 
goat.  It  is  known  in  some  parts  of  the  country  as  the  Irish  goat,  probably 
because  the  people  from  Ireland  iu  this  country,  particularly  in  cities,  keep 
more  goats  than  all  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants.  These  are  of  all  colors,  as 
much  so  as  the  common  breed  of  horned  cattle,  and  about  t,he  size  of  com- 
mon sheep.  The  she-goats  give  a  small  quantity  of  milk,  and  the  kids 
afford  some  flesh  food,  at  a  small  cost  to  the  owners,  as  they  forage  their 
living,  and  frequently  do  more  mischief  in  a  neighborhood  or  upon  a  farm 
than  their  necks  are  worth.  The  hair  of  the  common  goat  is  worth  nothing 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  It  is  quite  the  reverse  with  the  Cashmere 
goat.  The  fleece  of  this  variety  is  eight  times  as  valuable  as  fine  wool ;  and, 
fortunately,  it  has  been  found  that  a  cross  upon  the  common  goat,  even  in 
the  first  progeny,  produces  a  fleece  about  half  as  valuable  as  the  full  blood, 
so  that  the  breeding  of  goats  in  this  country  for  the  fleece  is  likely  soon  to 
become  quite  common,  and  a  profitable  branch  of  husbandry,  particularly 
in  some  of  the  I'oughest  districts  of  country. 

To  Dr.  James  B.  Davis,  of  South  Carolina,  the  country  is  indebted  for  the 
introduction  of  the  pure  Cashmere  goats,  which  are  now  to  be  found  iu 
various  parts  of  the  United  States;  and  to  lion.  Richard  Peters,  of  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  it  is  equally  indebted  for  the  interest  he  took  at  an  early  day  in  the 
propagation  of  the  original  stock,  which  he  purchased  of  Dr.  Davis,  Mr. 
Peters,  being  a  wealthy,  public-spirited  gentleman,  spared  no  pains,  even 
when  success  was  doubtful,  in  getting  this  breed  established  upon  a  firm 
basis,  and  proving  that  its  crosses  upon  the  common  breed  would  be  profit- 
able, as  well  as  upon  several  other  varieties  of  fine-wooled  goats. 

We  had  the  pleasure  of  an  acquaintance  with  Dr.  Davis  and  his  stock  at 
Charleston,  in  1S19,  shortly  after  his  return  from  several  yeai-s'  residence  at 
Constantinople,  He  brought  with  him  seven  females  and  two  males  of  the 
Cashmere  goats,  besides  several  other  curious  sjiecimens  of  the  livestock  of 
the  East.  He  stated  his  belief  to  be  that  the  Cashmere,  Persian,  Angora, 
and  Circassian  goats  are  all  of  one  breed,  and  that  they  have  been  slightly 
changed  by  locality,  principally  by  altitude.  These  fine  goats  usually  breed 
two  kids  in  the  spring,  and,  unfortunately,  where  rapid  propagation  is  an 
object,  the  males  preponderate. 

The  progeny  of  these  goats  is  now  to  be  found  in  all  the  States  from  N"ew 
York  to  Texas.  Li  the  latter  State  they  have  been  established  pretty  exten- 
sively. We  saw  a  letter  written  by  John  R.  McCall,  at  Austin,  in  August, 
1S60,  which  estimated  that  two  lumdred  head,  principally  bucks,  had  been 
i'.itroduced  into  Texas. 

Tlie  demand  for  the  fleece  of  Cashmere  goats  may  be  calculated  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  stated  that  4,000  looms  and  12,000  people  are  employed  in  the 
city  of  Lyons,  France,  in  the  manufacture  of  the  fleeces  of  Cashmere  goats,  and 
that  they  are  worth  from  four  to  eight  dollars  a  pound.  As  soon  as  the  supply 
is  large  enough,  we  shall  have  manufactories  in  operation  in  this  country. 


266  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

Casliiiicrc  slunvls  were  exhibited  at  tlie  Crystal  Palace,  New  York,  vahieil 
at  one  tlioiisand  dollars  cacli.  These  were  all  made  by  the  needle.  Fabrics 
m;ide  of  Caslunere  goat's  fleece,  it  is  supposed,  will  outwear  those  made  of  any 
libroiis  material  yet  discovered. 

The  Thibet  goat,  one  of  which  we  saw  at  Dr.  Davis's,  differs  from  the 
Caslimere  materially.  Tiie  outward  appearance  is  that  of  a  very  coarse- 
huired  animal ;  but  there  is  an  uuder-coat  of  long,  white,  silky  wool,  which 
weighs  about  a  pound  wlien  combed  out.  Dr.  Davis  thought  this  like  the 
wild  goat  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.     "Who  knows  if  thc?y  are  identical? 

Dr.  Davis  imported,  also,  the  Scinde  goat,  which  comes  from  Scinde,  at 
tlic  mouth  of  the  Indus.  Tliis  was  a  renuu-kably  largo  goat,  witli  monstrous 
pendulous  cars. 

A  goat  used  in  Malta  is  the  best  milker  of  the  family.  A  good  ewe  givcA 
a  gallon  a  day.  Goats'  milk,  in  all  Eastern  countries,  particularly  in  mala- 
rious districts,  is  considered  more  healthy  than  the  milk  of  cows;  aiul  some 
learned  physicians  in  tliis  country  declare  that  cows'  milk,  in  malarious  dis- 
tricts, is  tlie  moving  cause  of  many  attacks  of  bilious  fever.  In  this  view  of 
t!ie  subject,  it  may  be  well  to  inquire  wliethcr  it  would  not  be  to  the  advant- 
;!ge  of  the  people,  in  a  sanitary  as  well  as  pecuniary  point  of  view,  to  intro- 
duce the  improved  breeds  of  goats  into  all  sections  reputed  subject  to  mala- 
rious diseases. 

297.  Brcediag-  Fish  for  Foo«l  on  t!i8  Farta.— Wc  do  Tiot  iVel  willing  totloso 
the  chapter  upon  animals  on  the  farm,  without  calling  attention  to  the  sul)- 
ject  heading  this  paragraph. 

Fish  are  the  least  cosily  food  that  man  can  obtain ;  yet.  owing  to  the 
scarcity,  the  labor  of  taking  them  out  of  the  Avater — which  is  all  the  expense 
a  tending  their  i)roduction — has  become  so  great,  that  fish  arc  sold  in  our 
market  at  nearly  as  high  a  price  per  pound  as  meat.  Salnuin  arc  really 
higher  than  choice  cuts  of  cither  beef  or  mutton.  And  yet  salmon  can  be 
grown  at  very  trifling  expense. 

We  have  long  been  producing  oysters  by  artificial  means,  without  wliich 
our  market  coidd  not  be  supj)lied  ;  and  yet,  with  tliat  fact  before  our  eyes, 
very  few  attempt  to  produce  fish  b}^  an  equrlly  easy  jirocess.  One  fact  of 
importance,  in  proof  of  the  benefit  of  simply  protecting  fish  from  being 
taken  in  the  spawning  season,  is  tlie  following: 

"In  the  river  Foyle,  in  the  nor;h  of  Iiehmd,  by  a  steady  perseveranee  in 
a  proper  system  of  proteelion,  the  amount  of  salmon  taken  was  raided  from 
an  average  of  43  tuns  annually,  in  1823,  to  that  of  30U  tuns  in  1812;  while 
in  the  small  river  of  Ncwjiort,  in  the  co-mty  of  Mayo,  in  M"hieli  the  salmon 
w;is  Ibiinerly  uiipio!<.etccl  1)_\  !,;>..  ;iii,i  .  oascqiicnJy  ti.'.en  at  all  periods  of 
tlie  year,  within  three  years  after  tlie  introduction  of  parliamentary  regula- 
tions enforcing  tlieir  protection  during  the  breeding  sea^on,  the  annual  take 
was  increased  from  half  a  tui\  of  fish  to  eiglit  tnns  of  salmon  and  three  tuns 
of  white  trout,  with  a  certainty  of  a  still  higher  increase. 

"In  view  of  the  great  augmentation  in  the  price  of  all  the  articles  of  food 


Sec.  13.]  DOMESTIC  FISH-BREEDING.  26T 

and  necessaries  of  life  in  this  country,  llie  small  probability  of  any  consiJer- 
able  reduction,  and  the  actual  Sufferings  of  many  of  the  laboring  class  from 
Avant  of  sufficient  food,  it  appears  to  me  that  this  subject  is  worthy  of  the 
closest  consideration,  and  that  any  one  who  can  suggest  and  effect  the  means 
of  furnishing  a  new  and  ample  supply  of  cheap,  nutritions  food,  has  some 
small  claim'to  be  thought  of  as  not  an  entirely  useless  member  of  the  com- 
munity." 

There  is  a  liitlo  book,  published  by  the  Applctons,  that  gives  in  detail  all 
the  French  plans  for  artificial  fish-breeding,  and  any  one  who  reads  that 
voUimc  can  go  to  work  and  stock  Isis  own  waters  with  any  kind  of  fish  he 
desires.  That  our  natural  supply  has  failed,  there  is  not  a  shadow  of  doubt, 
and  that  it  never  will  be  replenished,  except  by  arlifieial  breeding,  is  eqrtally 
indisputable.  That  a  re-stocking  of  our  waters  with  fish,  so  as  to  make  them 
as  plentiful  as  formerly,  would  prove  one  of  the  cheapest  modes  of  lessening 
the  price  of  human  food,  is  just  as  certain. 

In  the  "West  Indies,  fish  and  turtle  are  constantly  kept  and  stall-fed.  At 
free  running  they  never  become  fat,  any  more  than  our  land  stock.  The 
j)ond3  are  construcled  of  stones,  of  irregular  figure  in  wall,  so  as  to  retain 
three  or  four  feet  of  water  at  the  lowest  tides,  Tlie  water  of  the  rising  tide 
flows  freely  in.  These  ponds  have  a  deck  of  plank  over  them,  laid  about  tvro 
inches  apart,  for  admission  of  air  and  light.  A  hatchway  in  the  middle  of 
the  floor  is  opened  to  throw  in  their  food,  which  usually  consists  of  fry,  or 
small  fish,  taken  by  cast-nets  in  any  required  cpiantity.  When  this  is  scat- 
tered among  them,  the  excessive  eagerness  of  the  fish  is  an  interesfing  sight 
— their  bright  eyes,  fiae  teeth,  and  sparkling  colors  showing  beautifully,  as 
they  leap  out  of  water  to  catch  the  falling  bait. 

Tlie  housekeepers  send  for  a  suitable  fish  for  dinner  shortly  before  the  time 
to  cook  it.  The  person  has  a  strong  line  and  hook,  with  or  without  bait ;  he 
lets  it  down,  and  the  fish  rush  toward  it,  and  he  must  be  expert  to  let  it  dro2> 
to  the  mouth  of  the  grouper,  hamlet,  snapper,  Avhite  or  blue  band  porgie, 
etc.,  which  he  wants.  Such  a  fish  never  appears  on  the  tables  of  the  North- 
ern States,  and  yet  every  town  on  our  sea-coast  ought  to  have  them.  As  it 
is  now,  when  the  poor  fisherman  has  caught  more  than  he  can  sell,  the  over- 
jjIus  is  a  dead  loss. 

There  is  nothing  more  simple  than  the  artificial  breeding  of  fish.  The 
entire  mystery  consists  in  taking  the  female  during  her  time,  and  by  run.ning 
the  thumb  vv-ith  a  gentle  steady  pressure  down  her  back,  force  out  her  ova 
in  a  jar  of  pure  fresh  water.  The  male  is  then  taken  in  the  same  way,  and 
m'^de  to  yield  a  few  dro'is  of  the  spermatic  fluid  in  the  same  vessel,  tlie  two 
aiu  li.en  ;-i.;rcd  togv.h.i  flu"  a,  few  mcicnls,  and  the  contact  of  .the  fluid  oi' 
the  male  has  the  effect  to  vitalize  the  eggs  at  once.  The  eggs  are  then  laid 
down  in  shallow  tanks  with  gravel  bottoms,  arranged  in  a  series  of  steps  so 
that  running  water  can  continually  pass  over  them.  Tlie  whole  trouble  of 
the  breeder  is  then  to  keep  the  eggs  free  from  any  sediment  or  muddy  deposit, 
and  in  due  time  each  e^'g  becomes  a  fish.     Thus  almost  every  egg  in  an 


268  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 


innumerable  ova  can  be  turned  to  account  for  the  benefit  of  man.  Tlicrc 
is,  liowcver,  something  to  ilo  after  the  eggs  have  become  fish,  and  that  is,  to 
confine  them  M'ithin  certain  limits  by  a  dam,  until  they  are  old  enough  to  be 
able  to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  make  fight  against  the  larger  fish  which 
would  eat  them  up.  There  are  now  three  or  four  establishments  in  the 
country  for  the  artificial  breeding  of  fish,  and  we  sec  no  reason  why  every 
lake  and  river  may  not  be  filled  M'ith  life  and  food,  and  made  to  make  an 
ample  return  for  all  investments. 

The  cultivation  of  fish  in  France  and  some  other  countries  of  Europe  has 
become  as  much  of  a  trade  as  any  other  occupation,  and  the  results  in  supply- 
ing food  and  aflbrdiug  a  handsome  recompense  to  the  owner  have  been  equal 
to  the  most  sanguine  expectations.  It  is  surprising  that,  more  attention  is 
not  paid  to  it  in  this  country  where  the  facilities  are  unsurpassed.  Occasion- 
ally an  individual  makes  a  trial,  but  little  however  has  yet  been  done  in  this 
line  compared  with  what  might  be  accomplished.  A  writer  in  a  South 
Carolina  paper  gives  a  description  of  a  domestic  fish-pond  on  the  plantation 
of  Mr.  Freeman  Hoyt,  Sumterville.  Mr.  Iloyt  had  a  small  stream  of  water 
which  ran  through  a  low  place  in  such  a  form  as  to  enable  him,  by  a  dam  of 
some  50  yards  long,  to  construct  a  pond  of  some  700  feet  in  length  by  150  in 
width,  with  a  depth  varying  from  the  shores  to  12  or  15  feet  in  the  center. 
This  gave  him  a  pond  of  over  two  and  a  half  acres,  where  he  could  raise 
nothing.  He  deposited  in  the  pond  eight  good-sized  trout,  and  about  300,000 
eggs,  with  a  larger  amount  of  smaller  fish  for  the  trout  to  feed  upon,  and  in 
(uie  year  the  water  was  literally  swarming  with  the  finny  tribes.  His  trout 
one  year  old  are  some  seven  inches  in  length.  The  water  running  from  the 
dam  passes  through  a  sieve,  so  that  the  fish  can  not  escape  from  the  pond. 
The  necessary  apparatus  for  cultivating,  feeding,  and  taking  care  of  the  fish 
costs  but  a  small  sum,  and  the  proceeds  of  the  pond  will  be  a  source  of  much 
pleasure  and  profit.  And  this  is  but  one  instance  in  thousands  which  might 
with  equal  facility  be  turned  into  a  source  of  revenue. 

lu  many  sections  of  the  country  numerous  springs  and  streams  abound, 
confined  within  narrow  valleys,  that  may  be  converted  into  permanent  ponds 
and  thus  be  made  to  yield  a  profit  in  fish  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  the 
same  area  of  the  best  of  land  devoted  to  the  most  profitable  farm  crops. 
Tiiesc  streams  when  supplied  with  living  springs  may  be  converted  into 
nurseries  of  trout — the  best  of  all  fresh-water  fish.  Tlie  streams  or  ponds 
more  sluggish  in  their  nature  may  be  made  equally  productive  in  a  supply 
of  still-water  fish.  This  suliject  has  been  brought  into  extensive  practice  in 
France  and  other  portions  of  Europe,  and  more  recently  a  number  of  suc- 
cessful trials  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  to'multiply  domestic  fishes, 
wliicli  may  be  as  much  at  the  command  of  the  owner  as  the  fowls  in  his 
barn-yard,  affording  an  equal  luxury  and  at  a  much  less  cost. 

or  artificial  propagation  of  fish  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  a  late  number  of 
the  Manchester  (England)  Guardian  said :  "  As  several  reports  have  been 
circulated  in  the  newspapers  to  the  cft'ect  that  the  attempt  to  propagate 


Seo.  13.]  DOMESTIC  FISH-BKEEDING.  269 

salmon  by  artificial  means  in  Ireland  and  elsewhere  had  extensively  failed, 
we  think  it  right  to  state  that  we  have  obtained  some  information  from  the 
very  best  sources,  which  convinces  us  that  these  reports  are  wholly  unfounded. 
On  the  contrary,  we  are  glad  to  say  the  success  attendmg  the  iirst  attempt 
at  propagation  on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  country  has  surj^assed  our  most 
sanguine  expectations.  It  is  reported  from  Perth,  where  about  350,000  ova 
are  nearly  hatched,  that  everytliing  has  progressed  most  satisfactorily ;  the 
whole  of  the  ova,  M'ith  a  trifling  exception,  seem  in  a  lively  state.  The  only 
difficulty  appears  to  be  that  of  providing  sufiicient  ponds  for  such  a  multitude 
of  fishes,  when  they  are  able  to  swim,  as  the  feeding-ponds  already  provided 
will  not  contain  one  tenth  of  them ;  and  such  is  the  number,  that  there 
appears  no  other  way,  after  having  hatched  and  protected  them  for  twenty 
weeks,  but  that  of  committing  them  to  the  river  to  take  their  chance.  At 
Galway  about  260,000  ova  are  in  a  similar  prosperous  condition.  Propagation 
on  a  smaller  scale  has  also  been  carried  into  eflPect  on  the  rivers  Tweed,  Lou- 
chard,  the  Foyle,  Bush  Mills,  the  Blackwater,  the  Moy,  the  Dee,  near  Chester, 
and  other  places.  By  tiie  use  of  spring  water  the  spawn  has  been  entirely 
protected  from  injury  by  frost,  during  the  past  severe  winter;  and  of  2,500 
eggs  which  were  sent  from  Galway  to  Basle,  a  distance  of  nearly  1,000 
miles,  M.  Lex  states  that  a  considerable  portion  are  good,  and  in  a  state  likely 
to  live." 

Eobert  L.  Pell,  of  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  has  done  a  good  deal  to  establish^ 
fish-ponds  upon  his  farm;  he  says  "  that  he  is  trying  to  grow  the  moss-bunker 
for  manure,  and  hopes  for  success  in  growing  them,  but  thinks  the  use  of 
this  fish  the  cause  of  disease  in  the  districts  where  used.  As  many  as  86,000 
moss-bunkers  have  been  taken  in  a  seine  at  one  haul  upon  our  coast.  Mr. 
Pell  also  has  in  his  ponds  the  black  bass  of  the  lakes — a  fish  that  grows  as 
large  as  shad.  Another  fish  from  the  lakes  very  much  resembles  the  black 
bass,  and  flourishes  in  artiflcial  water.  Both  do  well,  and  are  easily  caught 
with  a  hook.  The  dace  is  a  good  fish  for  ponds,  as  he  prefers  still  water. 
The  rock  bass  is  a  common  fish  in  Lake  Champlain,  and  is  much  esteemed, 
and  can  be  cultivated  without  difficulty.  The  muscalonge,  from  the  lakes, 
is  an  excellent  fish,  and  appears  well  calculated  for  artificial  water  if  puiw 
This  fish  grows  large,  and  somewhat  resembles  the  pickerel  or  pike  of  the 
lakes.  Mr.  Pell  has  the  stickleback,  that  curious  little  fish  that  builds  a  nest 
something  like  a  bird.  Haddock  he  has  tried,  but  failed  of  success,  not- 
withstanding he  salted  the  pond.  The  haddock  is  much  inferior  to  the  cod- 
fish, although  frequently  salted  and  sold  as  cod.  He  also  gave  accounts  of 
experiments  with  several  other  varieties,  and  how  to  transport  fish  alive 
safely.  Mr.  Pell  thinks  it  is  possible  to  stock  all  the  streams  in  tlio  country 
with  fish,  and  thereby  increase  the  food  of  the  people  to  a  very  great  extent, 
without  any  expense." 

A  writer  in  The  Ilomestead  says : 

"  Three  years  ago  I  constructed,  in  a  ravine,  a  fish-pond  covering  a  surface 
of  about  three  fourths  of  an  acre.     It  is  fed  by  four  small  springs,  and  ic 


270  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTS.  [Chap.  IL 

ceivcs  a  large  amount  of  surface-water  from  the  slopes  around.  It  is  fifteen 
feet  deep  at  tlie  greatest  depth,  and  lias  shallow  bays  and  inlets,  wliere  the 
ruiall  lish  may  breed  and  find  proleetion  from  larger  ones.  It  contains  a 
small  island,  and  the  shores  are  embellislied  with  flags  (Iris),  water-lilies 
(XymphcB  odorata),  and  olher  water-plants.  It  was  stocked  'witli  yellow 
bass,  Oswego  bass,  white  perch,  and  every  variety  of  sun-fish  and  minnows, 
also  a  dozen  gold-fish  {Cypr'nius  aiiraiua).  And  now,  at  the  end  of  three 
years,  it  is  astonishing  to  note  the  vast  in'crease  in  my  scaly  family.  They 
have  multiplied  by  hundreds,  and  grown  in  size  beyond  all  my  calculations. 
Tiie  gold-fish  number  several  hundred,  some  of  them  over  a  foot  in  lengtli, 
and  a  few  of  them  are  beautifully  niarked  with  silvery  sides  and  red  fins, 
iiead,  and  tail ;  otliers  witli  golden  sides  and  black  fins  and  tail.  I  had  no 
idea  that  they  would  thus  sport  in  colors,  but  certainly  the}'  are  very  beauti- 
ful. The  other  fisli  have  grown  so  much  that  I  intend  to  commence  usitig 
them  for.tlie  table  in  autumn.  I  have  not  fed  these  fish,  except  for  amuse- 
ment and  to  tame  them,  wlien  a  few  crumbs  of  bread  are  tiirown  in  from  a 
small  bridge  connecting  the  island  with  the  shore,  and  the  fish  called  up  like 
cliickens.  The  sun-fish,  gold-fish,  and  smaller  fry  soon  learned  to  cnme  at 
my  call,  and  to  follow  me  in  great  numbers,  from  one  end  of  the  bridge  to 
the  other,  for  their  morning  or  evening  meal. 

"  Tiie  young  bass  (tlie  old  ones  hold  l)ack)  and  the  sun-fish  dart  to  the 
surface  for  their  food,  and  have  a  livelj'  scramble  fcr  it;  the  gold-fish  ]uclc 
i.p  wluii  sinks  to  the  bottom.  Their  habits  in  this  way  are  very  much  like  a 
llock  of  chickens,  for  some  of  the  smaller  fisu  take  their  pofiiion  imme- 
diately under  my  feet,  to  pick  up  the  small  crumbs  that  fall,  in  breaking  the 
larger  ones  to  throw  out.  Some  persons  ri;-'^  a  £n-i:iM  bell  to  1  -irT  tlioir  fish 
up,  but  I  prefer  calling  mine.  They  do  not  appear  to  come  from  a  greator 
distance  than  about  forty  feet  to  any  one  spot.  I  feed  them  in  several  i)laces, 
to  note  the  varieties  and  their  growth.  Now,  as  to  the  utility  of  this  pond, 
it  furnishes  ice  for  my  own  use  and  three  or  four  of  my  neighbors  who  have 
ice-houses;  it  also  affords  excellent  stock  water,  and  will  doubtless  liercafter 
supply  my  table  with  fish.  A  small  skiff  on  its  surlacc  gives  many  a  pleas- 
ant hour  of  recreation  to  the  young  who  are  fond  of  rowing. 

"The  construction  of  this  pond  was  very  simple.  The  earth  was  excavated 
across  the  ravine  four  feet  deep  and  five  feet  wide  for  a  foundation  ;  then 
stiff  clay  filled  in  and  well  pounded,  to  prevent  leakage  at  the  bottom.  Tlio 
earth  from  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  ravine  was  thrown  on  the  top  of  this 
foundation,  to  raise  the  embankment  to  the  proper  hight.  A  waste  weir  at 
one  side,  paved  with  flag-stones,  and  two  feet  lower  tlian  the  top  of  the  dam, 
suflicicntl}-  large  to  carry  off  the  heaviest  flow  of  water  in  very  heavy  rains, 
guarded  by  a  wire  screen  to  prevent  the  cscopc  of  the  fish,  completed  the 
construction.  It  is  now  sodded  over,  and  jilanted  with  willows  at  the  foot, 
and  is  considered  safe.  The  exjiense  of  making  such  a  pond  is  small,  and  it 
adds  much  to  the  value  of  a  farm.'' 

298.  Trout  Streams— Reasons  for  the  Disappearance  of  Trout.— One  of  the 


Sec.  13.]  DOMESTIC  FISH-BREEDING.  271 

very  best  authoi'ities  in  the  country — Geo.  Dawson,  a  great  lover  of  pisca- 
torial sports — gives,  in  the  Albany  Eoeninrj  Journal,  the  following  reasons 
for  the  disappearance  of  tron.t  from  streams  where  they  were  abundant. 
He  says : 

"Every  one  who  has  lived  a  score  of  years  in  the  neighborhood  of  mountain 
or  spring  brooks  remembers  when,  in  such  and  such  a  stream,  trout  were 
abundant,  where  scarcely  one  is  now  ever  taken.  'What  has  become  of 
them  V  is  a  question  which  every  one  has  been  asked,  or  has  asked  himself, 
a  thousand  times.  One  says,  'They  have  been  driven  out  by  sawdust  from 
mills  erected  upon  the  stream.'  Another,  who  lives  where  tanneries  have 
been  erected,  thinks  '  the  tan  bark  has  killed  or  disgusted  them.'  Another 
says,  '  Since  the  alders  which  used  to  border  the  creek  have  been  cut  down, 
and  the  forest  cleared  away,  they  have  sought  greater  solitude.'  Others 
say,  'They  have  gone  because  trout  will  not  stay  where  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  passing  to  and  fro,  as  there  necessarily  is  in  a  thickly  populated  locality  ;' 
and  others  still  insist  that  '  they  have  all  been  fished  out.'  Now,  in  my 
opinion,  not  one  of  these  reasons  is  real.  ISTeither  sawdust,  nor  tan  bark,  nor 
clearings,  nor  dense  population,  nor  excessive  fishing,  is  the  cause  of  depopu- 
lation. Some  of  the  very  best  trout  streams  that  I  know  of  are  full  of  saw- 
dust and  tan  bark.  The  bottom  of  Caledonia  Creek  is  not  only  a  bed  of 
sawdus^,  but  the  creek  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  population,  and  has  been 
fished,  niglit  and  day,  for  thirty  year?.  I^everthelcss,  in  its  cold,  crystal-like 
watei",  trout  are  more  plenty  to-day,  and  more  are  taken,  than  ten  years 
since.  I  have  been  more  lliau  once  surfeited  with  success  in  a  stream  in 
Canada  where  the  sawdust  was  so  thick  that  it  formed  a  compact  covering 
MDon  its  surface  ;  and  cverv  venr  T  take  trout  from  a  little  brook  in  Connecti- 
cut which  has  been  clearea  and  fished  for  almost  a  ctuitury.  There  are  three 
great  causes  for  the  depopulation  of  trout  streams :  First,  the  erection  of 
establishments  upon  them  in  which  lime  is  largely  used ;  second,  the  intro- 
duction into  the  streams  of  jjike  or  pickerel,  whose  voracity  is,  sooner  or 
later,  fatal  to  all  competitors ;  and  thirdly,  and  principally,  the  gradual 
cliange  of  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Trout  will  not  live  long  in  water 
whicli  is  not,  at  all  seasons,  of  a  temperature  which  may  not,  in  comparison 
with  other  water,  be  characterized  as  cold.  Other  causes  besides  those  I 
have  named  sometimes  operate;  but,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred, 
the  changed  temperature  of  the  water  is  the  cause  of  the  absence  of  trout 
from  streams  where  they  were  once  abundant." 

He  does  not  give  the  reason  of  this  change  of  temperature,  but  we  do :  it 
is  just  the  difference  between  a  cool  forest  shade  and  a  broad  expanse  of  hot 
sunshine.  Where  these  mountain  streams  once  were  shaded  from  the  first 
gushing  spring  to  their  mouths  at  some  large  river,  the}'  are  now  exposed  to 
the  full  force  of  the  noonday  sun,  until  the  water  is  heated  to  a  degree  as  fatal 
to  the  brook  trout  as  ice  would  be  to  a  tropical  plant.  Tlie  streams  that  still 
retain  trout  are  those  which  are  so  hirgely  supplied  with  cold  spring  water 
that  the  temperature  is  kept  at  a  healthy  jjoint,  notwithstanding  the  denuded 


272  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND   INSECTS.  [Chap.  II. 

State  of  flic  land.  Sawdust  has  no  more  effect  upon  tlic  fish  than  rotting 
leaves  and  M-ood  in  the  forest  streams.  The  washing  of  cultivated  fields,  by 
which  the  water  is  made  impure,  has  more  effect  upon  fish  of  all  sorts  than 
sawdust,  or,  in  our  ojjinion,  lime,  in  such  quantities  as  result  from  any  manu- 
facturing establishment.  This  fact  must  be  kept  always  in  view  in  establish- 
ing artificial  ponds  for  fish-breeding.  Make  them  where  the  water  will  not 
be  roiled  by  every  shower. 

299.  Eel  Streams  and  Eel-Fishing. — In  all  parts  of  the  country  where  eels 
abound,  they  may  be  made  an  essential  part  of  the  food  of  the  family  in  the 
autumn  months,  if  the  streams  are  such  as  easily  admit  the  construction  of 
weirs  and  placing  traps  or  eel-pots.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  eel 
business  affords  no  mean  item  of  income  to  farmers  who  have  riparian  rights, 
the  work  not  interfering  materially  with  ordinary  farm  labor. 

We  find  the  following  interesting  account  of  the  eel  fishery  on  the  Susque- 
hanna in  the  Lancaster  (Penn.)  Herald  : 

"  About  the  middle  of  August  the  water  of  the  stream  becomes  very  low, 
and  usually  by  September  that  in  the  channel  is  only  a  few  feet  deep,  leav- 
ing the  stony  bottom,  for  a  wide  space  on  either  side,  in  some  places  nearly 
bare,  with  occasional  deeper  furrows  which  pass  along  it.  At  this  stage  of 
water,  the  instinct  which  governs  the  fish  to  descend  the  rivers  previous  to 
the  advent  of  cold  weather  becomes  the  means  of  their  destruction.  For 
many  miles  of  the  river's  length,  therefore,  north  and  south  of  us,  the  people 
owning  tiie  shore  adjoining  erect  their  fisli-dams  and  gins,  by  deepening  the 
cliannel  somewhat,  and  building  an  elongated  Y-sliaped  wall,  at  the  lower 
])oint  of  which  is  fixed  a  box,  from  M-hich  the  fisii,  when  once  caught,  can 
not  extricate  themselves.  Obeying  this  instinct  in  their  descent  of  the 
stream,  they  find  themselves  borne  pleasantly  in  this  channel,  and,  wriggling 
themselves  cheerily,  they  let  the  current,  pent  in  by  t!jc  walls,  carry  them 
along  until  they  tumble  plump  into  the  box  at  the  termination  of  the  V. 
The  fish  taken  in  this  manner  are  for  tiie  most  part  eels,  of  which  almost 
incredible  quantities  are  captured  during  the  fall  season.  Their  '  run' only 
takes  place  during  the  night.  In  daytime  they  j-emain  quiet  in  the  compar- 
atively deep  pools  of  the  river.  The  work  of  catching  them,  liowever,  is  no 
sinecure,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  labor  as  of  the  wakefulness  and  ex- 
posure which  it  involves.  In  some  of  the  dark  and  showery  nights  of  the 
season  the  game  will  come  into  the  box  so  fast  that  the  watcher,  who  is  often 
stationed  there  with  a  boat,  can  scarcely  remove  them  into  it  with  sufficient 
celerity.  At  other  times  there  will  be  scarcely  spoil  enough  in  the  boxes  to 
repay  the  trouble  in  watching  them.  It  is  only  the  larger  apparatus  and 
dams,  however,  that  arc  thus  cared  for,  the  smaller  being  rarely  filled  to 
overflowing.  Fishermen  secure  and  salt  down  some  five  or  ten  barrels  of 
eels  during  the  season,  besides  living  entirely  upon  them  during  the  catch. 
The  larger  operators  make  the  business  pay,  as  a  single  man  alone  can 
perform  all  the  labor  required  in  taking  and  salting  the  fish.  We  have 
seen  various  illustratiocs  of  digital  dexterity,  and  also  Ole  Bull's  manipu- 


Seo.  13.] 


DOMESTIC  FISn-BREEDlNG. 


273 


latiou  of  the  violin,  but  could  any  rapid  manipulator  once  behold  the 
marvelous  rapidity  with  wliicli  some  of  tlie  fishermen  divest  the  eels  of  their 
slippery  epidermis  or  integuments,  they  would  stand  abashed,  and,  like  the 
sable  individual  in  the  song,  '  Lay  down  the  fiddle  and  the  hoe'  forever 
af  urv,-ard.  We  are  at  a  loss  to  see  how  it  is  possible  for  any  fish  whatever 
to  descend  to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  excepting  it  be  a  few  belated  ones, 
who  delay  their  return  until  a  rise  in  the  river  gives  them  security  from  the 
low-water  traps.  From  Marietta  to  a  point  perhaps  100  miles  up,  excepting 
in  a  few  jilaces,  these  eel-gins  are  so  numerous  that  they  must  entirely  emj)ty 
the  river  of  eels,  the  run  bontinuing  constantly  until  frost,  and  the  fishing 
being  terminated  only,  as  we  have  already  said,  by  the  fall  rains.  "When 
these  occur,  the  boxes  are  taken  up.  The  walls  which  remain  under  tiie 
water  are  very  seldom  disturbed,  and  the  next  year,  with  very  little  repairs, 
are  just  as  good  as  ever.  The  eels  are  packed  in  full-sized  barrels,  and  many 
are  sent  to  Baltimore.  Quantities  are  purchased  by  sea-going  vessels,  whose 
skippers  are  aware  of  the  delicious  flavor  of  this  rather  anomalous  article 
of  provision. " 

The  kind  alluded  to  in  this  extract  is  the  "  silver  eel,"  which  is  also  taken 
all  along  the  sea-coast  by  hooks  and  spears,  and  sold  in  great  abundance  m 
all  the  city  markets,  at  as  high  a  price  per  pound  as  beef  or  mutton. 

Now  will  farmers  please  to  think  that  eels  can  be  artificially  bred  as  well 
as  any  other  fish,  and  that  there  are  a  great  many  streams  and  ponds,  par- 
ticularly in  the  West,  where  there  are  no  eels,  which  might  be  made  to  fur- 
nish a  vast  amount  of  food,  as  well  for  home  use  as  for  sale. 

There  is  another  kind  of  eels  called  lamprey,  or  lamper-eels,  much  esteemed 
in  some  places.  This  kind  have  no  gills,  but  have  sucker  mouths,  and 
breathing  holes  upon  each  side  of  the  neck.  These  are  found  sometimes  iu 
great  abundance  in  the  streams  of  the  Eastern  States,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  and  are  easily  caught  by  hand,  by  wading  the  shallows  of  the  stream, 
where  they  are  found  clinging  by  their  mouths  to  the  rocks  or  large  pebble 
stones. 

Tiie  silver  eels  are  also  caught  by  wading  streams  at  night,  with  torches 
and  spears,  during  low  water,  after  harvest.  This  used  to  be  accounted 
great  sport  for  the  boys,  when  we  were  counted  one.  Many  a  good  meal 
we  furnished  the  family,  also,  by  sitting  an  hour  or  two  of  a  summer  even- 
ing by  the  side  of  the  mill-pond,  with  a  hook  baited  with  a  small  fish.  This 
we  mention  to  encourage  farmers  to  take  steps  toward  re-stocking  their 
streams  and  ])onds,  as  well  as  making  artificial  ones. 

300.  Aucient  Fish-Brcedingi — Lest  our  readers  should  suppose  artificial 
breeding  of  fish  is  a  "  new-fangled  notion,"  we  state  that  it  has  been  prac- 
ticed in  China  many  centuries  ;  and  it  is  probably  a  century  since  the  mat- 
ter attracted  attention  in  Germany. 

In  that  country  fish-bveeding  has  now  become  an  extensive  and  profitable 
business.  In  France,  also,  there  are  many  establishments,  in  some  of  which 
it  has  been  demonstrated  that  salmon  can  be  successfully  bred  in  fresh-water 


274  SMALL  ANIMALS  AND  INSECTa  [Chap.  U. 

ponds,  from  eggs  obtained  from  salmon  that  come  from  the  sea  into  fresh- 
water streams  to  deposit  tlieir  eggs  at  the  spawning  season,  -without  allow- 
ing the  fish  ever  to  swim  in  sea-water.  And  these  young  fish,  it  is  found, 
will  reproduce  their  species. 

If  what  we  have  written  should  incite  any  one  to  undertake  to  make  arti- 
ficial ponds,  or  stock  the  natural  waters  of  his  farm  with  that  kind  of  living 
animals  wliich  will  give  him  the  cheapest  animal  food  that  can  be  produced, 
he  should  first  procure  and  carefully  study  the  books  already  published  upon 
this  question,  and,  if  possible,  visit  those  who  have  had  experience,  such  as 
Dr.  Garlick,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Eobert  L.  Pell,  of  Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Messrs. 
Treat  &  Son,  Eastport,  Maine,  E.  C.  Kellogg,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  many 
others. 

As  an  article  of  diet,  there  is  no  mistaking  the  fact,  gained  by  reading 
and  observation,  that  it  is  conducive  to  health,  and  particularly  that  those 
who  use  fish  as  their  principal  food  are  exetnpt  from  scrofulous  and  tu])crcu- 
lous  diseases.  This  alone  should  prompt  artificial  breeding  of  fish  in  this 
c<iuntry. 


PLATE    XIII. 

(Page  275.) 

This  picture  in  its  two  parts  is  allegorical,  though  drawn  from  an 
original.  It  is  intended  to  teach.  It  should  be  studied  with  that 
object.  Then  it  will  convey  its  own  lesson.  If  the  residence  of 
fiirraer  Snug  is  most  attractive,  let  every  farmer  strive  to  make  his 
so,  and  keep  it  in  that  order.  If  the  residence  of  farmer  Slack  is 
repulsive,  let  it  be  a  lesson  to  every  f\xrmer's  son. 

After  looking  at  this  picture,  placed  as  a  frontispiece  to  Chapter 
III. — The  Farmery — let  him  carefully  read  that  chapter.  It  is  full 
of  instruction.  This  picture  is  not  designed  as  an  index  to  the  con- 
tents of  that  chapter,  but  to  tell  its  own  story — a  stor}'  of  good  and 
bad  management.  As  you  read,  you  will  see  how  such  a  residence 
as  this  dilapidated  one  produces  a  debasing  influence  upon  the  mind/ 
of  children,  and  what  inducements  you  have  to  beautify  home. 


TlIE  S.VMK  rXJLVK  VirnVM   FAltMBK  SlA»'KS»  MaJCAjAMRST. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  FAEMEEY, 

DESCnrBING    THE    BUILDINGS,    TAKD8,    WELLS,    CISTERNS,    AQUEDUCTS    AND    STEUC- 
TUEES   NECESSAEY   FOE  CARKYING   ON   THE   BUSINESS    OF    THE   FARM. 

SECTION  XIV.-FARM-HOUSES. 

""li   tins   section,  the   size,  form  and  construction  of 
farm-liouses,  and  adaptation  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  designed,  will  be  treated,  and  reasons  given  why 
they  should  be  convenient,  light,  well-ventilated,  airy  in 
:  Summer,  warm  in  "Winter,  and  handsome,  both  in  the  inte- 
rior and  exterior.     Here,  too,  all  who  need  the  information, 
will  be  able  to  learn  how  to  build  their  dwellings  so  as  to 
make  them,  without  great  cost,  all  that  wo  have  indicated. 

301.  Influence  of  the  Dwelling  upon  Character. — "I  Avill 
tell  you  the  character  of  the  man,  if  you  will  show  me  the 
house  he  lives  in."  This  quotation  embodies  a  volume  of 
truth,  and  the  fact  should  be  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  all 
farmers'  children,  as  well  those  who  live  in  such  a  house  as 
that  of  Farmer  Thrifty,  as  those  in  the  tumble-down  mansion 
of  Farmer  Slack.  If  they  were  bom  in  one  like  the  former,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  they  received  influences  at  the  breast,  that  will  always  keep  them  out 
of  one  like  the  latter.  If  they  were  so  unfortunate  as  to  belong  to  the  nume- 
rous family  of  Slacks,  let  it  be  impressed  upon  their  minds  that  the  cliaracter 
of  a  man  is  known  by  the  appearance  of  the  house  he  lives  in.  None  but  a 
"  Slack  farmer  "  ever  lived  through  a  lifetime  in  such  a  miserable  dwelling 
place  as  some  of  our  American  farm-houses. 

There  is  a  debasing  influence  about  a  mean  house  upon  the  minds  of 
children  ;  while  a  good  one,  that  has  many  points  of  beauty  about  it,  makes 
them  not  only  love  to  call  it  "  home,"  but  it  always  has  an  influence  upon 
their  minds  to  attract  them  away  from  places  that  might  injuriously  affect 
their  morals,  for  it  is  a  home  that  they  love.  Such  a  home  also  attracts 
proper  associates  for  your  children,  to  come  and  spend  a  pleasant  winter 
evening,  or  a  leisure  day,  under  the  parental  influence,  and  will  make 
them  good  men  and  women  ;  and  all  because  you  provided  for  your  family 
such  a  home  as  all  American  farmers'  families  should  enjoy. 

302.  Inducements  to  Beautify  Home. — One  of  the  strongest  and  one  of  the 
most  common  inducements  for  the  sons  and  daughters  of  farmers  to  leave  the 
country  for  a  city  life,  is  the  neglect  of  parents  to  beautify  home,  and  teach 


276  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

cliildren  to  love  it  Lecause  eventliin^  around  it  is  more  clieerful,  more  beau- 
tiful, more  pleasant,  more  enticing  than  any  other  spot  known  to  them. 
Instead  of  this,  it  is  certainly  true  that  a  very  large  portion  of  our  farm- 
honses  are,  in  almost  every  respect,  exactly  such  places  as  children  of  intclli- 
"cnce,  who  chance  to  see  or  read  of  the  attractions  of  other  places,  are  most 
anxious  to  leave.  Ho  prevent  the  exodus  of  your  children,  the  moment  they 
"•et  old  enough  to  liave  ideas  of  their  own,  let  it  be  one  of  the  life  studies  of 
every  parent  to  make  the  children  sensible  that  their  home  is  equal,  if  not 
superior,  in  all  that  serves  to  make  life  worth  living  for,  to  that  of  any  other 
family  in  the  same  station  of  life.  K  your  house  is  small,  it  is  all  the  more 
easily  painted,  and  made  to  wear  an  attractive  outward  appearance,  and  it  is 
no  good  reason,  because  it  is  small,  that  its  interior  should  be  most  incon- 
venient, uncomfortable  and  unattractive.  Study  to  make  your  house  such 
in  every  respect  that  your  visitors  will  say,  "  "What  a  lovely  place,"  and  you 
will  make  your  children  contented  and  yourself  happy,  and  all  will  exclaim, 
"  There  is  no  place  like  home." 

"  More  than  building  showy  mansion, 

More  than  dress  or  fine  array, 
More  than  domes  or  lofty  steeples. 

More  than  station,  power  and  sway. 
Make  your  home  botli  neat  and  tasteful, 

Bright  and  pleasant,  always  fair. 
Where  each  heart  shall  rest  contented, 

Grateful  for  each  beauty  there." 

Is  there  any  one  tliought  likely  to  be  called  up  in  after  years  so  pleasing  as 
the  reminiscences  of  a  happy  childhood's  home,  when,  like  the  freshness  of  a 
gunny  May  morning,  we  can  call  up  the  panorama  of  the  wrens  chirping  on 
the  peach  trees  under  our  windows,  and  the  call  of  robin  redbreast  to  his 
mate  in  the  orchard,  where  the  lambs  are  playing  bopeep  around  the  trees? 
Then  there  is  the  garden  with  its  Spring  and  early  Summer  beauties,  the 
breakfast  table  covered  with  a  snowy  cloth,  and  garnished  with  clean  white 
ware,  and  provided  with  such  bread  and  butter — ornamented,  perhaps, 
with  a  fragrant  bouquet,  with  the  dew  still  glistening  among  the  leaves, 
j;ist  gathered  by  a  lovely  sister,  with  a  thousand  other  nameless  attractions 
that  will  float  before  the  mind's  eye,  to  remind  it  of  the  pleasures  of  home. 

AVe  look  upon  a  love  of  home  as  one  of  the  virtues,  that,  as  a  people,  the 
American  farmers  arc  entirely  too  much  neglecting.  In  fact,  a  dislike  of 
home  is  much  more  common  than  the  contrary,  and  an  old  homestead  is 
parted  from  with  as  little  reluctance  as  an  old  shoe,  and  very  often  for  the 
same  reason — because  it  is  down  at  the  heel. 

"  Seek  to  make  your  home  most  lovely, 
Home  should  be  a  sniilin,;;  spot ; 
,  Such  a  home  makes  man  the  better 

In  lofty  mansion  or  a  cot." 

As  one  of  the  easy  means  of  beautifying  your  house,  make  it  light ; 
"misery  dwelleth  in  darkness." 


Seo.  14.]  FARM-HOUSES.  277 

303.  Reasons  why  a  Dwelling  should  be  Light. — ^There  is  a  inania  for  dark 
rooms.  People  do  not  appear  to  be  aware  of  the  fact,  tliat  dark  rooms  are 
deleterious  to  health.  Hear  what  Florence  Nightingale  says  upon  this  sub- 
ject: 

"  A  dark  house  is  almost  always  an  imhealthy  house,  always  an  ill-aired 
house,  always  a  dirty  house.  Want  of  light  stops  gfowth,  and  promotes 
scrofula,  rickets,  etc.,  among  the  children.  People  lose  their  health  in  a 
dark  house,  and  if  they  get  ill,  they  cannot  get  well  again  in  it.  Three,  out 
of  many  '  negligences  and  ignorances '  in  managing  the  health  of  houses 
generally,  I  will  here  mention  as  specimens.  First,  that  the  female  in 
charge  of  any  buildiug  does  not  think  it  necessary  to  visit  every  hole  and 
corner  of  it  every  day.  IIow  can  she  expect  those  who  are  under  her  to  be 
more  careful  to  maintain  her  house  in  a  healthy  condition  than  she  who  is 
in  charge  of  it  ?  Second,  that  it  is  not  considered  essential  to  air,  to  sun, 
and  to  clean  rooms  Avhile  uninhabited  ;  which  is  simply  ignoring  the  first 
elementary  notion  of  sanitary  things,  and  laying  the  ground  ready  for  all 
kinds  of  disease.  Third,  that  the  window,  and  one  window  is  considered 
enough  to  air  a  room.  Don't  imagine  that  if  you  are  in  charge,  and  don't 
look  to  all  these  things  yourself,  those  under  you  will  be  more  careful  than 
you  are.  It  appears  as  if  the  part  of  the  mistress  was  to  complain  of  her 
servants,  and  to  accept  their  excuse — not  to  show  them  how  there  need  be 
neither  complaints  nor  excuses." 

We  beg  of  all  who  build  houses,  as  well  as  those  who  keep  them,  to 
become  aware  of  the  fact,  that  there  is  a  generous  abundance  of  sunlight  ii' 
the  countr}',  yet  the  observer  is  often  convinced  that  a  majority  of  country 
houses  are  but  scantily  provided  with  this  first  requisite  of  health  and 
comfort. 

In  reference  to  admitting  light  freely  into  our  houses,  the  words  of  a  writer 
on  the  subject  are  pertinent.  He  says:  "From  several  years' observations 
in  rooms  of  various  sizes,  used  as  manufacturing  rooms,  and  occupied  by 
females  for  twelve  hours  each  day,  I  found  that  the  workers  who  occupied 
those  rooms  which  had  large  windows,  with  large  panes  of  glass,  in  the  four 
sides  of  the  room,  so  that  the  rays  of  the  run  penetrated  through  the  whole 
room  during  the  whole  day,  were  much  more  healthy  than  those  who  occu- 
pied rooms  lighted  from  one  side  only,  or  rooms  lighted  through  very  small 
panes  of  glass."  Notwithstanding  the  cheapness  and  facility  with  which 
glass  can  be  obtained,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  windows  even  in  what  is 
usually  considered  the  better  class  of  American  dwellings.  Sitting  rooms, 
cheerless  enough  in  having  one  or  two  small  windows,  almost  extinguished 
beneath  heavy  drapery  of  paper  and  cloth,  are  exceedingly  common.  For 
ordinary  rooms,  white  cotton  cloth  fastened  on  rollers,  as  paper  is  usually 
lumg  for  window  shades,  is  sufiicient  for  the  purpose  of  screen — admitting 
at  tlio  same  time  a  difi'used  and  softened  light. 

Dark  colors  upon  the  walls,  absorbing  more  or  less  of  the  prismatic  rays, 
are  also  unfavorable  in  their  effects.     The  writer  just  quoted  found  that  in 


278  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  Ill 


rooms  of  eqiiiil  ventilation,  light  and  drainage,  sonic  of  which  had  white 
walls,  and  others  yellow  or  buff-colored,  the  occuiuere  were  not  equally 
cheerful  and  healthy.  The  workers  in  rooms  with  colored  walls  were  all 
inclined  to  melancholy,  and  complained  of  pains  in  the  forehead  and  eyes, 
and  were  often  ill  and  unable  to  work.  By  having  the  color  removed  and 
replaced  by  wliitewash,  uniform  healtli  and  cheerfulness  were  ever  after 
secured.  In  architecture,  a  course  of  progress  is  distinctly  marked  from  the 
cave,  the  wigwam  and  hut  of  the  savage,  who  rudely  supplies  his  few  Avants; 
from  the  tent  and  mosque  of  the  Arab ;  from  the  cots  beneath  the  castle  and 
beside  the  palace ;  from  the  negro  quarters  to  the  mansion-house ;  and  we 
wish  M'c  could  say,  progressing  upward  to  comfortable,  light,  cheerful,  ele- 
gant homes  for  every  American  farmer. 

Let  them  learn  that  they  cannot  live  rightly  in  dark  dwellings.  Tlic 
mother  who,  in  the  fulfillment  of  her  office,  preeminently  receives  and 
appropriates  from  all  the  life  sustaining  elements,  suffers  a  twofold  wrong,  in 
the  injury  to  herself  and  oflspring,  by  dwelling  in  darksome  apartments ;  and 
childhood  in  such  homes  is  pale  and  puny — often  worse — is  squalid  and  most 
pitiably  diseased.  Tlie  predominance  of  the  chemical  rays  in  Spring-time 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  adaptations  of  this  season  to  the  young  of  animals 
w'hich  then  begin  their  existence,  and  it  also  exerts  a  decided  influence  upon 
our  own  physical  health.  The  invalid  desires  the  return  of  Spring,  for  he 
instinctively  feels  that  nature  without  will  then  come  to  the  aid  of  nature 
within  ;  and  who,  after  the  cold  and  lifeless  Winter,  does  not  love  to  seek  the 
wind-sheltered  nook,  there  to  drink  in  the  warm  sunlight,  and  to  receive  upon 
the  brow  its  life-giving  blessing?  Who  has  not  felt  the  glorious  influence  of 
"bathing  in  the  sunshine?"  Then,  we  conjure  you,  let  the  sunshine  into 
your  house,  and  do  not  be  afraid  of  letting  in  the  air,  day  or  night. 

An  extraordinary  fallacy  is  the  dread  of  night  air.  What  but  night  air 
can  we  breathe  at  night?  The  choice  is  between  pure  night  air  from 
without  and  foul  night  air  from  within.  Most  people  prefer  the  latter.  An 
unaccountable  choice.  What  will  they  say,  if  it  is  proved  to  be  true,  that 
fully  one-half  of  all  the  disease  we  sufier  fi-om,  is  occasioned  by  people 
sleepmg  with  their  windows  shut  ?  An  open  window,  most  nights  in  the 
year,  can  never  hurt  any  one.  In  sickness,  air  and  light  are  both  necessary 
for  recovery-.  In  great  cities,  night  air  is  often  the  best  and  purest  air  to  be 
had  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  I  could  better  understand  shutting  the 
windows  in  towns,  during  the  day,  than  during  tlie  night,  for  tlie  sake  of  the 
sick.  Tlie  absence  of  smoke,  the  quiet,  all  tend  to  make  night  the  best  time 
for  airing  the  patient.  One  of  our  highest  medical  authorities  on  consump- 
tion and  climate,  has  declared  that  the  air  in  London  is  never  so  good  as  after 
ten  o'clock  at  night.  Always  air  your  room,  then,  from  the  outside  air,  if 
possible.  Windows  arc  made  to  open,  doors  are  made  to  shut — a  truth 
which  seems  extremely  difficult  of  application. 

304.  The  Location  of  a  Farm-house. — Adaptability  is  the  word  that  farm- 
ers should  study,  above  all  others,  when  about  to  build  a  house.     It  is  the 


Sec.  14.]  FARM-HOUSES.  279 


word  that  they  study  least,  if  we  may  judge  from  what  may  he  seen  in  a 
majority  of  the  farm-houses  where  we  have  travelled — that  is,  from  Quebec 
to  New  Orleans,  and  from  Florida  to  Mackinaw.  E\-ery\vhere  is  seen  the 
lack  of  adaptability  to  the  purpose,  either  in  size,  form  or  location.  Not  one 
farm-house  in  ten  is  located  upon  the  farm  as  well  as  it  could  have  been.  In 
all  the  eastern,  western  and  northern  States,  the  farmery  is  found,  nine  times 
out  often,  upon  some  public  road,  without  reference  to  the  convenience  of 
farming  operations ;  and  frequently,  in  all  respects,  is  very  inconvenient. 

The  location  of  the  farm-house,  and  tlie  arrangement  of  all  the  buildings 
connected  with  the  farmery,  require  the  exercise  of  good  judgment,  fine 
taste,  carefully  exercised  skill,  all  combined,  more  than  any  other  single 
operation  of  a  wliole  lifetime,  because  it  is  not  only  for  the  lifetime  of  the 
builder,  but  succeeding  generations. 

In  tlie  first  place,  the  top  of  the  hill,  or  highest  point  of  a  hilly  farm,  never 
sliould  be  selected  for  the  dwelling  of  the  farmer ;  such  a  site  is  only  fit  for 
tlie  residence  of  the  lord  of  the  manor,  who  intends  to  carry  on  farming  by 
a  tenant,  or  hired  farmer,  who  will  occupy  the  house  of  the  formery  proper. 
His  residence  is  not  the  farm-house;  it  is  the  mansion  of  the  proprietor, 
and  may  be  built  to  suit  the  owner's  taste,  if  he  has  any.  Our  remarks  are 
intended  to  apply  to  farm-houses — the  dwellings  of  that  numerous  class  in 
x\.nierica  who  own  the  soil  they  till,  partly  with  their  own  hands,  and  partly 
with  those  of  hirelings. 

305.  Size  and  Form  of  a  Farm-house. — It  is  not  size  that  makes  a  dwell- 
ing-house attractive,  beautiful,  or  convenient.  It  is  adaptability  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  was  desigued.  Indeed,  a  house  often  has  an  impleasant 
appearance  on  account  of  its  size,  because  it  gives  the  mind  an  impression 
that  it  is  iinnecessarily  large  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed. 

It  is  necessary  that  some  farm-houses  should  be  large — that  is,  afford  a 
great  deal  of  room ;  but  they  never  should  appear  large,  for  if  they  do  they 
almost  inevitably  appear  uncouth. 

Make  just  as  much  of  the  room  as  possible,  on  the  same  level.  A  farm- 
house with  twelve  rooms,  should  have  eight  of  them  on  the  lower  floor. 
Never  have  a  basement  kitchen. 

No  woman,  during  the  years  of  child-bearing,  who  docs  much  of  her  own 
work,  or  oversees  it  when  done  by  servants,  should  be  compelled  to  go  iip 
and  down  stairs  every  hour  of  the  day.  Ilcr  sitting,  or  fiimily-room,  bed- 
room, dining-room,  kitchen,  wash-room,  wood-room,  well  and  cistern,  shoidd 
all  be  on  the  same  level,  or  with  a  variation  of  not  more  than  two  or  three 
steps.  You  cannot  be  a  good  man  if  you  compel  your  wife  to  run  up  and 
down  stairs  to  do  her  every-day  housework.  You  are  not  a  good  man,  nor  a 
man  of  taste  and  good  judgment,  if  you  build  your  house  unnecessarily  large, 
because  it  will  cause  your  wife  many  weary,  extra  steps  to  keep  it  tidy  and 
always  swept  and  garnished  as  you  should  be  proud  to  have  it  appear  to 
strangers.  You  are  unworthy  the  name  of  man  if  you  keep  your  wife  toil- 
ing in  a  house  entirely  too  small  for  the  necessities  of  your  family,  or  in  one 


2S0  TIIE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI. 

wretchedly  ill-adapted  to  their  wants,  one  single  year  after  you  are  ahlc  to 
jirovide  a  better  one. 

306.  What  constitutes  a  fonvrnifiit  Farin-house> — We  can  only  speak  in 
general  terms  of  the  plans  of  farm-houses,  hccause  every  plan  is  modified  Ly 
location  and  the  wants  of  the  proprietor ;  but  we  can  give  an  opinion  that 
will  be  some  guide  to  the  new  beginner  in  farm  life,  or  one  about  to  construct 
a  farm-house. 

We  will  suppose  a  farm  of  one  or  two  hundred  acres,  and  a  family  of  four 
adults  and  four  children,  besides  the  necessary  hirelings,  which  in  most  of 
the  Northern  States,  are  domiciled  in  the  family  dwejling.  It  should,  there- 
fore, have  a  family-room  located  in  the  most  pleasant  part  of  the  house, 
where  the  evenings,  and  all  other  leisure  Incurs,  are,  or  should  be,  spent; 
where  the  young  mother  devotes  many  days  and  nights  of  toil  to  her 
children;  where  all  the  family  feel  "at  home,"  more  than  in  any  other 
room. 

Adjoining  this  room  there  should  be  a  large  family  bed-room,  with  conve- 
niences for  warming  it,  so  that  it  can  be  used  as  a  sick-room  when  necessary. 
There  should  also  be  a  parlor,  or  spare-room ;  for  it  is  not  always  desirable 
to  introduce  company  into  the  family-room.  Tliere  should  be  a  dining-room, 
large  enough  not  only  to  accommodate  the  family,  but,  if  necessary,  a  dozen 
guests.  This  room  should  be  so  arranged  that  upon  occasion,  particularly  in 
Winter,  it  can  be  used  for  a  part  of  the  cooking.  This  would  often  save  the 
necessity  of  kindling  a  fire  in  the  kitchen  in  a  cold  Winter  morning,  to  get 
an  early  breakfast.  The  farm-house  kitchen,  where  so  much  of  woman's 
work  must  be  done,  should  be  a  large,  cheerful,  light  apartment,  with  all  the 
conveniences  that  modern  ingenuity  has  made  to  facilitate  labor.  It  should 
also,  above  all  other  considerations,  be  so  ventilated  that  there  would  be  no 
necessity  for  opening  a  door  or  window  to  let  out  tiie  smoke  of  a  broiling 
steak,  or  that  of  the  buckwheat  cake  griddle.  Tlie  best  cooking  apparatus  is 
a  good  range,  permanently  set  in  the  chimney.  One  of  suitable  size  for  such 
a  family  as  we  have  indicated,  will  cost  about  thirty  dollars  without  cook- 
ing utensils.  The  two  ovens  of  a  range  obviate  the  necessity  of  a  brick  oven 
in  the  kitchen  chimney.  It  will  be  convenient  to  have  such  an  oven  in  the 
wash-room,  which  should  be  attached  to  every  farm-house  kitchen.  This 
should  have  an  open  fire-place,  a  kettle  set  in  an  arch,  a  brick  floor,  a  large 
sink,  and  a  pump  which  draws  soft  water  from  the  well  or  cistern.  Divided 
off  from  this  wash-room,  there  should  be  a  large  store-room,  for  such  coarse 
things  as  barrels  of  flour,  fruit,  fresh  meat,  and  articles  of  kitchen  furniture 
not  in  every-day  use.  Beyond  the  wash-room,  there  should  be  a  room  for 
fuel ;  and  the  best  of  all,  when  it  can  be  had  at  a  moderate  cost,  is  anthracite 
coal.  Opening  out  of  the  kitchen  there  should  be  a  pantry,  large  enough, 
and  with  conveniences  to  store  all  the  groceries  aiul  food  in  every-day  use. 
In  this,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  be  sure  to  have  a  refrigerator;  and 
adjoining  the  kitchen,  there  should  be  a  milk  and  butter  room,  where  nothing 
else  is  ever  kept.     If  cheese  is  nuule,  it  must  have  a  separate  room.     Butter 


Sio.  14.]  FAKM-HOUSES.  281 

and  cheese  must  not  be  stored  togetlier.  The  way  to  the  ceUar  should  ojjen 
out  of  the  kitchen.  We  do  not  advocate  large  cellars  under  the  house, 
because  they  are  apt  to  become  the  storehouses  of  a  vast  amount  of  stuff  tha 
would  be  more  fittingly  stored  in  some  out-building,  or  an  out-cellar.  Cellars 
are  generally  kept  in  a  way  that  seriously  endangers  the  health  of  the  family. 
If  the  house  is  set  as  it  should  be,  well  up  from  the  ground,  and  ventilated 
under  the  floor,  it  is  better  calculated  to  promote  health  than  a  cellar. 
If  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  very  dry,  the  space  under  the  wash-room  may 
be  used  for  a  store-room,  or  even  milk-room,  properly  ventilated.  Every 
kitchen  should  have  one  or  more  closets,  upon  the  shelves  of  which  the  many 
little  things  can  be  kept,  each  in  its  place,  and  all  in  order.  In  the  dining- 
room  there  should  be  two  closets  :  one  for  dishes  in  overy-day  use,  and  one 
in  which  anything  not  always,  but  occasionally,  wanted  upon  the  table,  and 
anything  desirable  to  be  locked  iip,  can  be  safely  stored. 

There  should  be  a  large  closet  for  the  use  of  the  sitting-room  ;  and  there 
must  be  such  a  one  in  the  fixmily  bed-room.  In  fact,  this  should  be  a  double 
room,  a  smaller  one  attached  to  the  larger  for  the  small  children ;  and  tiiis 
should  have  its  closet,  or  clothes-press,  that  children  might  be  early  taught  to 
put  every  article  of  clothing  in  its  proper  place. 

The  larger  children,  and  other  adults,  should  have  large,  airy  bed-rooms 
up  stairs ;  and  no  farm-house  will  be  complete  without  two,  at  least,  "  spare 
bed-rooms." 

307.  How  to  Build  a  Convenient  House. — A  pleasant-looking,  unostenta- 
tious farm-house,  to  contain  the  rooms  indicated,  may  bo  of  the  following 
dimensions.  A  two-story  portion,  34  by  24  feet,  would  give  half  of  the 
parlor  16  by  16  feet,  and  a  spare  bed-room  10  by  10  feet,  and  a  hall  6  by  16 
feet ;  a  stairway  3^  by  10  feet ;  a  space  for  pantry,  or  closets,  2~  by  10  feet ; 
a  family,  or  sitting-room,  13  by  18  feet,  and  two  bed-rooms,  10  by  11  and 
8  by  11  feet.  This  building  may  be  roofed  to  pitch  either  way.  The  other 
half  of  the  parlor,  not  comprised  in  this  space,  is  to  be  gained  by  an  attach- 
ment, 8  by  16  feet,  one  story  high,  attached  to  that  side  to  balance  the 
piazza,  giving  the  house  more  of  a  cottage  look,  as  well  as  being  less  expen- 
sive, -and  making  better  rooms  on  the  second  floor. 

Attached  to  the  main  building,  a  wing  or  L  part,  a  story  and  a  half  high, 
will  give  a  dining-room  12  by  18  feet,  a  kitchen  16  by  18  feet,  a  wash-room 
12  by  12  feet,  a  store-room  6  by  12  feet,  a  pantry  6  Ijy  8  feet,  a  milk-room 
6  by  6  feet,  and  passage  and  stairway  to  the  half  story,  which  will  make  good 
lodging-rooms  for  hirelings. 

The  fuel-room  may  be  a  separate  building,  and  although  used  for  such  a 
purpose,  may  be  made  M'ith  a  finish  to  correspond  with  the  house,  and  set 
forward  flush  with  the  piazza,  which  is  to  extend  along  the  front  of  this  wing, 
and  will  form  a  good  termination  to  the  walk,  besides  being  convenient  and 
ajiproachable  from  all  parts  of  the  house  under  cover.  Tliis  piazza,  which  is 
6  by  46  feet,  and  one  8  by  16  feet  adjoining,  should,  if  possible,  have  a  south- 
eastern exposure,  which  will  make  it  pleasant  to  all  the  rooms  most  used. 


282  TUE  FAKMERY.  [Chap.  JII. 

We  do  not  give  this  as  a  superlatively  excellent  plan  of  a  farni-lionse 
but  one  that  would  be  convenient,  comfortable,  inexpensive,  and  capable  of 
being  erected  in  two  or  three  parts,  if  necessary,  at  different  periods,  and 
upon  the  cheap  plan  described  in  No.  350. 

The  advantage  that  we  claim  for  this  over  some  other  plans  is,  that  if 
built  in  parts,  at  different  periods,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
proprietor,  each  portion  may  be  inade  to  appear,  and  serve  the  purpose  of,  a 
complete  house.  Thus,  the  part  24  by  3-i  feet,  with  the  little  wings,  one 
forming  half  tlie  parlor,  and  the  other  the  piazza,  will  be  a  neat  looking 
house,  and  a  comfortable  one  for  a  small  family ;  using  the  sitting-room  as  a 
kitchen,  and  one  bed-room  as  a  pantry.  Then  the  dining-room,  kitchen, 
wash-room,  etc.,  might  be  added,  one  at  a  time,  as  ability  or  necessity 
prompts.  Or,  the  part  containing  the  kitchen,  could  be  built  first,  and 
M'ould  make  a  tolerable  house  by  itself. 

Another  advantage  of  the  plan  is,  that  the  rooms  are  all  liglit  and  airy ; 
every  room,  except  one  small  bedroom,  has  windows  upon  two  or  more  sides, 
and  the  whole  house  will  appear  to  every  passer-by,  as  though  built  for  use, 
rather  than  show.  It  is  a  great  convenience  to  have  a  house  so  constructed 
that  strangers  can  find  some  other  than  the  front  door  entrance. 

The  space  in  front  of  the  piazza  should  be  a  plat  of  shrubbery,  which 
would  form  a  partial  screen,  and  in  front  of  that  the  flower  garden.  There 
may  be  a  door  out  of  the  dining-room  into  a  garden  upon  that  side. 

In  arranging  the  plan  of  this  house,  the  object  has  been  to  place  the  least 
used  rooms  in  the  house,  the  parlor  and  spare  bod-rooms,  upon  the  right  and 
left-hand  side  of  the  hall,  as  you  enter  the  front  door  from  the  portico.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  hall  is  the  family  room,  and  large  and  small  bed-room. 
The  stairway  is  situated,  not  for  show  in  the  hall,  but  convenient  to  all  parts 
of  the  house,  running  up  at  a  right  angle  from  the  hall,  between  the  sitting- 
room  and  spare  bed-room.  The  sitting-room  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
house,  convenient  to  all  the  rooms,  warm  in  winter,  airy  in  summer,  and 
easy  of  approach.  If  the  ground  suits,  you  may  drop  the  L  floor  two  feet 
below  the  main  part,  and  set  projecting  beyond  that  part  six  feet,  it  allows  a 
window  there,  and  breaks  the  force  of  the  wind  upon  that  end  of  the  sitting- 
room,  and  also  gives  room  at  the  other  end  for  a  window  and  glass  door  ont 
upon  the  large  piazza.  The  common  entrance  to  the  house  will  be  upon  that 
piazza,  and  from  that  into  the  sitting-room,  dining-room,  or  kitclicn. 

There  was  a  plan,  published  by  G.  C.  Uouse,  of  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  in  the 
Country  Gentleman,  so  novel  in  its  form,  and  apparently  so  convenient, 
that  we  consider  it  Avorthy  a  notice  in  this  connection.  The  following  is 
•what  he  says  of  his  plan. 

"  In  the  plan  submitted,  we  flatter  ourselves  that  some  improvements 
have  been  reached,  when  we  take  into  consideration  convenience,  space, 
accessibility,  the  ease  with  which  the  hot  air  passages  from  the  furnace  can 
be  aiTanged  for  so  many  rooms,  all  within  a  few  feet  of  the  body  of  the  fur- 
nace ;  and  each  door  within  a  few  steps  of  the  main  stair-case.     From  the 


Sec.  14.]  FARM-HOUSES.  283 


peculiar  form  the  centre  of  the  house  is  at  once  reached  on  entering  the  front 
door.  The  second  story  is  quite  similar  to  the  first,  closets  occupj'ing  the 
spaces  over  the  library  and  pantry,  and  a  fine  balcony  over  the  veranda, 
reached  through  glass  doors. 

"  To  meet  the  full  requirements  which  were  had  in  view,  in  this  arrange- 
ment, a  site  should  be  selected  having  a  southern  or  eastern  exposure  if  in 
the  countiy,  and  the  building  set  with  both  full  fronts  to  the  street,  so  that 
the  veranda  or  front  door  will  have  a  direct  front  aspect.  If,  however,  the 
location  be  in  city  or  village,  it  would  be  desirable  to  procure  a  lot  having 
two  fronts,  if  possible  looking  easterly  and  southerly,  and  place  the  building 
with  a  front  to  each  road,  the  front  door  looking  toward  the  angle  of  tlie 
street." 

308.  Ventilation  of  DweIIings> — In  whatever  form,  or  upon  whatever  plan 
you  build,  do  not  forget  the  necessity  of  ventilation.  Our  dwellings  are  often 
charnel  houses.  The  very  first  necessity  of  every  human  being — pure  air- — ■ 
is  rarely  regarded  in  their  constructiou.  Tlie  air  actually  inhaled  steals  in 
at  crevices  and  crannies,  felon-like,  because  it  cannot  be  shut  out.  Only  the 
defects  of  our  architecture  prevent  our  dying  of  a  vitiated,  poisoned,  mephitic 
atmosphere,  from  which  the  vital  element  has  been  exhausted.  Most  men, 
including  architects,  seem  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  the  atmosphere  is  a  com- 
bination of  different  gases,  only  one  of  which  is  wholesome  and  life-giving, 
and  that  this  is  consumed  in  the  lungs  upon  inhalation,  leaving  the  residue 
to  be  expelled  as  a  poison.  The  church,  lecture-room  or  other  structure, 
with  doors  and  windows  closed,  with  no  provision  for  ventilation,  soon 
becomes  a  slaughter-pen,  and  ought  to  be  closed  by  the  public  authorities. 

Our  manufactories  and  school-houses  are  nearly  all  disgraceful  to  their 
owners  and  architects  in  regard  to  ventilation.  They  arc  often  divided  into 
rooms  less  than  ten  feet  high,  each  thickly  stowed  with  human  beings,  who 
breathe  and  work  and  sweat  in  an  atmospjiere  overheated  and  filled  with 
grease,  wool  or  cotton  waste,  leather  or  cloth,  and  the  poisonous  refuse 
■  expelled  from  human  lungs,  Avhich  together  are  enough  to  incite  a  plague, 
and  are,  in  fact,  the  primary  cause  of  nearly  all  the  fevers,  dysenteries,  con- 
sumptions, etc.,  by  which  so  many  graves  are  peopled,  x^o  factory  should 
be  permitted  to  commence  operations,  nor  school  opened,  imtil  it  shall 
have  been  inspected  by  some  competent  public  officer^  and  certified  to  be 
thoroughly  provided  with  ventilators — not  windows,  which  raay  be  opened, 
but  iu  a  cold  or  stormy  day  very  certainly  will  not  be — but  apertures  for 
the  ingress  of  fresh  air,  and  others  for  the  egress  of  vitiated  air,  both  out  of 
the  reach  of  ignorance  and  defying  the  eftbrts  of  confirmed  depravity  of  the 
senses  to  close  them. 

Our  bed-rooms  are  generally  fit  only  to  die  in.  The  best  are  those  of  a  few 
of  the  intelligent  and  affluent,  which  are  carefully  ventilated ;  next  to  these 
come  those  of  the  cabins  and  rudest  fiirm-liouses,  with  an  inch  or  two  of 
vacancy  between  the  chimney  and  the  roof,  and  with  cracks  on  every  side, 
through  which  the  stars  may  be  seen.     The  ceiled  and  j)lastered  bed-rooms, 


28-t  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 


wliorc  too  many  of  the  middle  c-las.s  :iro  lodged,  with  no  apertures  for  the 
ingress  or  egress  of  air  but  the  door  and  whidows,  are  horrible.  Kine-tentlis 
of  their  occupants  rarely  open  a  window  unless  compelled  by  cxceBsivc  heat, 
and  very  few  are  careful  even  to  leave  the  door  ajar.  To  bleep  in  a  tight 
six-by-ten  bed-room,  with  no  aperture  admitting  air,  is  to  court  the  ravages 
of  pestilence  and  speedy  death. 

Our  railroad  cars  and  steamboat  berths  are  atrociously  devoid  of  ventila- 
tion. A  journey  is  taken  with  far  less  fatigue,  and  more  expeditiously  now 
than  it  was  thirty  years  ago,  but  with  far  greater  risk  and  harm  to  health. 
Tliere  are  probably  ten  thousand  passenger  cars  now  running  in  the  United 
States,  whereof  not  more  than  one  hundred  are  decently  supplied  with  fresh 
air.  Most  of  tliese,  wherein  forty  or  fifty  persons  are  expected  to  sit  all  day 
and  dose  all  niglit,  ought  to  be  indicted  as  nuisances — they  are  fit  only  for 
coffins.  Tlie  men  M'ho  make  them  probably  know  no  better  ;  but  those  who 
buy  and  run  them  have  not  even  that  poor  excuse.  Tiiey  know  that  they  are 
undermining  constitutions  and  destroying  lives  ;  they  know  that  ample  means 
of  arresting  these  frightful  woes  are  at  command;  yet  they  will  not  adoj)t 
them  because  they  cost  something. 

If  people  only  knew  how  many  thousands  of  lives  are  annually  sacrificing, 
how  many  hundreds  of  thousands  are  now  suftering  from  fevers  and  other 
maladies  which  have  their  origin  in  the  inhaling  of  noxious  air,  the  excite- 
ment and  alarm  on  this  subject  would  work  a  revolution  in  our  style  of 
building. 

When  we  lived  in  old-style  houses,  with  large  open  fire-places,  like  tlic  one 
mentioned  in  the  next  paragraph,  there  was  no  need  of  being  careful  to  build 
air-passages  in  the  walls  of  the  liouse  for  ventilation,  fur  the  "  fire-place,  big 
enough  to  roast  an  ox,"  gave  the  most  complete  kind  of  ventilation. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  particularly  in  malarious  districts,  tliat 
houses  should  be  so  constructed  that  a  free  circulation  of  air  can  be  had 
through  all  the  rooms.  In  the  plan  described  in  305  this  fact  has  been  kept 
in  view.  With  slight  modifications,  the  plan  will  answer  for  a  liouso  either 
at  the  north  or  the  south.  At  the  south  tiie  rooms  would  be  made  larger,  and 
the  fuel-room  would  probably  be  substituted  for  the  kitchen.  Frequently, 
the  kitchen  of  a  planter's  house  is  placed  several  rods  distant,  without  any 
covered  way  between. 

309.  An  Old-Style  Farm-house  Kitchen  in  New  Kn.«laH4l. — A  picture  of 
one  of  tliese  scenes  of  comfort  has  lately  fallen  under  my  observation. 
What  can  be  more  cheerful  and  pleasant  than  the  view  of  a  farmer's  kitchen, 
taken  during  the  evening  meal  of  a  cold  Autumn  day  ?  It  is  a  picture  of  tlie 
calm  happiness  of  rural  life. 

The  kitclien  of  the  old-style  farm-house  of  New  England  is  not  the  scullery, 
or  mere  cooking-place  of  some  modern  house — a  dirty  hole  or  comfortless 
out-rooin  or  sort  of  human  bake-oven,  where  the  cook  is  almost  as  much 
cooked  as  the  food.  No,  it  is  a  room  perliaps  24  feet  long  and  IG  wide,  well 
lighted,  warm,  neat,  and  cvery-way  comfortable.     Upon  one  side  there  is  a 


Sbo.   14.]  FARM-HOUSES.  285 

fire-place  large  enougli  to  roast  a  whole  ox,  iu  wliicli  a  great  fire  of  logs  sends 
up  a  cbeerful  blaze,  lighting  up  the  whole  room  so  its  brightness  might  be 
seen  through  its  great  uncurtained  M'indows,  like  a  beacon  light  to  the 
traveller  as  he  comes  down  tlie  slope  of  yonder  hill  two  miles  away,  and 
makes  him  involuntarily  thank  God,  in  anticipation,  for  the  good  things 
spread  out  upon  the  great  table  standing  between  the  window  and  the  fire. 

Let  us  take  note  of  tlie  old-fashioned  meal.  At  tlie  head  of  the  table  sits 
a  matron  of  some  sixty  summers — though  in  appearance  tliere  is  nothing  of 
llie  winter  of  old  age  about  her.  Iler  dress  is  a  gown  of  home-spun  worsted, 
well  fortified  Nvith  flannels  from  the  same  manufactory,  that  bid  defiance  to 
the  Autumn  winds  of  a  rigorous  climate.  The  small,  neat  cap  of  white  gauze, 
and  the  shoes  and  stockings  of  this  woman,  were  made  iu  pursuance  of  the 
best  medical  recipe  ever  written  :  "  Keep  the  head  cool,  and  the  feet  dry  and 
warm ;"  for  the  stockings  are  the  product  of  busy  fingers  at  moments  idle 
with  many  housewives,  and  the  shoes  of  stout  leather  were  made  for  service, 
and  the  cap  is  a  mere  ornament — a  snow-wreath  among  raven  locks — and 
her  face  is  the  indication  of  health  and  happiness. 

Upon  her  right  hand  sits  the  farmer,  dressed  in  a  butternut-colored  coat, 
blue  pants,  buff  vest,  white  linen  shirt — every  article  home  made — stout 
boots  and  black  silk  cravat — for  he  has  been  to  town,  and  this  is  his  holiday 
suit.  Below  him  sit  Jedediah,  Ebenezer,  Abram,  and  Solomon,  all  economi- 
cal names,  for  they  can  be  shortened  in  common  use  to  Jed,  Eb,  Ab,  and  Sol. 
Two  of  these  wear  the  check  woollen  winter  frocks  of  New  England  farmers 
— the  others  are  in  round  jackets;  they  are  schoolboys.  Upon  the  left  sit 
Mary,  Adeline,  and  Mehitable,  pictures  of  real  beauty  and  health.  The 
eldest  is  "  dressed  up ;"  she  has  been  to  town  with  her  ijxther ;  she  has  a 
gown  of  "  bough  ten  stuff;"  around  her  neck  is  a  bow  of  colored  lamb's  wool, 
knitted  by  her  own  hands,  fastened  in  the  thfoat  by  grandmotlier's  silver 
brooch.  The  other  two  are  in  check  woolen,  winch  was  spun,  woven,  and 
colored,  and  made  up  under  the  same  roof. 

Further  down  the  table  are  three  athletic  young  men,  day  laborers  on  the 
farm — sons  of  ncigliboring  farmers — one  of  whom  is  eyeing  the  charms  of 
sweet  Mary  witli  an  expression  easily  read  by  a  good  physiognomist.  The 
gi-oup  is  completed  by  the  schoolmaster,  a  young  man  with  a  glowing  eye 
w'lich  speaks  of  intellect  tliat  will  tell  upon  the  world  some  day  with  as 
much  force  as  though  he  had  not  been  obliged  to  obtain  liis  education  by 
summer  labor  and  winter  teaching.  lie  is  one  of  New  England's  rising 
sons. 

Tlio  meal  is  for  men  who  toil.  At  one  end  of  the  table  stands  a  pot,  of 
:unple  dimensions,  smoking  from  the  oven  flanking  the  fire-place,  of  the  most 
excellent  of  New  England  cookeries,  "  a  dish  of  baked  beans,"  crowned  with 
a  great  square  piece  of  salt  fat  pork,  crisped  and  rich.  Lower  down  a  broad 
pewter  platter  holds  the  remains  of  the  "  boiled  victuals"  tliat  formed  the 
dinner — beef,  pork,  potatoes,  cabbage,  beets, and  turnips — a  pile  that  might 
rival  a  small  hay-cock  in  size  and  shape — a  plate  of  rye  and  indian  bread, 


280  TUE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

cold,  and  another  made  of  rye  flour  are  untouched,  for  a  great  loaf,  just 
drawn  from  the  oven,  nicely  browned  and  hot,  is  ofTerod  in  great  broken 
pieces  to  tempt  the  appetite  to  one  of  tlie  richest  repasts  ever  given  to  an 
epicure.  By  the  side  of  tlic  old  lady  stands  a  black  carthem  teapot,  the 
contents  of  which  are  freely  oflered,  l)ut  only  accepted  by  two  of  the  men. 
as  the  rich  ncM'  milk,  or  the  hearty  old  cider  is  preferred  as  a  beverage, 
morning,  noon  and  night,  by  those  old-fashioned,  hearty  laborers.  "We  . 
must  not  forget  the  never-failing  accompaniment  of  the  evening  meal  at 
this  season  of  the  year  in  New  England,  for  it  is  New  England's  proudest 
dish,  the  golden  pumpkin,  sweetest  pie. 

God  being  thauked  for  his  great  bounties  after  the  close  of  the  happy  meal, 
all  are  drawn  into  a  circle  around  the  great  iire-place.  Father  is  finishing  ofl' 
an  axehelve ;  Jed  is  mending  a  pair  of  boots ;  and  one  of  the  hired  men, 
upon  the  other  side  of  the  same  bench,  is  repairing  a  wagon  harness — both 
using  the  same  tools.  The  other  two  are  employed,  one  shelling  corn  and 
the  other  helping  Mary  to  peel  pumpkins,  which  arc  cut  in  slices  and  hung 
upon  poles  overliead.  This  is  Mary's  accepted  lover.  Happy  hearts  and 
blessed  industry !  Ab  and  Sol  are  engaged  with  the  schoolmaster  around  the 
big  table,  lighted  by  a  home-made  candle ;  they  are  studying  geography, 
writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic— fitting  themselves  for  future  statesmen. 
Mother  is  making  a  new  coat  for  one  of  the  boys,  Ada  is  ironing  at  a  side- 
table,  and  Hetty  is  washing  the  supper  dishes  at  another.  There  are  two 
other  members  of  this  family  group — the  eat  occupies  the  top  of  the  blue 
dye-tub  which  stands  in  one  corner  of  the  fire-place,  and  old  Bose  sleeps 
quietly  under  the  table. 

Directl  V,  and  before  any  sound  is  audible  to  human  ear,  Bose^  gets  up, 
walks  out  into  the  long  entry,  and  gives  a  loud,  sharp  bark  at  the  outside 
door,  and  stands  waiting  the  approaching  step.  Soon  satisfied  that  the  new 
comer  is  a  friend,  he  retires  again  to  his  repose,  and  three  or  four  boys,  who 
look  as  though  they  might  be  brothers  to  those  already  described,  so  much 
are  tiicy  dressed  alike,  enter  and  draw  around  the  table  with  the  others  and 
the  school  in  aster.  These  are  from  a  neighboring  farm,  sons  of  a  widow,  who 
have  till  now  been  so  mucli  engaged  with  the  labors  of  the  farm  that  they 
have  been  unable  to  attend  the  school  in  the  daytime,  but  are  determined  to 
lose  none  of  the  evening  opportunities  to  keep  along  with  the  class.  They 
will  make  honest,  intelligent,  industrious  fanners. 

Tlie  oM  folks  welcome  them  heartil}-,  and  tlie  young  ones  are  all  rejoiced 
at  their  arrival.  The  old  lady  inquires  why  in  the  world  their  mother  did 
not  come  along;  and  Mary,  the  kind-hearted  Mary,  is  so  sorry  to  Uear  that 
it  is  because  Sarah  is  not  so  well,  and  mother  is  very  busy  getting  tlieir  new 
clothes  done  so  that  they  can  go  to  school  as  soon  as  they  finish  picking 
apples.  "  John,"  says  she,  "  let  us  hurry  and  get  through  our  stent  and  we 
will  go  over  to  the  widow's;  and  I  will  help  her  with  her  sewing;  yon  will 
read  for  the  amusement  of  poor  Sarah,  for  an  hour  or  two."  "  If  that  is  tlie 
case,"  says  father,  laying  down  his  axe  handle,  "  my  good  children,  you  shall 


Sec.  U.]  farm-houses.  287 

go  DOW ;  I  will  finish  your  work."  "  And  Mary,  my  dear  girl,  don't  go 
empty  handed,"  says  mother ;  "  you  know  from  e.xperience  how  sweet  little 
delicacies,  brought  by  friendly  hands  to  the  side  of  a  sick-bed,  are  to  a  poor 
invalid." 

"  Hetty,  my  dear,  if  you  have  done  your  dishes,  you  must  get  your  cards 
and  make  a  few  rolls,  for  1  am  quite  out  of  grey  yarn,  and  M-e  must  have 
some  more  stockings  in  the  work.  Old  man,  don't  cut  that  pumpkin  too 
thick. — Ada,  daughter,  get  a  plate  of  doughnuts  and  some  of  those  nice  fall 
pijjpins  and  set  on  the  table ;  I  guess  these  boys  can  eat  a  few  while  they  are 
cyphering.  I  do  wonder  if  you  have  got  light  enough.  Sol,  get  another 
candle,  I  am  sure  such  industrious  boys  ought  to  have  all  the  light  they 
want." 

TIius,  my  readers,  I  have  given  you  a  slight  outline  of  a  farmer's  house, 
such  as  it  used  to  be,  such  as  it  might  be,  and  such  as  it  always  should  be, 
and  such  as,  I  am  proud  to  say,  many  an  American  farmer  can  boast  of  even 
in  these  degenerate  days  of  "  boughten  stuff  gowns "  and  lack-a-daisical 
lounging  of  farmer's  girls,  who  are  miserable  and  tired  of  nothing  to  do. 
How  do  you  like  the  picture  ?  If  well,  imitate  it.  It  is  a  happiness  easily 
acquired. 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  sun'oundings  of  such  a  home  as  the  one  described 
above.  And  as  tliere  is  probably  no  better  exponent  of  the  farmer's  life 
than  the  farmer's  liome,  we  propose  to  present  the  portrait  of  a  home  quite 
in  contrast  to  the  preceding  one.  We  are  sorry  that  such  as  tliis  are  altoge- 
ther too  common.     Here  is  the  sketch : 

A  square  brown  house;  a  chimney  coming  out  of  the  middle  of  a  roof; 
not  a  tree  nearer  than  the  orchard,  and  not  a  flower  at  the  door.  At  one  end 
projects  a  kitchen;  from  the  kitchen  projects  a  wood-shed  and  wagon-cover, 
occupied  at  night  by  hens  ;  beyond  the  wood-shed  a  hog-pen,  fragrant  and 
musical.  Proceeding  no  further  in  this  direction,  we  look  directly  across  the 
road,  to  where  the  barn  stands,  like  the  hull  of  a  great  black  ship  of  the  line, 
with  its  portholes  spread  threateningly  upon  the  fort  opposite,  out  of  one  of 
which  a  horse  has  thrust  his  head  for  the  puqjose  of  examining  the  streufth 
of  the  works.  An  old  ox-sled  is  turned  up  against  the  wall  close  by,  where 
it  will  have  the  privilege  of  rotting.  This  whole  establishment  was  contrived 
with  a  single  eye  to  utility.  The  barn  Avas  built  in  such  a  manner  that  its 
deposits  might  be  convenient  to  the  road  which  divides  the  farm,  while  the 
sty  was  made  an  attachment  of  the  house  for  convenience  in  feeding  its 
occupants. 

We  enter  the  house  at  the  back  door,  and  find  the  family  at  dinner  in  the 
kitchen.  A  kettle  of  soap-grease  is  stewing  upon  the  stove,  and  the  fumes 
of  this,  mingled  with  those  that  were  generated  by  boiling  the  cabbage 
wliicli  v\'e  see  upon  the  table,  and  by  perspiring  men  in  shirt-sleeves,  and  bv 
boots  that  have  forgotten,  or  do  not  care  where  they  have  been,  make  the  air 
anything  but  agreeable  to  those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  it.  This  is  the 
place  where  the  family  live.     They  cook  everything  here  for  themselves  an3 


2SS 


THE  FARMERY. 


[CnAP.  III. 


tlioir  Iiogs.  They  eat  evoiy  meal  liere.  They  sit  here  every  eveniug,  and 
liere  they  receive  their  friends.  Tlie  women  in  this  kitchen  toil  incessantly, 
from  the  time  tliey  rise  in  the  morning,  until  they  go  to  bed  at  night.  Here 
man  and  woman,  sons  and  daughters,  live  in  the  belief  that  work  is  the 
great  tiling,  that  efficiency  in  work  is  the  crowning  excellence  of  manhood 
and  womanhood,  and  willingly  go  so  far  into  essential  self-debasement  some- 
times as  to  contemn  beauty,  and  those  who  love  it,  and  to  glory  above  all 
things  in  brute  strength,  and  brute  endurance. 

We  do  not  expect  to  see  every  farm-liouse  a  domestic  paradise;  but  we  do 
contend  that  one  contrived  upon  the  moderate  plan  described  in  Xo.  305  will 
be  likely  to  produce  a  better  race  of  men  and  women  than  such  a  home  as 
tlie  one  last  mentioned  in  this  paragraph. 

Having  occupied  as  mucli  space  as  we  can  afford  to  give  to  the  dwellings, 
let  us  now  look  at  some  of  the  surroundings  necessaiy  to  make  up  a  complete 
farmery. 


SECTION  XV.-CELLAKS,  CHIMNEYS,  AND  ICE-HOUSES. 

"N  a  cold  climate,  two  of  the  most  important  requi- 
ites  of  a  farmd\ouse  are  good  cellars  and  good  chim- 
neys.    In  all  the  great  farming  region  nortli  of  Lat.  40°, 
L\    there  are  nights  almost  every  "Winter  in  wliich  the  tliermo- 
meter  falls  10°  below  0°  of  Farenheit ;  and  .in  some  of  the 
elevated  portions  of  New  England  it  sometimes  falls  40° 
below  zero.     Tliere  warm  cellars  are  a  necessity.     Every- 
where chimneys  are  so,  for  there  is  not  a  greater  source  of 
vexation  about  a  farm-house  than  a  smoky  chimney.     For- 
merly, ice  was  looked  upon  as  a  luxury  merely ;  it  is  so  no 
longei'.     Hence  we  devote  space  to  give  tlie  best  information 
we  can  obtain,  how  to  build  an  ice-house  and  preserve  its 
contents. 

310.  Cellars— Where  and  How  to  Build  them. — As  we  luive 
already  intimated,  we  do  not  approve  of  extensive  cellars  imder  dwellings. 
As  a  general  thing,  in  all  damp  soils,  like  millions  of  acres  of  the  western 
prairie  lands,  cellars,  even  when  kept  with  the  utmost  care,  are  not  healthy ; 
and  when  kept  as  we  have  often  seen  them,  dripping  with  moisture,  and 
frequently  with  water  standing  several  inches  deep,  they  are  positive  conta- 
gion breeders.  In  all  such  situations  we  reconnnend  cave  ccllai"s,  built  on 
the  level  of  the  surface.  An  excellent  one  which  vcc  built  near  the  kitchen 
door,  S  by  20  feet,  was  made  of  ciglit-inch  brick  walls,  seven  feet  high,  with 
an  entry  and  double  doors  at  one  end,  and  double  windows  at  the  other.  At 
first  our  design  was  to  arch  this  over  and  make  a  grassy  mound  ;  but  upon 


Sec.  15.]  CELLARS,   CHIMNEYS  AND  ICE-HOUSES.  2S9 

second  thought,  we  earthed  it  up  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  wall  and  then  put 
on  a  building  for  a  smoke-house,  the  fire  for  which  was  built  at  the  bottom  and 
carried  up  in  a  flue.  "Where  there  is  a  hillside,  a  cave  cellar  may  be  made 
more  easily,  though  we  did  not  find  it  a  serious  job  to  heap  up  the  earth  from 
the  level  ground,  taking  care  to  slope  it  off  so  as  not  to  leave  any  noticeable 
depression.  Such  a  cellar  is  very  convenient,  dry,  pleasant,  and  not 
unhealthy.  K  built  where  a  building  over  it  would  be  unsightly,  or  not 
needed,  it  may  be  arched  and  covered  with  earth  and  made  quite  an  orna- 
ment of  the  house  surroundings. 

Wherever  a  cellar  is  it  should  have  as  uniform  a  temperature  as  possible, 
the  year  through ;  it  should  never  sink  much  below  38°  Fahrenheit,  nor  rise 
above  50°,  and  it  should  be  always  moist,  yet  never  wet.  It  should  be  also 
well  ventilated,  and  that  should  be  by  a  flue  of  the  chimney,  constructed 
specially  for  that  object,  when  the  cellar  is  under  the  dwelling. 

311. — Chimneys— How  to  Build  thenii — A  new  combination  of  chimney  and 
ventilator  has  been  patented  by  a  Philadelphian  (Mr.  Leeds),  and  is  very 
strongly  recommended  by  many  who  have  tried  it  in  that  city.  The  brick 
wall  of  this  chimney  is  without  flues,  no  matter  how  large  the  house,  but  the 
smoke  is  carried  up,  say  half  the  height  of  the  building,  through  a  cast-metal 
box  or  square  flue  in  the  centre  of  the  stack,  while  pure,  cold  air  is  intro- 
duced at  the  bottom  of  the  building  into  the  chimney  outside  of  the  flue. 
The  heat  of  the  flue  causes  this  air  to  ascend  with  great  rapidity  and  force, 
carrying  the  smoke  with  it  from  their  juncture  at  the  top  of  the  box,  and 
rendering  it  wholly  impossible  that  the  chimney  should  ever  smoke.  Venti- 
lation is  effected  by  valves  opening  from  the  external  or  air-chimney  into  the 
rooms,  so  as  to  throw  out  a  column  of  air,  warmed  by  its  contact  with  the 
flue,  into  the  room  near  its  floor,  while  another  valve  near  the  ceiling  sucks  in 
and  carries  off  the  impure  air— the  draught  of  the  heated  flue  being  aided  by 
the  influx  of  heated  air  through  the  lower  valve  into  the  room.  This  arrange- 
ment, it  is  claimed,  saves  the  expense  of  brick  flues,  saves  heat,  which  other- 
wise passes  off  uselessly  through  the  chimney,  insures  a  thorough  ventilation 
without  trouble  or  cost,  and  affords  a  perfect  security  against  fires  from 
defective  or  overheated  chimneys,  through  the  gradual  charring  of  the 
wooden  beams  or  other  timbers  imbedded  or  ending  against  the  chimney. 
A  connection  with  the  cellar,  by  an  opening  into  such  a  flue,  would  draw  off 
all  the  foul  air  that  would  be  generated  in  any  but  a  very  badly  kept  cellar ; 
besides  proving  a  valuable  safeguard  against  the  carelessness  of  carpenters, 
who  do  sometimes  place  wood  in  fearfully  dangerous  places.  If  all  stove- 
heated  houses  had  such  means  of  ventilation,  it  would  do  something  toward 
bringing  back  the  same  state  of  health  that  existed  in  connection  with  open 
fire-places. 

The  comfort  of  a  dwelling  depends  in  a  great  degree  upon  its  having  good 
chimneys,  always  maintaining  a  current  of  air  upward  within,  and  secured 
externally  against  the  entrance  of  water.  Form,  size,  location  and  workman- 
ship, all  unite  in  producing  a  good  or  bad  article. 

19 


290  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  IH. 

The  ridge  or  liighest  part  of  the  roof  is  the  best  place  for  the  exit  of  the 
chimney,  for  it  is  less  liable  to  those  sudden  gusts  of  "  blowing  down 
chimney  "  than  when  in  proximity  to  higher  objects.  In  this  place  too,  the 
roof  is  more  easily  rendered  tight  and  secure  against  wet.  In  small  houses 
with  but  one  chimney  we  need  not  seek  any  other  place  for  it.  In  buildings 
larger,  where  several  chimneys  are  needed,  keep  the  same  object  in  view, 
and  approach  as  near  to  it  as  possible.  In  brick  houses,  if  tlie  chimney 
is  built  into  an  exterior  wall,  it  will  sometimes  fail  to  draAV  well,  because 
the  air  outside  of  the  house  cools  the  warm  ascending  current  within  the 
flue.  If  the  flue  is  in  a  south  wall,  the  heat  of  the  sun  sometimes  aids  tlie 
draught. 

The  size  of  the  chimney  is  also  important.  TIic  modern  fashion  is  quite 
too  small  for  utility.  Economy  of  space  and  a  desire  to  conceal  entirely  an 
object  merely  of  utilit}^  have  caused  its  dimensions  to  be  contracted  until  a 
few  months'  deposit  of  soot  entirely  chokes  the  passage.  While  we  no  longer 
need  the  huge  '•  good  old-fashioned  chimneys  "  of  former  days,  the  flues  should 
not  be  contracted  so  as  to  hinder  the  current  of  smoke,  which  needs  a  channel 
as  smooth  as  for  the  flow  of  water.  We  often  find  the  curves,  where  the 
most  room  is  needed,  half  filled  with  mortar  carelessly  dropped  and  loosely 
adhering  to  the  bricks.  By  making  a  proj^er  table  above  the  roof,  it  can  be 
made  water-proof;  but  tliis,  if  not  well  done  at  first,  always  proves  a 
vexatious  and  difficult  matter  to  accomplisli.  Mortar,  putty,  cement,  and 
I)aint,  in  all  their  variations,  have  been  tried  with  various  success.  An  old 
grafter  recommends  for  this  purpose  "  grafting  wax,"  as  the  cheapest,  surest, 
and  most  durable  application.  But  we  say,  build  so  that  they  will  all  be 
unnecessary. 

Always  begin  j-our  chimneys  from  a  good  foundation  on  the  earth.  He 
who  builds  a  small  "stem"  in  the  garret,  builds  a  large  nuisance  for 
himself.  The  soot  tea,  black  and  penetrating,  will  leak  out  to  discolor  the 
walls,  the  gathered  soot  and  ashes  cannot  be  removed,  and  the  thing  proves 
a  chimney  only  in  name  and  in  its  appearance  on  the  roof 

All  unused  stove-pipe  holes  and  fire-places  should  be  closed  to  secure  the 
best  draught. 

Where  there  are  two  chimneys  in  the  same  building  one  will  sometimes 
overpower  the  other,  with  the  most  provoking  results.  This  is  a  contingency 
to  be  regarded  in  forming  the  plan. 

Tiie  top  of  the  chimney  may  be  full  size  and  open  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  down  currents ;  otherwise  it  should  be  arched  or  provided  with 
some  cap  or  ventilator  of  sheet  iron.  Those  who  have  built  will  see  the 
importance  of  these  hints;  those  who  are  to  build,  will  do  well  to  regard 
them. 

312.  Ice-IIonseSi — ?^cxt  to  a  good  cellar,  an  ice-house  is  a  necessity  of  a 
farm-house.  Here  we  can  do  without  an  ice-house,  and  north  of  latitude  40° 
we  cannot  do  without  a  cellar — at  least,  not  comfortably ;  and,  in  our 
opinion,  any  family  who  have  once  enjoyed  the  comforts  of  an  ice-house. 


Seo.  15.]  CELLARS,   CHIMNEYS  AND  ICE-HOUSES.  291 

will  ever  after  think  that  thej  cannot  live  quite  comfortably  without 
one. 

"We  have  often  witnessed  in  good  farm-houses  the  necessity  of  a  suppl}-^  of 
ice,  in  the  character  of  the  butter  placed  upon  the  table — even  among  those 
who  know  how  to  make  good  butter,  we  find  a  quality  far  inferior  to  the 
samples  made  where  there  are  cool  spring  houses  or  an  abundant  supply  of 
ice.  TVe  give  a  few  other  reasons  iu  favor  of  every  farmer's  having  an 
icehouse,  and  we  beg  farmers  to  read  and  consider  them  well,  and  then  we 
will  tell  them  how  to  build  one. 

313.  Reasons  why  Farmers  should  have  Ice-Houses. — It  is  August ;  hot, 
faint  and  exhausted,  the  farmer  comes  from  the  field  so  thirsty  that  he 
cannot  satisfy  himself  with  water  from  a  well  so  shallow  that  the  burning 
rays  of  the  sun  have  reached  the  surface  and  penetrated  into  the  water, 
warming  it  almost  hot  enough  for  dish-water.  Some  draw  their  water 
from  springs,  and  others  from  cisterns.  It  is  only  here  and  there  that 
we  find  a  spring  that  comes  gushing  to  the  surface,  or  that  feeds  a  deep  Avell 
with  water,  cool  enough  to  satisfy  the  over-heated,  thirsty  harvester.  How 
refreshing  such  water  is,  not  only  to  drink,  but  to  lave  the  face  and  hands 
and  breast,  before  sitting  down  to  a  meal,  or  lying  down  to  repose  to  recupe- 
rate tired  nature.  We  have  no  doubt  that  the  laving  is  far  bettor  than  the 
drinking,  and  it  should  always  be  the  first  step  taken  to  quench  thirst. 

Again,  how  refreshing  is  a  cool  drink  with  the  lunch  in  the  field,  but  how 
difiicult  to  have  it  there,  at  only  half  a  mile  from  the  coldest  spring  or  well. 
How  easy  it  would  be  if  there  was  an  ice-house  on  the  farm.  A  piece 
that  could  be  carried  in  one  hand,  wrapped  in  a  blanket,  would  be  large 
enough  to  cool  the  drink  of  a  dozen  men  all  the  forenoon,  and  it  would 
invigorate  them  more  than  a  bottle  of  rum.  Ice,  taken  in  moderate  quan- 
tity, is  a  tonic,  and  serves  to  keep  the  system  in  such  healthy  condition,  that 
food  gives  it  more  strength.  Simply,  then,  upon  economic  principles,  every 
farmer  should  have  an  ice-house.  A  humane  man  should  have  an  ice-house. 
It  adds  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  his  summer  laborers.  Let  him  think  of 
it  now — think  of  it  iu  August,  think  of  it  while  sighing,  Oh,  for  a  cool 
drink !     Oh,  for  a  cup  of  ice-water  ! 

The  stingy  man,  the  veriest  old  hunks,  who  is  never  quite  satisfied  with 
the  amount  of  labor  tliat  he  gets  out  of  his  workmen  in  the  harvest-field, 
should  have  an  ice-house  ;  it  will  enable  him  to  get  more  work  out  of  them. 
Now  is  the  very  time  to  tliink  of  this  ;i'particularly  in  the  heat  of  the  har- 
vest-field. 

The  man  that  knows  tliat  fresh  meat  is  not  only  moi-e  palatable  in  the 
heat  of  Summer,  but  that  there  is  a  positive  economy  in  feeding  his  family 
and  extra  laborers  upon  sweet  grass-fed  beef  and  mutton,  and  upon  cold  milk 
and  sweet,  hard  butter  ;  and  that  a  man  who  does  feed  his  day-laborers  so  can 
always  get  better  men  and  more  work  for  his  money  than  liis  neighbor  who 
lives  upon  salt  junk  and  rum,  will  have  an  ice-house ;  and  if  he  has  not  got 
one  he  will  make  up  his  mind,  before  the  present  Summer  is  over,  that  as 


292  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 


soon  as  tliere  is  a  lull  in  the  work  of  haying  and  harvest  he  will  set  about 
building  an  ice-house,  wliich  lie  can  do  with  his  own  hands  and  common 
farm-laborers ;  and  with  less  than  the  work  of  one  hand  and  team  during  a 
week  in  winter,  he  can  lay  up  such  a  store  of  ice  that  he  need  never  drink 
warm  water,  nor  eat  soft  butter,  nor  fear  to  kill  a  sheep  lest  the  meat  should 
spoil  before  it  could  be  eaten. 

Let  all  remember  this  fiict :  Ice  is  not  a  luxury;  that  is,  one  that  can  be 
dispensed  with,  and  may  be  indulged  in  only  by  the  wealthy ;  but  one  of 
the  most  economical  things  that  can  be  provided  for  family  use.  It  is  an 
article  that  no  farmer  can  afford  to  do  without. 

Now,  having  given  arguments  enough  to  convince  any  man  that  he 
should  build  an  ice-house,  we  proceed  to  tell  him  how  to  do  it. 

314.  Uow  to  Build  an  Ice-HousCt — An  ice-house  is  not  the  complicated, 
costly  structure  that  some  people  appear  to  think  it  is.  Quite  the  contrary, 
it  is  one  of  the  easiest  and  most  simple  things  to  build,  needing  very  little 
mechanical  skill,  and  being  quite  inexpensive.  All  of  the  work  about  an 
ice-house  can  be  done  by  any  farmer  of  ordinary  Yankee  capacity  in  the  use 
of  such  a  set  of  carpenters'  tools  as  every  farmer  should  keep.  In  the  first 
lilace,  it  is  not  necessary  to  build  an  ice-house  under  ground,  although  in 
dry,  gravelly  soil  it  may  be  built  so  at  less  expense  than  on  the  surface,  and 
it  is  easier  filled.  A  hill-side  is  the  most  convenient  location,  with  the  gable 
of  one  end  above  the  surface,  in  which  liavc  an  opening  to  put  in  ice — the 
other  end,  to  a  level  with  the  floor,  being  exposed — through  which  we  would 
have  the  ordinary  entrance  by  double  doors.  In  such  a  situation  we  would 
use  broken  stone,  making  a  hollow,  grouted  wall ;  and  the  same  kind  of  wall 
might  be  built  on  level  ground  ;  and  a  very  good,  cheap,  durable  wall  it  is. 
Brick  or  stone  may  also  be  used  for  tli'e  walls,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
builder,  always  making  them  hollow,  and  the  outer  and  inner  part  of  the 
wall  absolutely  as  air-tight  as  could  be  made  with  brick  and  mortar. 

Tiie  cheapest,  easiest  and  quickest  constructed  ice-house,  and  one  all-suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose,  is  built  of  wood ;  and  the  money  difference  in  cost 
placed  at  interest  will  more  than  keep  the  wooden  house  in  repair  and  gool 
as  brick  or  stone.  So  we  will  give  directions  for  building  a  plaiu,  cheap, 
common,  rough-board,  farm  ice-house,  large  enough  for  all  ordinary  private 
families. 

Select  a  spot  of  ground  convenient  to  the  kitchen  door,  and  remove  the  soil 
and  put  coarse  gravel  or  sand  in  itj  place,  with  drains  leading  away  from 
the  eaves,  so  constructed  that  it  will  be  absolutely  impossible  for  water 
to  stand  under  or  around  the  building.  Lay  down  two-inch  plank  six  inches 
wide,  bedded  their  thickness  in  the  sand,  for  sills;  tlie  end  ones  eight  feet 
long  and  side  ones  thirteen  feet.  Cut  your  studs  off  square,  eight  feet  long, 
of  any  size  or  width  that  you  can  get  in  the  refuse  heap  at  the  nearest  saw- 
mill or  lumber-yard,  so  that  you  can  get  one  straight  side,  and  set  them  up 
face  side  in,  and  toe-nail  them  to  the  sill,  with  an  inch-board  on  top  for  a 
plate,  upon  which  rest  the  joist ;  nail  up  through  the  plate  to  hold  them 


Sko.  15.]  CELLARS,  CHIMNEYS,  AND  ICE-HOUSES.  293 

in  place.  Now  board  these  studs  on  the  inside,  and  batten  the  cracks  with 
rough  boards,  and  serve  the  under  side  of  the  joists  in  the  same  way.  This 
makes  a  tiglit  boarded  room,  eight  feet  wide,  eight  feet  liigh,  and  twelve 
feet  long.  The  floor  must  be  laid  upon  timber  bedded  in  gravel  or  charcoal, 
to  cut  off  any  currents  of  air,  but  so  that  all  water  from  melted  ice  will 
drain  off  immediately.  Divide  oft'  four  feet  of  the  end  in  which  you  intend 
to  have  the  door,  for  a  cooling-room,  and  you  will  have  room  for  a  cube  of 
ice  eight  feet,  less  the  straw  or  sawdust  all  around  between  the  ice  and 
boards,  and  this  will  last  any  family  through  the  hot  weather,  with  most  liberal 
use  of  it  for  all  needed  purposes. 

Now  for  the  protection  of  the  ice  to  prevent  its  melting.  Set  up  another 
"balloon  frame"  outside  of  the  first,  from  one  to  two  feet  off,  the  widest 
space  being  the  best,  boarded  perpendicularly  with  rough  boards  battened. 
The  top  of  the  outer  frame  must  be  tied  firmly  to  the  inner  one  by  strips  of 
boards  nailed  from  plate  to  plate,  and  the  space  between  the  walls  com- 
pactly filled  with  charcoal,  sawdust,  or  straw,  provision  being  made  for  a 
narrow  doorway  in  one  end,  to  be  closed  with  shutters  inside  and  out,  which 
must  be  made  to  shut  tight,  and  will  be  greatly  improved  by  lining  them 
with  a  coat  of  straw  two  inches  thick,  fastened  on  by  lath  nailed  across. 
About  the  roof.  This  must  be  made  in  the  same  way  as  tlie  sides,  with  two 
sets  of  rafters,  boarded  and  filled  between  with  straw,  with  good  shingling 
outside,  or  some  other  tight  roofing.  It  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  trap  in 
the  roof,  or  a  door  in  the  gable  end,  opposite  the  usual  entrance,  with  a  slide 
leading  to  the  interior,  for  the  convenience  of  filling,  and  there  must  be  a 
suitable  ventilating  chimney,  six  inches  square,  from  the  ice  up  through 
the  roof,  which  at  times  may  be  partially  closed  by  a  wisp  of  straw.  Tlie 
space  between  the  joists  and  the  rafters,  if  filled  with  straw,  will  assist  in 
the  preservation  of  the  ice,  and  need  never  be  removed,  except  the  portion 
around  the  door  made  for  putting  in  ice. 

Tlie  expense  of  snch  an  ice-house  it  will  be  easy  to  calculate  upon  the 
local  cost  of  lumber. 

Such  a  building  as  we  have  described  will  take  forty-eight  studs  8  feet 
long,  2  by  4  inclies  in  size,  which  is  quite  strong  enough,  and  sixteen  inside 
rafters  of  same  size,  8  feet  long ;  twenty  rafters  of  same  size,  9  feet  long,  for 
outside;  two  sills  2  by  6  inches,  8  feet  long  each;  two  ditto  13  feet  long 
each  for  inside  frame ;  two  ditto  16  feet  and  two  ditto  12  feet  for  outside 
sills,  and  some  short  pieces  of  stuff  for  gable-end  studs ;  for  plates  two 
boards  6  inches  wide,  13  feet  long;  two  ditto  8  feet  long;  two  ditto  12  feet 
and  two  ditto  16  feet  each;  and  this  constitutes  the  timber  of  the  frame,  and 
will  not  exceed  700  feet,  board  measure.  In  fact,  tiiis  wliole  frame  could  be 
made  of  straight  poles,  or  split  stuff,  which  would  cost  but  a  trifle  on  some 
farms.  The  boarding  of  sides,  roofs,  floors,  partition,  measures  in  all,  we  be- 
lieve, 1,620  feet  of  surface  and  bat;tens,  so  that  2,500  feet  of  lumber  and  2,000 
sliingles  appear  to  be  ample  for  an  ice-house  to  stow  a  cube  8  feet  square, 
witli  a  cooling-room  4:  by  8  ;  and  two  men  can  build  it  in  four  days.     Now 


294  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

count  the  lumber  at  $12  a  thousand,  sliingles  at  $4  a  thousand,  work  at  $2 
a  day,  nails,  liinges,  etc.,  $2,  team  work  $2,  and  we  have  a  total  of  $50  for 
the  cost  of  a  building  that  is  wor.h  $50  to  any  farmer  every  year.  AVho 
would  do  without  an  ice-house  ? 

Having  given  the  above  as  our  own  plan,  we  will  add  the  plans  of  several 
others.     Que  writer  says : 

"  Instead  of  one  hollow  wall  for  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  as  in  ordinary 
ice-houses,  I  have  two,  with  a  space  between  them  for  confined  air.  The  site 
is  on  a  gravel  slope.  The  foundation,  for  convenience  in  storing  ice,  is  dug 
two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  outside  wall,  for  non-con- 
ducting material,  is  six  inches  in  the  clear.  The  inside  wall  is  four  inches. 
The  doors  for  entrance  correspond  perfectly  with  the  hollow  walls  in 
thickness,  and  are  filled  in  the  same  manner — -being  shaped  to  shut  with 
a  bevel  edge,  like  the  door  to  safes  used  by  merchants  and  bankers. 
At  the  lower  side  of  the  plates  is  a  ceiling,  upon  which  I  put  spent 
tan  one  foot  thick,  which  tan  is  in  direct  connection  with  the  side-walls, 
so  that  any  settling  in  of  the  walls  may  be  supplied  from  overhead. 
From  the  imder  side  of  the  ceiling  runs  a  ventilator,  with  a  hole  of  one  and 
a  half  inch  bore,  up  through  the  roof,  which  is  finished  with  an  ornamental 
cap. 

"Tlie  room  for  ice  is  eight  by  ten  feet  in  the  clear,  and  eight  feet  higli. 
About  all  tlie  waste  of  ice  that  I  observed  during  the  summer  was  at  the 
bottom,  and  this  was  so  slow  that  we  used  the  ice  without  regard  to  economy 
for  a  large  family,  and  in  a  dairy  of  thirty-five  cows,  besides  giving  freely 
to  our  neighbors. 

"I  put  sticks  four  inches  thick  in  the  bottom  to  put  ice  on,  and  also  some 
straw  about  the  sides  as  well  as  underneath  the  ice." 

At  a  discussion  about  ice-houses,  by  the  American  Institute  Farmers'  Club, 
the  following  facts  were  elicited  : 

Mr.  Pardee  read  an  extract  from  a  paper  upon  ihe  ventilation  and  drain- 
age of  ice-houses.  It  states  that  an  underground  ice-house  is  calculated  to 
melt  ice  much  taster  than  above,  because  the  earth  gets  heated  and  melts 
the  ice. 

William  S.  Caepentek — It  is  a  question  of  great  moment  to  farmers  how 
small  a  cube  of  ice  can  be  kept  well.  I  have  not,  in  my  exiicrience,  found 
tliat  one  less  than  ten  feet  will  keep.  I  have  a  floor  over  my  ice,  which  I 
keep  covered  with  straw,  and  find  it  an  excellent  thing  to  prevent  thawing. 
I  find  the  bottom  layer  of  my  house,  which  is  an  underground  one,  keeps 
better  than  the  layers  above.  Same  of  my  neighbors  think  the  ice  keeps 
the  best  if  the  cakes  are  set  on  edge. 

JouN  G.  Bekgen — The  great  ice-packers  I  have  seen  put  in  their  cakes' 
flat,  and  very  compact.  Some  of  my  neighbors  break  up  the  blocks  of  ice, 
but  I  prefer  the  solid  blocks.  My  opinion  is  that  straw  is  bettor  tlian  salt 
hay  lo  pack  ice  in.  I  should  jirefor  to  have  a  very  heavy  coat  of  straw  on 
the  ice,  and  then  I  don't  care  about  the  ventilation  above.     I  will  say,  how- 


Sec.  15.]  CELLAES,  CHIMNEYS,  AND  ICE-HOUSES.  295 

ever,  that  my  neighbors'  ice-houses  that  have  no  upper  floor,  and  are  a  good 
deal  open  at  the  top,  do  keep  the  ice  well. 

Prof.  JSTash — "We  are  too  much  inclined  to  be  innovators  in  all  our  build- 
ings, and  in  ice-houses  particularly.  "We  must  look  at  the  true  philosophy 
of  keeping  ice,  or  we  shall  fail ;  for  the  philosophy  of  it  is  to  put  it  as  mucli 
away  from  the  air  as  possible,  and  that  is  why  we  pack  it  in  straw  or  saw- 
dust, etc.  As  to  giving  some  ventilation  to  the  loft,  or  space  over  the  ice, 
it  may  be  of  service.  I  think  that  an  ice-house  should  not  have  any  pro- 
vision for  ventilation — the  tighter  the  better. 

Solon  RoBmsoN^There  is  a  misunderstanding  about  this  term  ventila- 
tion. As  one  of  the  advocates  of  it  for  an  ice-house,  as  well  as  all  other 
houses,  I  do  not  mean  open  exposure,  but  simply  to  allow  an  escape  of  the 
heated  air  that  will  accumulate  in  the  space  between  the  straw  and  the  roof. 
Make  it  as  tight  all  round  the  body  of  the  ice  as  possible,  by  using  non- 
conducting substances  from  the  exterior,  and  cover  the  top  of  the  ice  as 
closely  as  you  please  with  sawdust  or  straw,  but  don't  make  the  upper  part 
too  close ;  at  least,  leave  the  cracks  in  the  gable  ends  open.  As  for  the 
sides,  the  best  of  all  substances  to  fill  with  is  fine  charcoal ;  the  next  best, 
sawdust ;  next,  tan-bark,  straw,  leaves  from  the  forest,  or  salt  hay,  or  any 
other  fibrous  substance.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  double  M^all  if  your 
ice  is  sufficiently  packed  around  with  any  of  the  above  substances.  The  air, 
at  any  ]-ate,  must  not  come  in  contact  with  the  ice,  nor  with  a  board  that 
touches  it.  And  a  stone  or  the  ground  will  melt  ice  much  quicker  than 
wood.  What  I  have  been  most  anxious  for  in  bringing  up  this  discussion 
upon  ice-houses,  is  to  divest  the  subject  of  all  scientific  nonsense  about 
making  buildings  to  keep  ice  of  so  expensive  a  character  that  no  common 
farmer  would  undertake  it.  Yet  there  are  thousands  of  men  who  might 
enjoy  the  comforts  of  a  full  supply  of  ice,  and  some  of  them  would  do  it 
if  they  only  knew  that  they  could  build  a  house  at  almost  no  cost.  A  log 
cabin,  as  described  by  Mi".  Pell,  or  a  cellar  lined  with  fence-rails  and  a 
board  roof,  with  plenty  of  sawdust,  leaves,  or  straw,  will  keep  it  longer  than 
a  stone  or  brick  building,  put  up  at  a  cost  of  $500,  I  want  to  encourage 
people  to  build  cheap  ice-houses. 

A  correspondent  says:  "I  live  on  Staten  Island,  where  neither  charcoal, 
sawdust,  nor  tan-bark  can  be  had,  except  at  great  expense,  but  dry  forest- 
leaves  and  salt  hay  cost  but  a  trifle.  "Will  either  of  the  latter  answer  a  good 
purpose  for  an  ice-house  out  of  the  ground,  and,  if  so,  wliich  is  the  best?  (1.) 
I  propose  to  make  two  boxes  of  rough  hemlock  boards — the  outer  one 
twelve  feet  square  by  ten  feet  high,  the  inner  one  ten  feet  square  by  the  same 
bight — so  as  to  leave  a  continuous  space  of  twelve  inches  all  round  between 
the  boxes,  this  space  to  be  filled  with  leaves  or  hay  pressed  down  tight.  (2.) 
The  roof  to  be  covered  with  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  and  set  at  an 
angle  of  35  degrees,  with  a  projection  of  two  feet.  The  double  doors 
will  be  in  the  peak  of  the  roof,  the  outside  frame  to  be  supported  by  chest- 
nut posts,  lined  on  one  side,  and  set  into  the  ground  four  feet  apart ;  the 


296  THE   FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

inside  box,  or  frame,  to  bo  supported  by  joists,  2x-t-inch,  set  edgewise,  three 
feet  apart,  secured  against  the  inner  side.  Chestnut  sleepers  will  be  laid  on 
the  ground,  covered  with  loose  boards,  from  which  there  will  be  good  dniin- 
age.  Will  it  be  necessary  to  make  the  roof  double,  and  have  an  opening  on 
the  top  for  ventilation?  (3.)  Can  you  suggest  any  improvement  on  tlii.-. 
plan,  without  increasing  the  cost?  (4.)  One  of  my  neighbors,  for  the  want 
of  tan-bark  or  sawdust,  built  an  expensive  ice-house  on  the  ground,  walled 
up  with  stone,  but  it  fails  to  keep  the  ice.  (5.)" 
I  will  briefly  answer  these  inquiries : 

1.  Either  salt  hay  or  leaves  Avill  answer  a  good  purpose,  and  I  should  use 
whichever  is  the  cheapest. 

2.  This  plan  will  make  an  ice-house  that  will  keep  the  contents  safe  in 
any  place. 

3.  There  is  the  same  necessity  for  a  double  roof  that  there  is  for  double 
sides,  and  more,  for  that  is  not  necessary  if  there  is  a  good  thick  lining  of 
straw  between  the  ice  and  boards.  I  double  my  roof  by  a  thatch  of  straw, 
first  laid  and  then  boarded  over. 

4.  The  improvement  I  should  suggest  would  be  a  cheaper  frame.  Make 
the  outside  just  like  the  inside.  It  is  cheaper,  and  will  answer  just  as  well 
as  the  chestnut-posts. 

5.  This  is  probably  owing  to  deficient  ventilation  ;  that  is,  openings  in  the 
gable  ends  far  above  the  ice,  to  allow  the  hot  air  and  foul  gases  that  accu- 
mulate there  to  pass  ofl".  If  the  stone  walls  of  an  ice-house  once  get  heated 
from  the  sun,  they  retain  the  lieat  both  day  and  night,  and  communicate  it 
to  the  atmosphere  within.  Stone  is  the  worst  material  for  an  ice-house  that 
can  be  used. 

RoBEKT  L.  Pell  said  that  he  built  an  ice-house  just  like  a  log-cabin,  in 
the  ground,  with  a  board  roof,  that  keeps  ice  first-rate.  He  built  one  of 
stone  and  one  of  brick,  laid  in  cement,  neither  of  which  would  keep  ice. 
lie  fills  on  a  cold  day,  and  leaves  the  house  open  to  allow  the  ice  to  freeze. 
He  packs  broken  ice  into  all  the  spaces  between  the  cakes,  and  puts  straw 
at  the  bottom  eight  inches  thick,  and  packs  the  ice  up  to  the  wood  on  the 
sides,  and  leaves  it  until  June  or  July,  when  there  is  a  space  melted  away 
all  round,  and  that  is  then  packed  tight  with  straw.  His  ice-house  is  most 
thoroughly  ventilated  in  the  upper  portion  of  it.  A  full  set  of  ice-tools  costs 
about  $50,  but  he  did  not  think  it  necessary  for  a  farmer  to  go  to  that  ex- 
pense ;  a  saw  is  nearly  as  good  as  an  ice-plow  to  cut  ice  on  a  small  scale, 
Avhen  great  haste  is  not  very  necessary,  as  is  the  case  with  the  great  ice- 
gatherers  for  market. 

John  G.  Bergen — My  ice-house  is  a  cellar,  about  twelve  feet  square  at  the 
top  and  ten  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  this  is  fitted  with  a  double-boarded  frame, 
the  hollow  filled  with  sawdust.  The  earth  is  so  porous  that  it  gives  a 
natural  drainage.  Tliere  is  a  building,  used  for  other  purposes,  over  the  ice- 
house, which  is  ventilated,  but  the  ice  part  has  no  ventilation  ;  and  I  cover 
the  ice  with  sawdust,  and  also  around  the  sides,  and  it  keeps  well.     I  pack 


Sec.  15.]  CELLARS,  CHIMNEYS,  AND  ICE-HODSES.  297 

the  cakes  close,  and  tliey  come  out  as  square  as  tliey  went  in.  There  is  a 
free  circulation  of  air  in  the  iipper  part  of  my  ice-house,  and  nothing  but 
straw  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  ice.  The  great  Hudson  River  ice-hoiises 
are  very  large,  and  always  built  above  ground,  with  double  walls,  filled  with 
sawdust.  The  ice  is  packed  close,  and  broken  ice  filled  in  to  all  the  cracks. 
Some  single  ice-houses  hold  3,000  tuns;  and  most  of  the  ice  used  in  the  city 
is  cut  upon  the  river,  and  not  upon  lakes. 

Mr.  QaiNN — I  noticed  that  some  of  these  ice-houses  use  salt  hay.  The 
roofs  and  sides  are  double,  and  the  best  of  them  are  tilled  with  fine  charcoal, 
making  the  wails  eighteen  inches  thick.  I  know  one  person  who  had  an 
underground  ice-house,  and  now  has  one  above,  which  he  prefers ;  the  ice 
keeps  in  this  the  best. 

J.  P.  Vkeedek — I  made  my  ice-house  by  digging  a  hole  ten  or  twelve  feet 
square,  and  lined  it  with  boards  as  a  double  wall,  filled  in  witli  tanbark. 
My  roof  is  a  straw  thatch.  My  ice  keeps  perfectly  well.  I  have  gqod 
drainage,  and  I  put  about  six  inches  of  straw  around  the  ice  on  bottom, 
sides,  and  top.  The  house  is  only  four  feet  below  tlie  surface,  and  the  rest 
above.  I  pack  about  twelve  or  fourteen  tuns  of  ice,  being  careful  to  fill  all 
the  crevices  with  broken  ice. 

John  G.  Bergen  said  that  he  did  not  think  a  double  roof  necessary. 
None  of  the  ice-houses  in  his  neighborhood  had  them. 

Piof.  Mapes — The  point  settled  in  building  ice-houses  is,  that  the  whole 
ice-hoiise  should  be  above  ground.  This  is  the  practice  in  Massachusetts. 
There  is  no  substance  equal  to  a  confined  space  of  air  for  the  walls  of  ice- 
houses. Build  of  whatever  substance  you  please,  so  that  you  have  a  double 
wall,  and  tight  enough  to  hold  air,  and  you  will  have  a  perfect  protector  of 
ice.  As  to  ventilation,  Jenner,  who  first  constructed  ventilated  ice-boxes, 
found  that  ice  melted  faster  in  ventilated  than  in  unventilated  boxes.  Ventila- 
tion is  necessary  when  you  desire  to  keep  food  sweet.  If  there  is  no  ventila- 
tion, the  confined  air  soon  becomes  very  foul  from  animal  substances  on  ice. 
He  then  gave  some  interesting  particulars  of  the  large  refrigeratoi-s  in  some 
of  the  city  packing-houses.  Some  are  so  large  that  they  use  up  a  number 
of  tuns  of  ice  a  day.  The  temperature  is  kept  at  42  degrees,  and  in  large 
rooms  thus  cooled  hundreds  of  animals  can  be  killed  and  cooled  every  day. 
If  your  object  is  to  keep  ice  without  use,  shut  up  close — it  needs  no  venti- 
lation. 

315.  How  to  Make  and  Store  Ice. — H.  Lyman,  of  Johnstown,  Wis.,  tells 
how  to  make  ice  for  putting  up  in  ice-houses,  where  there-is  no  convenient 
pond  or  stream,  and  how  to  store  it  without  an  expensive  house  built  on 
purpose.     Mr.  Lyman  says : 

"  I  live  on  tlie  prairie.  On  the  coldest  day  of  January  I  draw  water  from 
the  well  and  pour  it  into  square  tin  pans,  two  feet  long,  nine  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom,  and  nine  and  an  eighth  at  the  top,  and  about  nine  inches  deep. 
While  I  have  been  drawing  water,  Dick  has  been  gathering  clean  snow 
and  putting  it  into  the  water.     The  compound  is  frozen  immediately.     I  now 


298  THE  FARMERY.  [Cuap.  ID. 

apply  hot  water  w'tli  cloths  to  the  sides  of  the  tin  containers,  which  enables 
me  to  empty  out  the  blocks  of  ice. 

"  A  cube  of  ice  of  four  feet  is  all  I  need.  No  separate  building  need  be 
erected  to  keep  it  in..  The  barn,  the  wood-liouse,  or  the  tool-house  can 
furnish  an  ample  corner.  Tiie  conditions  of  its  safe  keeping  are — the  walls 
of  a  building  around,  and  two  feet  of  compact  straw  on  every  side  of  the 
gelid  mass.  In  packing,  I  lay  loose  boards  on  a  bed  of  straw,  a^id  on  this 
platform  I  lay  the  ice.  I  take  care  to  expose  the  ice  to  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture of  the  year,  and  lay  it  up  in  the  coldest  state.  If  every  alternate  block 
of  ice  is  inverted,  the  mass  is  thereby  made  compact;  if  not,  lliere  will  be 
a  little  space  open  at  the  bottom  between  the  respective  blocks.  AVhen  the 
cube  is  comj)lete,  cover  the  whole  with  straw.  This  work  can  be  effected 
with  milk  pans  or  other  vessels,  and  if  straw  or  ice  be  carefully  filled  into 
the  intervals  in  packing  it  will  answer  a  good  purpose,  though  square  pans 
are  preferable.  I  use  snow  for  the  sake  of  hastening  the  process  of  freezing. 
The  pans  are  flared  a  little  toward  the  top  to  f;\cilitate  turning  out." 

This  excellent  plan  should  be  carefully  heeded  by  all  the  dwellers  upon 
prairies,  and  by  a  great  many  other  people. 

.310.  How  to  Carry  Ice  to  Ihc  Field.— Lucius  Beach,  of  Port  Huron,  Mich., 
says :  "  Many  farmers  do  not  put  up  ice  from  the  supposed  difficulty  of  using 
it  on  the  farm  away  from  the  house.  I  have  used  ice-water  for  constant 
drink  two  summers  on  my  farm.  I  happened  to  carry  water  with  ice  in  it 
into  the  field  in  a  six-quart  tin  pail  with  a  cover  to  it.  "We  used  the  watei", 
and  the  ice  was  left  in  the  pail  about  six  hours  in  a  hot  day,  and  some  of  it 
still  remained.  I  then  procured  a  twelve-quart  tin  pail  with  cover,  put 
in  a  large  piece  of  ice,  took  a  jug  of  water^into  the  field,  and  turned  it  on 
to  the  ice  as  we  wanted  to  use  it.  In  this  way  it  will  last  from  six  to  ten 
hours  for  the  use  of  six  men,  and  is  a  luxury  indeed." 

317.  liOW  to  Keep  Ice  iu  ^'lliunicr. — If  you  have  no  ice-liouse,  and  buy  ice, 
or  even  if  you  have  an  ice-house,  and  do  not  want  to  open  it  except  at  even- 
ing or  morning,  or  if  it  is  inconvenieiit  to  the  house,  and  you  wish  to  have 
ice  always  hand}',  this  is  how  you  can  do  it.  Have  a  bushel  of  clean,  dry 
sawdust,  put  a  peck  of  it  in  the  bottom  of  a  tight  barrel,  having  one  hole 
for  drainage,  then  put  in  a  layer  of  lumps  of  ice  and  another  peck  of  saw- 
dust, and  so  on,  covering  the  top  tightly  with  sawdust,  and  over  all  a  folded 
blanket.  Do  not  let  the  ice  touch  the  staves,  and  do  not  set  the  barrel  in  a 
warm  place,  and  you  will  have  ice  all  day,  with  scarcely  any  perceptible 
waste.  Provide  sawdust  enough,  so  that  you  can  shift  the  wet  for  dry  every. 
day.  This  is  a  much  better  ]ilan  than  wrapping  ice  in  a  blanket  or  keeping 
it  in  a  refrigerator,  because  the  best  of  these  usefid  articles  of  household  fur- 
niture do  not  ])reservc  ice,  but  rather  waste  it,  and  in  so  doing  preserve  the 
food  placed  in  them. 

318.  Refrigerators.^No  family  can  afford  to  keep  house  without  a  re- 
frigerator— a  food-preserver.  "\Ve  do  not  mean  an  ice-box,  which,  like  the 
one  above  described,  will  keep  ice,  but  nothing  else — that  is,  not  to  any  ad- 


Sec.  IG.J 


THE  BARX   AND  ITS   APPUBTEKANCES. 


299 


vantage.  A  piece  of  meat,  placed  upon  ice,  -will  keep  a  longer  time  than 
in  the  open  warm  air,  but  it  does  not  keep  as  good  as  in  dry  air  of  ice 
temperature,  and  it  spoils  very  quickly  after  it  is  taken  olf  the  ice.  A  cus- 
tard pie  kept  three  days  on  the  ice  will  be  slimy  and  aiot  toothsome ;  but 
when  kept  in  a  good  refrigerator,  the  pie  will  be  as  sweet  and  dry  as  it  is  in 
a  pantry  in  cool  weather ;  a  piece  of  meat  will  keep  in  July  as  well  as  in 
January.  Such  a  refrigerator  has  the  ice  at  the  top,  and  the  air  cooled  by 
it  falls  upon  the  food  below,  or  on  a  shelf  alongside  of  the  ice,  aftd  is  as  dry 
as  any  other  cold  air.  A  box  of  fine  charcoal,  kept  in  the  i-efrigerator,  and 
changed  every  month,  will  absorb  all  the  unpleasant  odors  and  keep  the  air 
sweet.  Such  refrigerators  are  common  now  in  New  York  in  families,  and 
some  of  the  butchers  have  them  large  enough  to  store  the  quarters  of  a  bul- 
lock and  several  sheep  and  calves.  And  some  of  the  packing-houses  have 
them  large  enough  to  store  and  cut  and  pack,  in  a  winter  atmosphere,  several 
hundred  hogs  a  day.  Without  such  "  cooling-rooms,"  the  summer  slanghter- 
ing  of  butchers'  animals  could  never  be  carried  on  to  the  great  extent  it  is  in 
all  the  large  sea-board  cities.  This  is  one  of  the  great  inventions  of  the 
present  age.  These  improved  refrigerators,  of  suitable  size  for  families,  cost 
from  $15  to  $50  each.  Ours,  which  cost  $25,  is  worth  $10  a  year— has  been 
in  use  live  years,  and  is  just  as  good  as  ever,  and  we  see  no  reason  why  it 
will  not  be  so  ten  years  hence.  It  is  better  than  none,  even  M'ithout  ice,  as 
it  preserves  an  even  condition  of  temperature.  Every  farmer  should  have 
ice,  and  no  one  should  be  without  a  refrigerator  in  some  very  convenient 
locality  near  the  kitchen  cr  store-room. 


SECTION  XVI.-THE  BARN  AND  ITS  APPURTENANCES. 

F  all  that  might  be  profitably  said  under  the  title  of  this 
^y      section  were  given,  we  should  require  a  whole  volume 

instead  of  a  few  pages,  which  is  all  the  space  we  can  allot 

to  the  important  subject. 

A  farm  without  a  barn  is  only  to  be  tolerated  in  a  new 
settlement,  as  in  some  cases  on  the  great  prairies,  where  the 
land  can  be  got  under  cultivation  before  the  owner  can  erect 
the  necessary  buildings.  Even  there,  we  have  always  no- 
ticed that  the  most  thrifty  farmers  were  those  who  erected 
the  best  barns,  at  the  earliest  moment  practicable. 

Tlie  barn  and  its  appurtenances,  treated  of  in  this  section, 
contains  information  that  will  be  found  valuable  to  every  one 
who  owns,  or  ever  expects  to  own,  a  farm. 

319.  The  Use  and  Value  of  Barns,  and  their  Locationt— Of 
course,  a  good  barn  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  of  a  farmery — one  that  can 


300  THE   FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI. 

not  be  dispensed  with.  Grain  and  hay  may  bo  preserved  in  stacks  or  bar- 
racks, but  tiie  one  can  not  be  threshed  and  cleaned  out-door  -without  waste, 
and  (he  other  can  not  be  fed  to  the  stock  to  good  advantage  anywhere  but 
in  the  barn.  A  good  house  and  convenient  out-buildings  are  comfortable;  a 
good  barn  is  one  of  the  grand  necessities  of  good  farming. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  do  without  one  of  sufScicnt  size  to  acconmiodatc 
all  the  purposes  for  which  a  barn  is  appropriate.  We  have  rarely,  if  ever, 
seen  upon  a  well-cultivated  farm  a  barn  that  was  too  large.  In  nine  out  of 
ten  cases  the  barn  is  too  small.  After  it  is  too  late,  the  farmer  regrets  that 
he  had  not  built  it  larger.  But  lack  of  size  is  not  so  great  a  fault  as  wrong 
location,  for  you  can  build  to  the  original,  by  a  lean-to  upon  one  side,  and 
open  shed  or  stable  on  the  other,  or  an  entire  new  building  adjoining,  so  as 
to  make  the  whole  quite  as  convenient  as  though  all  built  together  in  one 
building.  But  if  the  location  is  wrong,  it  never  can  be  righted.  So,  in 
building  anew,  make  this  a  question  for  careful  consideration  :  "  Where  shall 
I  place  my  barn  ?"     And  do  not  place  it  until  you  know  that  you  are  rigiit. 

We  will  point  out  a  few  essential  things  about  location,  which  we  think 
may  be  of  service  to  those  about  to  build  barns.' 

First,  a  barn  never  should  be  set  up-hill  from  the  house,  where  by  any 
possibility  the  drainage  either  on  the  surface,  or  under  it,  should  come  down 
about  the  door,  or  into  the  cellar  or  well.  AVherever  the  situation  will 
admit  of  it,  place  the  barn  on  a  lower  level  than  the  house,  and  northerly 
or  westerly  from  it,  and  do  not  be  afraid  to  give  a  good  distance  between. 
You  had  better  walk  an  extra  hundred  feet  all  your  life  than  have  a  hundred 
foul  smells  creeping  into  every  room  in  your  dwelling. 

Secondly,  never  build  your  barn  upon  the  roadside.  Upon  the  road, 
only  a  mile  long,  which  we  daily  travel  between  our  own  home  and  the 
railroad  station,  there  are  four  barns,  located  upon  just  such  situations  as  are 
very  common  in  all  hilly  regions,  the  face  of  a  hill,  which  gives  mo.-t  excel- 
lent natural  drainage— but  unfortunately  for  good  economy,  the  drainage  is 
directly  into  the  jniblic  I'oad. 

Another  thing  in  the  location  of  a  barn  should  he  had  in  view,  and  that 
is  convenience  of  access.  For  a  large  farm,  a  hillside  barn,  that  can  liave  a 
drive-way  into  the  second  or  third  stor}-,  affords  a  great  convenience  about 
unloading  hay,  and  hauling  away  manure  from  the  lower  side. 

A  location  should  be  chosen  for  a  barn,  so  far  as  it  can  be,  with  reference 
to  other  important  considerations,  where  it  will  not  occupy  half  an  acre,  or 
more,  perhaps,  of  the  very  best  soil,  about  the  center  adopted  fc)r  the  farmery 
establishment.  If  you  are  about  to  make  a  new  location  for  the  whole  of  * 
the  buildings  to  constitute  a  farmery,  it  will  be  easy  to  have  them  arranged 
relatively  right,  if  you  first  make  a  complete  map  of  the  whole  farm,  and 
then  make  j'our  locations  to  suit  peculiar  circumstances.  On  a  rough,  rocky 
farm  yon  may  often  save  an  acre  of  good  land  by  placing  your  buildings 
upon  ground  or  rock  fit  only  to  build  upon,  and  much  better  for  that  than  a 
rich  soil. 


Seo.  16.] 


THE  BARN  AND  ITS  APPURTENANCES. 


301 


Above  all  things,  in  selecting  a  site  for  the  ftirmeiy,  of  which  the  barn, 
with  its  appurtenances,  forms  such  a  conspicuous  portion,  avoid  locating 
directly  upon  both  sides  of  the  road,  and  all  locations  upon  brook  or  river 
banks,  wliich  allow  so  much  fertility  to  be  washed  away.  Aud  do  not  go 
to  the  bottom  of  the  hill  because  there  is  a  natural  spring  there,  or  because 
you  can  dig  a  well  so  easily.  You  can  have  a  cistern  anywhere  near  a  roof, 
if  you  can  not  get  a  well.  Do  not  locate  on  the  very  pinnacle  of  the  hill — 
it  is  too  bleak,  even  in  quite  warm  latitudes.  If  you  place  the  house  on  the 
hill,  you  need  not  put  the  barn,  like  one  I  see  almost  daily,  on  the  top  of 
the  highest  pile  of  rocks  in  the  vicinity — a  spot  bleak  euoiigh  to  Ulow  the 
hair  off  a  cow's  back. 

Having  said  this  much  of  the  most  important  question,  we  will  now 
introduce  some  descriptions  of  a  few  of  the  best  barns  in  this  country. 

320.  Barn  built  by  the  Shakers,  Canterbury,  N.  H.— The  location  of  this 
Shaker  society  is  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  Concord,  N.  H.,  and  nine  miles 
east  of  Merrimac  Eiver.  The  society  is  composed  of  three  families,  and 
owns  about  2,500  acres,  lying  in  nearly  a  square  form,  in  the  center  of 
which  are  their  substantially  built  and  commodious  dwelling-houses  and 
numerous  other  buildings,  all  of  which  are  painted  of  lightish  colors,  and 
kept  in  the  most  complete  repair  and  neatness. 

The  main  body  of  the  barn  is  200  feet  in  length  by  45  in  width,  with  34 
feet  jjosts  (three  stories  high).  The  roof  is  nearly  flat,  double  boarded,  then 
covered  with  three  layers  of  stout  sheathing  paper,  saturated  with  coal  tar, 
upon  which  is  spread  a  thick  coat  of  coal  tar  and  screened  gravel.  There 
is  a  projection  at  each  end  of  the  barn,  25  feet  in  length  and  about  16  in 
width,  so  that  the  whole  length  is  250  feet.  The  whole  structure  is  well 
boarded.  The  sides  and  ends  are  covered  with  16-inch  pine  shingles,  laid 
four  inches  to  the  weather.  There  are  three  floors,  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  main  body  of  the  barn.  The  ground  upon  which  the  barn 
was  erected  was  nearly  level,  but  at  great  expense  a  drive-way  has  been 
graded,  of  easy  ascent,  so  tliat  the  loads  of  hay  are  driven  on  to  the  upper 
floor,  over  the  high  beams,  so  that,  in  unloading,  the  hay  is  pitched  down, 
instead  of  up.  This  makes  a  material  ditierence  in  forking  over  200  tons 
of  hay  each  hay  season.  The  floors,  ceilings,  partitions,  etc.,  are  all  planed 
and  finished  off  as  handsomely  as  farm-houses  formerly  were.  There  are 
two  hovels  on  the  lower  floor,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  main  barn, 
the  eastern  portions  of  which  are  arranged  for  tying  up  23  cows  in  each, 
with  sliding  stanchions.  The  cows  have  been  so  trained,  as  they  pass  in 
the  hovel  each  one  takes  its  own  place  with  the  regularity  of  well-trained 
soldiers,  and  by  a  simple  contrivance — the  turn  of  a  short  lever — the  heads 
of  all  the  cows  are  fastened  or  loosened,  quicker  than  any  one  could  be  tied 
by  a  rope.  Each  cow  is  named,  and,  like  the  "world's  people,"  they  select 
fancy  names  for  their  cows,  such  as  Rosa,  Lady  Grace,  Julia,  Bustle,  and 
Crinoline,  each  of  which  is  printed  in  large  type  on  slips  of  pasteboard,  and 
tacked  upon  the  joists  over  each  one.     Upon  the  roof  are  three  large,  hand- 


302  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

soiuely  finished  ventilators,  with  Ycnetian  blinds.  The  cellar,  200  by  45 
leer,  is  of  good  depth ;  the  walls  are  of  split  granite,  pointed  with  cement. 
Large  wooden  tubes  pass  from  the  cellar  through  the  roof,  which  effectually 
carry  ofl'  the  heated  foul  air  of  the  manure.  From  the  south  side  of  the  cen- 
ter of  the  barn  described,  a  two-story  building  extends,  south,  100  feet  by 
27.  The  upper  part  is  used  for  storing  hay,  grain,  straw,  etc. ;  the  lower, 
for  calf-peus,  store-rooms,  and  hospital  for  sick  animals,  with  a  nicely  fitted 
up  room  for  the  herdsman.  The  roof  of  this,  like  that  of  the  large  barn,  is 
nearly  flat,  tarred  and  graveled,  and  shingled  upon  the  sides  and  ends,  as  is, 
also,  a  new  sheep-barn,  built  adjoining.  This  runs  from  the  southeast  cor- 
ner of  the  large  barn,  108  feet  long  by  43  wide.  The  drive-way  floor  of 
this  is  17  feet  wide,  so  that  two  teams  can  stand  abreast,  and  at  the  south 
end  the  floor  is  wide  enough  to  allow  the  turning  about  of  the  team,  so  that 
the  oxen  passing  out  go  before  the  cart,  instead  of  the  cart  going  out  first — 
for  the  south  end  is  not  graded  up  bo  as  to  admit  of  driving  through,  as  in 
(he  large  barn. 

Another  addition  Avas  planned,  that  is,  a  long  shod,  extending  from  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  barn  100  feet.  This  will  give  two  barn-yards  of 
about  100  feet  square  each,  well  sheltered,  all  but  the  south,  with  both  yards 
well  supplied  with  water. 

As  the  Shakers  are  famous  for  good  barns,  we  shall  give  the  description 
of  another  one  of  theirs.  We  have  great  confidence  in  the  economy  of  the 
form  of  the  one  next  described,  as  well  as  its  great  convenience. 

321.  A  Circular  Barn. — The  Shakers  of  Berkshire  County,  Mass.,  have  a 
barn  that  is  worthy  the  attention  of  farmers  who  are  contemplating  the 
erection  of  barns  upon  a  large  scale.  We  should  think  that  on  some 
accounts  it  would  be  a  good  form  to  erect  upon  large  prairie  farms.  We 
recommend  its  form  for  adobe  buildings  and  concrete  walls,  as  one  best 
adapted  to  withstand  the  force  of  hard  storms,  as  well  as  the  form  most 
economical  for  the  room  inclosed.  The  barn  owned  by  the  Shakers  is  100 
feet  in  diameter,  built  of  stone — a  material  that  is  very  abundant  in  that 
part  of  Massachusetts.  It  is  two  stories  higli,  the  first  one  being  only  seven 
and  a  half  feet  between  floors,  and  containing  stalls  for  seventy  head  of 
cattle,  and  two  calf  stables.  These  stalls  are  situated  in  a  circle  next  the 
outer  wall,  with  the  heads  of  the  animals  pointing  inward,  looking  into  an 
alley  in  which  the  feeder  passes  around  in  front  of  and  looking  into  the  face 
of  every  animal.  The  circle  forming  the  stable  and  alley-Avay  is  fourteen 
feet  wide,  inside  of  which  is  the  great  bay.  Over  the  stable  and  alley  is 
the  threshing-floor,  which  is  fourteen  feet  wide  and  about  three  hundred 
feet  long  on  the  outer  side,  into  which  a  dozen  loads  of  ha}'  may  be  hauled, 
and  all  be  unloaded  at  the  same  time  into  the  bay  in  the  center.  There 
should  be  a  large  chimney  formed  of  timbers  open  in  the  center  of  such  a 
mass  of  liay,  connecting  with  air  tubes  under  the  stable  floor,  extending  out 
to  the  outside  of  the  building,  and  with  a  large  ventilator  in  the  peak  of  the 
roof.     AVe  should  also  recommend  an  extension  of  the  eaves  beyond  the 


Sec.  16.]  '        THE  BARlf  AND  ITS  APPURTENANCES.  303 

outer  wall,  by  means  of  brackets,  so  as  to  form  a  shed  over  the  doors,  and 
the  manure  thrown  out  of  the  stable  and  piled  against  the  wall. 

In  the  barn  mentioned  there  is  a  granary  projecting  into  the  circle  of  t'le 
bay,  which  we  do  not  exactly  approve,  preferring  the  granary  in  a  sejsarate 
building,  to  which  grain  may  be  conveyed  through  spouts,  if  the  barn  is 
located  iipon  the  hillside,  which  is  preferable  on  account  of  entering  the 
threshing-floor  on  a  level,  though  that  is  not  indispensable,  as  a  wagou-way 
can  be  graded  up  from  a  level  plat. 

323.  Barn  Foundations. — The  stone  foundation  of  a  barn  should  never  be 
laid  in  mortar.  This  is  an  error  that  should  be  avoided,  as  imnecessary  and 
unprofitable.  It  would  be  even  better  to  place  the  sills  upon  pillars,  leaving 
a  free  circulation,  and  space  high  enough  to  furnish  shelter  for  all  tlie 
poultry  in  winter,  and  thus  keep  them  out  of  the  inside  of  the  barn,  whore 
they  are  a  nuisance.  The  main  object,  however,  is  to  give  free  circiilation 
of  the  air,  to  drive  out  all  foul  gases,  and  promote  the  health  of  animals. 
The  surface  must  be  so  graded  that  no  M'ater  will  stand  under  the  barn. 

323.  Opinions  of  Practical  Farmers  about  Barns. — At  a  Farmers'  Club  in 
West  Springfield,  Mass.,  after  consultation  and  debate,  it  was  decided  that  a 
large  barn  was  better  than  two  or  more  small  ones ;  that  a  tight  barn  was 
better,  even  for  badly-cnrcd  hay,  than  an  open  one  ;  that  a  brick  barn  and  a 
blate  roof  wei-e  the  best  and  cheapest  for  a  man  who  has  all  his  materials  to 
buy  ;  that  a  good  connection  between  a  house  and  barn  is  a  covered  walk, 
overhung  with  grapevines  ;  that  economy  of  roof  and  convenience  for  work 
were  of  the  first  importance  in  any  building ;  that  warm  water  and  warm 
stables  were  essential  to  the  comfort  of  animals  ;  that  the  housing  of  manures 
was  judicious ;  that  liquid  manures  arc  largely  lost,  even  by  those  who 
have  cellars  and  sheds  for  s'oriug  tliem  ;  and  that  the  best  absorbents  of 
liquid  manure  are  buckwheat  hulls,  leaf  mold,  sawdust,  fine  sand,  dried 
peat,  turf,  and  straw. 

Tlie  meeting  -was  held  at  the  house  of  one  of  the  members— an  old-fash- 
ioned two-story  building — with  modern  furniture  and  fixtures,  where  the 
well-spread  tables  were  bountifully  loaded  with  fat  chickens,  mealy  potatoes, 
light  bread,  yellow  butter,  melting  cheese,  with  pies  and  cake  to  match, 
all  lavishly  bestowed,  and  such  conversation  ensued  as  would,  if  it  could 
be  imitated  ia  every  neighborhood,  prove  of  great  benefit  to  the  people. 
Let  the  plan  be  imitated.  If  not  the  plan  of  the  barn,  certainly  the  plan  of 
meeting  with  your  neighbors,  and  talking  over  the  subject,  as  to  whether 
you  shall  build  a  large  or  small  barn,  and  of  what  materials.  It  is  also 
very  important  to  every  one  about  to  build,  to  go  about,  far  and  near,  and 
look  at  all  the  barns  of  various  sizes,  forms,  and  fashions,  and  talk  about 
their  conveniences  and  the  reverse. 

324.  Barns  Boarded  Tight  or  Open.— "Whether  barns  should  be  tight  is  one 
of  the  most  important  questions  that  a  farmer  can  consider ;  for  it  may 
involve  the  health  and  lives  of  all  his  farm  stock.  It  is  contended  by  some 
writers,  with  a  good  deal  of  reason,  that  open  barns  are  more  healthy  for 


304  THE  FARMERY.  [Cjiap.  III. 

stock,  particularly  the  bovine  portion,  than  closely  boarded  ones.  A  com- 
munication from  a  farmer  in  Maine  says  : 

'■  Several  years  ago,  I  learned  by  experience  that  tight  barns  were  not 
healthy  for  cattle,  and  a  little  reasoning  upon  the  subject  will  explain  why 
tliis  is  £0.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  droppings  of  cattle,  both  solid 
and  liquid,  exhale  a  vast  amount  of  gases  of  diflercnt  kinds,  and  these  ga■^c3 
are  unfit  for  respiration  ;  if  cattle  are  deprived  of  air,  and  breathe  these 
gases,  they  die  instantly,  and  if  they  breathe  air  impregnated  with  a  large 
projjortion  of  these  gases,  they  sicken  immediately  ;  the  disease  most  likely 
to  be  produced  is  pneumonia,  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  as  the  poison  is 
applied  directly  to  them. 

"  Now  what  provision  is  made  in  modern  tight  barns  to  get  rid  of  these 
gases  ?  Wliy,  there  is  a  ventilator  on  the  top  of  the  barn,  but  how  are 
these  gases  to  get  to  the  top_  of  the  barn,  since  a  large  proportion  of  them 
are  heavier  than  atmospheric  air?  The  carbonic  and  sulphurous  gases, 
which  are  more  abundant  than  all  others,  are  heavier  than  air,  and  con- 
sequently will  not  ascend ;  ammonia  is  light  and  would  fly  away,  but  the 
carbonic  and  sulphurous  gases,  having  a  strong  afiinity  for  ammonia,  seize 
the  fugitive,  and  by  a  chemical  action  a  new  compound  is  formed  heavier 
than  air,  which,  of  course,  must  remain,  unless  there  is  some  underground 
passage  by  which  it  can  escape.  If  there  is  no  place  for  its  escape,  these 
gases  accumulate  until  the  barn  becomes  filled  with  them,  the  hay  is  im- 
]>regnated,  and  the  stock  has  to  eat  as  well  as  breathe  this  noxious  matter, 
and  the  trouble  is  Morse  if  the  stock  is  high  fed.  Fii-st,  because  high-fed 
animals  have  a  greater  amount  of  blood,  the  blood-vessels  are  fuller,  and 
consequently  a  greater  tendency  to  congestion.  Secondly,  because  the 
excrements  of  higli-fed  animals  evolve  a  much  greater  amount  of  gases  than 
those  of  others,  and  the  difficulty  of  ventilation  is  increased  by  the  fact  that 
these  gases  arc  so  nearly  of  the  weight  of  air.  If  they  were  all  light,  like 
carbureted  hydiogen,  they  would  soon  escape  at  the  top ;  or  if  they  were 
heavy  like  water,  or  even  pure  carbonic  acid  gas,  they  would,  in  most  barns, 
find  cracks  sufficiently  large  to  run  out  near  the  bottom  ;  but  as  the  fads 
prove  that  the  gases  are  nearly  of  the  same  weight  of  air,  I  am  led  to  the 
following  conclusions : 

"  First,  that  the  walls  of  barns  should  never  be  clapboarded  ;  then  there 
will  be  a  gentle  current  constantly  passing  through  the  barn,  and  the  gases 
passing  out  of  the  cracks  on  the  leeward  side;  second,  that  the  stable  for 
liorscs  and  cattle  should  extend  from  one  end  of  the  barn  to  the  other,  with 
a  door  at  each  end,  both  of  which  should  generally  be  open  excepting  in 
severe  cold  weather,  and  in  storms.  I  have  found  by  experience  that  a 
horse  kept  in  a  small,  tight  stable,  will  commence  coughing  in  a  very  few 
days.  Cattle  do  not  suflTer  with  tiie  cold  (unless  the  cold  is  extreme)  if  tliey 
are  in  good  health,  arc  well  fed,  and  have  a  dry,  clean  stall,  and  plenty  of 
good  air  to  breathe.  The  lungs  of  an  ox  will  manufacture  a  vast  amount 
of  animal  heat.     I  have  known  a  cow  to  be  wintered  with  no  other  shelter 


Sec.  16.]  THE  BARN   AND   ITS  APPURTENANCES.  305 

than  an  open  shed,  more  than  two  hundred  miles  farther  north  than  Massa- 
chusetts, and  she  gave  milk  all  winter,  and  came  out  well  in  the  spring." 

There  is  something  worth  a  thought  in  this  matter  about  airy  barns.  We 
know  them  to  be  the  best  tor  liay  and  grain;  and  we  know  that  in  olden 
time  in  New  England,  all  of  the  barns,  covered  with  upright  boards,  put  on 
green,  had  wide  cracks  from  top  to  bottom,  and  in  such  stables,  although 
very  cold,  the  cattle  wintered  well  and  kept  healthy.  It  is  shelter  from 
storms,  and  not  shelter  from  cold,  that  all  of  our  stock  needs. 

325.  Ventilating  Hay-mows. — One  of  the  worst  practices  of  farmers,  in  New 
England  particularly,  is  storing  hay  in  large  bays,  without  a  sign  of  any 
ventilation  under  the  bulk,  which  usually  rests  upon  a  few  loose  poles  or 
boards  on  the  damp  ground.  A  bay  should  have  ventilation,  not  only  under 
it,  but  up  through  it,  by  means  of  a  chimney  made  of  four  poles  fastened 
together  by  rounds  like  a  ladder.  A  loose  stone  foundation  could  be  laid 
for  the  hay  bottom,  with  an  air-chamber  from  the  outside  leading  to  the 
chimney,  directly  over  which  there  should  be  a  ventilator  in  the  roof.  This 
simple  contrivance  would  not  only  save  many  a  tun  of  hay  from  mustiness, 
but  it  would  enable  the  owner  to  put  in  his  hay  in  a  much  greener  state, 
and  that  which  is  next  the  chimney  would  always  come  out  very  sweet. 

326.  Stables — how  to  fonstrnct  them. — A  stable  should  be  built  with  a  view 
to  several  points,  among  which  we  may  mention  economy  of  space  consistent 
with  comfort,  convenience  of  feeding  and  milking  the  animals,  convenience 
of  tethering  them  so  that  they  may  have  the  largest  measure  of  liberty  of 
motion,  but  be  unable  to  injure  one  another;  convenience  of  getting  hay 
from  the  loft  and  grain  from  the  bin  to  the  stalls  ;  and  convenience  of  re- 
moving the  liquid  and  solid  excretions,  so  as  to  preserve  their  quality,  and 
remove  them  so  speedily  tliat  the  effluvium  may  not  be  breathed  by  the  cows. 

The  floor  of  a  cow-stall  of  a  well-constructed  stable  is  four  feet  to  four  feet 
six  inches  long,  raised  two  or  three  inches  for  a  dry  platform.  Behind  the 
platform  the  floor  is  made  of  white-oak  slats  set  apart  so  that  the  urine  may 
drop  through  to  the  cellar  beneath.  The  floor-beams  are  laid  four  feet 
apart.  On  the  sides  stout  elects  are  nailed,  and  on  these  the  2x3^  white- 
oak  slats  are  dovetailed  and  firmly  nailed.  Tiie  slats  are  beveled  to  a  sharp 
edge  beneath,  so  that  the  manure  will  not  clog  the  open  spaces,  but  drop 
clear  as  soon  as  it  sinks  below  the  upper  edges  of  the  slats.  The  slatted 
space  is  a  foot  and  a  half  in  width.  Behind  that  the  first  plank  of  the  floor 
is  made  to  lift  like  a  trap-door,  turning  on  hinges,  to  secure  an  open  space 
through  which  to  hoe  the  droppings,  litter,  etc.,  that  would  not  readily  pass 
between  the  slats.  By  this  simple  contrivance  the  droppings  of  thirty  cows 
can  be  removed  in  a  few  minutes. 

327.  Stables  should  always  be  built  high — that  is,  high  between  floors.  Most 
stables  are  built  low,  "  because  they  are  warmer."  But  the  builders  forget 
that  warmth  is  obtained  at  a  sacrifice  of  pure  air  and  the  health  of  the  an- 
imal. Shut  a  man  up  in  a  tight,  small  box ;  the  air  may  be  warmer,  but  it 
will  soon  lay  him  out  dead  and  cold  if  he  continues  to  breathe  it.     If  stables 


306  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

are  tight,  they  sliould  have  high  ceilings;  if  the}'  are  not  tight,  but  open  to 
the  admission  of  cold  currents  of  air  from  all  directions,  they  will  be  too 
much  ventilated,  or,  rather,  ventilated  in  the  wrong  place.  One  of  the 
cheapest  modes  of  ventilation  is  to  build  the  stable  liigh,  so  as  to  give  room 
for  the  light  air  to  rise  above  the  heads  of  animals.  The  grand  rule  that 
must  be  observed  is  not  to  coniine  a  beast  in  a  room  so  small  that  its 
breathing  will  soon  poison  all  the  air  unless  the  foul  portion  can  escape  and 
fresh  air  enter. 

328.  Cattle  Sheds  that  Cost  Nothingi — It  is  an  act  of  wanton  cruelty  to 
expose  stock  to  the  blasts  of  winter  without  shelter.  In  a  country  of  saw- 
mills, how  cheaply  a  shed  can  be  built  of  slabs  nailed  to  rough  posts,  set  in 
the  gi'ound,  and  roofed  by  laying  one  course  of  slabs  round  side  down,  and 
the  upper  course  round  side  up !  The  cracks  of  the  sides  can  be  battened 
with  thin  strips  of  slabs  or  refuse  boards. 

In  a  wooded  country,  where  sawed  stuff  can  not  be  had,  how  cheaply  a 
side  of  round  logs  can  be  built  and  cracks  daubed  with  mud.  Then  an 
excellent  roof  can  be  made  of  split  stuff,  called  shakes  in  some  places  and 
clap-boards  in  others,  being  split  2i  to  5  feet  long,  and  4  to  6  inches  wide, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  timber  for  riving.  These  laid  upon  round 
ribs,  and  held  in  place  by  weight-poles,  make  a  roof,  though  rough  in  appear- 
ance, as  tight  as  a  shingled  one.  If  bark  is  peeled  at  the  proper  time  and 
laid  at  once,  or  piled  and  dried  flat,  it  makes  a  jjretty  good  roof,  still  cheaper 
than  one  of  shakes,  though  not  so  durable.  We  have  seen  a  very  good 
cattle-shed  roof  made  of  hemlock  boughs,  laid  on  in  courses,  butts  up. 

Cheap  sheds  on  the  prairie,  where  cattle  are  exposed  to  winter  blasts  more 
than  in  any  other  locality,  can  be  made  so  easily  that  it  seems  worse  than 
cruel — it  is  wicked — to  leave  the  poor  brutes  exposed. 

Where  rails  are  to  be  had,  lay  up  a  double  wall  of  rails  a  foot  apart,  by 
using  cross-pieces  at  the  end,  and  fill  up  the  space  with  sods,  or  with  earth 
and  leaves,  or  brush,  or  with  coarse  manure,  or  moldy  hay  and  straw,  such 
as  cattle  will  not  cat  out,  and  you  have  a  good  wind-breaker.  Extend  from 
this  wall,  to  the  south,  rails  or  poles  to  rest  upon  a  girder  on  posts,  and  stack 
hay  or  straw  on  top,  and  there  is  a  shed.  It  costs  but  little  more  to  stack 
hay  in  this  way  than  it  does  to  make  a  suitable  stack-bottom,  and  then  fence 
the  stack.  As  the  hay  is  fed  oft'  in  winter,  fill  up  the  space  with  refuse  Lay 
and  straw,  so  as  to  break  the  wind,  if  it  does  not  stop  all  the  rain.  Such 
sheds  for  sheep  are  very  valualile. 

Where  rails  are  scarce,  a  good  wall  can  be  made  of  prairie  sods  laid  up  in 
courses,  with  hazel  brush  or  small  limbs  to  bind  the  sods  •together,  to  give 
strength  and  prevent  cattle  from  hooking  the  wall  down.  On  this  wall  lay 
a  plate  to  support  the  floor  of  the  stack  or  roof.  Such  cattle  shelter  pays  it8 
cost  every  winter.  Tlierc  is  straw  enough  burned  or  wasted  every  fall,  upon 
the  Western  prairies,  to  shelter  all  the  stock  every  winter,  if  it  were  put  up 
in  some  such  cheap  form  as  wc  have  indicated. 

329.  A  Valuable,  Cheap  Feed-Trough.— One  of  the  puzzles  in  building  horse 


Sso.  16.]  THE  BARN  AND  ITS  APPURTENANCES.  307 

Stables  has  been  how  to  make  tlie  feed-trouglis.  "We  can  ?olve  that  difficulty. 
"We  have  learned  how  to  make  a  horse  feed-troug!i.  Or,  rather,  -vve  have 
learned  how  to  purchase  a  very  good  and  very  cheap  one.  We  learned  it 
of  a  progressive  young  farmer.  Tlio  farm  of  Josiali  Macy,  a  Westchester 
County  farmer  of  the  old  school,  is  conducted  by  his  grandson,  who  has 
gained  knowledge  from  books,  and  goes  ahead  with  improvements,  one  of 
which  is  a  new  feed-trough.  It  is  simply  an  iron  pot — just  such  a  one  as  our 
dinner  used  to  be  boiled  in  before  the  age  of  cooking-stoves.  One  of  about 
four  gallons  is  a  good  size,  and  it  is  set  in  the  corner  of  the  manger,  in  a 
casing  of  boards  that  inclose  the  rim,  just  up  even  with  the  top.  It  is  sujje- 
rior  to  any  wooden,  iron,  or  stone  feed-box  we  ever  saw ;  is  not  expensive, 
and,  barring  accidents,  it  will  last  forever,  and  be  a  good  pot  afterward. 

330.  Earthen  Stable  Floors.— One  of  the  best  substances  that  can  be  found 
for  flooring  for  horses  is  clean  sand.  It  is  superior  to  wood,  as  it  does  not 
heat  and  injure  hoofs.  Some  English  veterinary  surgeons  use  nothing  else 
for  bedding  but  sand.  We  have  always  found  stables  with  dirt  floors  prefer- 
able to  plank  ones. 

331.  The  Stable  Yard.— The  stable,  or  barn-yard,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant appurtenances  of  the  farmery.  Two  grand  objects  must  be  kept  in 
view  in  its  construction — the  comfort  of  the  animals  aud  the  preservation  of 
the  manure.  If  it  is  on  soft  soil,  and  tolerably  level,  as  such  yards  are  upon 
nine  out  of  every  ten  of  the  Western  prairie  farms,  they  are  most  uncom- 
fortable places  for  stock,  although  good  for  preservation  of  manure,  but  that 
is  little  or  no  object  where  it  is  of  so  little  value.  The  only  help  that  we  can 
see  for  a  barn-yard  upon  such  soil,  wliere  the  tramping  of  cattle  makes  it 
into  a  quagmire,  is  thorough  underdrainage,  and  scraping  the  earth  from 
around  into  a  low  mound,  and  covering  tlie  most  of  that  with  sheds.  It  may 
be  BO  constructed  that  all  the  drainage  of  the  manure  will  concentrate  in  one 
spo",  to  be  absorbed  by  straw  or  other  manure-making  substance.  We  have 
found  paving  a  yard  witli  common  fence-rails,  where  stones  could  not  be 
procured,  paid  the  cost  every  year,  and  such  a  pavement  will  last  half  a 
dozen  years. 

In  a  rocky  country,  like  eastern  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  New 
England  States,  if  care  and  sound  judgment  are  used  in  the  location  of  a 
farmery,  the  yard  can  be  fixed  on  the  southerly  side  of  the  barn  and  sheds, 
where  it  will  always  be  dry,  and  very  comfortable  for  stock,  and  yet  not 
wasteful  of  manure.  Our  own  is  located  upon  a  rock,  sloping  southeast. 
Just  outside  the  fence,  at  the  lowest  corner,  an  excavation  is  made,  to  be 
kept  full  of  muck,  sods,  or  other  absorbents,  so  that  while  the  yard  is  con- 
stantly drained,  the  drainage  is  not  lost.  Some  very  good  yards  we  have 
seen  constructed  with  a  deep  basin  in  the  center.  The  great  objection  to 
this  form  in  a  small  yard  is  tliat  the  basin  sometimes  gets  so  full  that  there 
is  not  dry  space  enough  around  the  edges  for  the  cattle.  Sometimes,  too,  it 
freezes  over  quite  full,  and  strong  cattle  push  the  weaker  ones  upon  the  ice 
to  their  injury.     We  prefer  the  absorbing  basin  outside  of  the  yard. 


308 


THE  FARMERY. 


[Chap.  III. 


332.  The  Uen-Roost. — Every  farmery  must  have  a  lien-roost,  if  it  does 
not  have  a  poultry-yard ;  and  tliis  should  not  be  an  open  shed,  nor  a  cold 
open  room,  but  one  so  arranged  that  it  will  be  well  sheltered  from  cold  winds 
aud  storms,  and  lighted  by  a  glass  window  upon  the  sunny  side  or  in  the 
roof.  It  will  also  be  found  a  most  excellent  provision  to  give  hens  access  in 
M-inter  to  a  cellar,  whore  they  can  scratch  gravel  and  wallow  in  dust.  The 
hen-roost,  too,  should  be  arranged  with  special  reference  to  saving  all  the 
droppings  of  the  fowls,  because  it  is  the  most  valuable  manure  that  is  made 
about  a  farmery. 


SECTION  XVII.-WATER  FOR  THE  FARMERY. 

iBOUT  half  of  the  farms  in  the  United  States  are 
deficient  in  water — that  is,  the  water  is  not  con- 
venient for  stock;  and  in  many  situations  cattle 
can  only  be  watered  by  pumping,  or  by  the  still 
more  tedious  process  of  drawing  water  in  a  bucket 
from  a  well.     This  is  a  serious  piece  of  labor,  and  a 
useless  one,  because  the  wind  can  be  made  to  do  the 
work  a  great  deal  better,  cheaper,  and  more  certain  ; 
and  the  whole  expense  of  a  wind-mill,  pump,  and 
putting  into  operation,  in  a  well  twenty  feet  deep, 
would  not  probably  exceed  $50. 

You  may  use  any  one  of  a  dozen  iron  pumps,  to  be 
found   in    almost   every   hardware    store.     Our   own 
y7^^^~^  ^    ^         choice  would  be  "West's  Anti-Freezing  Pump,  which 
X.,_^  is  made  of  iron,  and  is  very  durable.     The  wind-mill 

for  the  motive  power  is  simplicity  simplified.  The  wind-wheel  is  four  feet 
in  diameter,  divided  into  eight  parts,  curved  from  the  center,  just  as  we  used 
to  whittle  out  wind-mills  from  a  pine  shingle  forty  years  ago.  The  wheel 
may  be  made  of  wood  or  iron.  If  of  wood,  fix  the  points  of  the  sails  in  a 
wooden  hub  and  secure  the  outer  ends  by  a  rim,  just  like  that  of  a  large 
spinning-wheel.  Fix  this  wheel  firmly  upon  an  inch  iron-bar,  say  two  feet 
long,  with  two  bearings  to  run  in  iron  or  hard  wood,  and  a  crank  in  the 
center  suited  to  the  stroke  of  your  pump.  If  the  valve  works  four  inches, 
make  your  crank  short  two  inches.  Now  make  a  frame  of  three  pieces, 
three  quarters  of  a  square,  with  bearings  for  the  wind-wheel  shaft  upon 
two,  and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  hole  in  the  center  of  the  other  piece. 
Upon  this  frame  attach  a  vane  of  strong,  thin  wood,  about  three  feet  long 
and  one  foot  wide  at  the  outer  end.  Now  erect  a  gallows-frame  seven  feet 
wide  and  fifteen  feet  high  over  the  pump,  fixed  with  a  pipe  in  the  well.  No 
matter  whether  that  pipe  is  straight  or  not.  Now  put  a  bolt,  with  a  big 
head  and  washer,  through  the  hole  in  the  frame  that  holds  the  shaft,  aud 


Sec.  17.]  WATER  FOR  THE  FARMERY.  309 

through  the  center  of  the  cross-piece  of  the  gallows,  so  that  the  small  frame 
will  be  held  firmly  by  the  head  of  that  bolt,  yet  will  turn  freely  in  the  wind. 
From  the  piston-rod  of  the  pumj),  extend  a  rod  with  a  swivel-joint  in  the 
center  to  the  crank,  and,  let  the  wind  blow  high  or  low,  you  will  have  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  your  cattle  are  supplied  with  water.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  make  a  cistern  to  hold  a  supply  in  case  the  pump  stops  at  any 
time  for  repairs  or  want  of  wind ;  the  latter  will  not  be  apt  to  occur,  as  it 
will  run  with  a  very  slight  breeze.  From  your  watering-tub  or  trough,  con- 
duct a  pipe  back  to  the  well,  and  you  need  not  fear  frost  unless  the  pump 
stops.  By  making  use  of  a  force-pump  you  may  get  a  supply  from  a  well 
in  the  valley  up  to  your  house  and  barn  on  the  hill,  or  to  irrigate  your 
garden.  See  Nos.  369,  370, 

How  to  get  water  most  convenient  to  all  parts  of  the  farmery  should  be 
the  leading  consideration  ;  because  water  is  indispensable — neither  man  nor 
beast  can  do  without  it  a  single  day.  All  else  may  be  inconvenient — water 
sliould  never  be.  It  should  be  brought  in  pipes  from  a  higher  level,  when- 
ever it  is  practicable  at  any  reasonable  expense,  because  that  is  the  most 
convenient  of  all  forms  in  which  water  can  be  had  at  the  farmery ;  and  no 
farmer  can  aflord  to  neglect  to  supply  his  place  with  water,  if  he  owns  a 
spring  or  stream  that  would  afford  such  a  supply,  because  it  is  the  greatest 
labor-saving  fixture  that  he  can  make. 

If  aqueduct  M-ater  can  not  be  had,  then  convenient  wells  and  pumps 
should  be;  and  if  water  can  not  be  had  by  easy,  shallow  digging,  in  wells, 
it  can  and  should  be  in  cisterns :  and  upon  this  question  we  will  give  some 
useful  information. 

333.  Econoniy  of  Aqueducts. — Some  farmers  neglect  to  make  provision  for 
watering  domestic  animals  until  drought  actually  arrives,  and  then  they  can 
not.  We  well  knew  one  who,  during  a  drought,  drove  his  cattle  a  mile  to 
water,  at  the  same  time  that  he  had  roof  enough  on  his  large  barn  to  give 
them  all  the  drink  they  needed,  if  a  cistern  of  proper  capacity  had  been  pre- 
pared to  retain  it.  The  barn  cost  $1,000 — the  cistern  might  be  built  for 
$50 — yet  every  animal  of  his  large  lierd  must  travel  miles  every  week  for 
necessary  drink.  lie  might  construct  a  cistern  now,  but  it  will  be  another 
year  before  he  can  derive  benefit  from  it,  and  so  he  puts  otf  the  labor. 

There  are  many  others  who  do  the  same.  We  know  another  farmer,  who 
has  lived  till  past  eighty  years  of  age  upon  a  farm  where  there  is  a  gushing 
spring  of  excellent  water  within  sixty  rods  of  his  house  and  barn,  high 
enough  to  run  through  pipes  over  the  top  of  every  building,  yet  this  man 
draws  water  with  a  bucket  from  a  well,  which  sometimes  fails,  when  he  has 
to  go  to  a  more  distant  and  inconvenient  well,  or  haul  water  in  barrels  from 
the  river;  and  his  stock,  all  the  long  winter,  go  down  the  road  to  the  river- 
side for  drink,  wasting  time  (and  that  is  money)  and  manure,  to  replace 
which  he  buj's  fertilizers.  Saving  the  first  cost  of  an  aqueduct,  in  such 
cases,  is  not  saving  money.  Neither  is  the  neglect  to  construct  cisterns  a 
good  piece  of  economy. 


310  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI. 


334.  Value  of  Cisterns— their  Size  and  Contents.— Xo  man,  -nhose  only  sup- 
ply of  water  is  in  a  deep  well,  or  where  the  well  or  spring  water,  however 
convenient,  is  hard — that  is,  like  all  the  water  of  limestone  countries,  iinfit 
for  washing,  or  making  butter — can  atlbrd  to  do  without  a  cistern.  If  the 
earth  where  the  cistern  is  to  be  built  is  compact  clay,  it  can  be  dug  out  in 
the  form  of  a  jug,  with  only  a  man-hole  at  the  top;  and  in  all  ground  but 
cavin»  sand  it  can  be  dug  and  plastered  without  any  brick  walls,  and  the 
top  covered  with  durable  timber,  which  should  be  placed  at  least  four  feet 
from  the  surface  to  its  under  side,  as  it  will,  when  thus  covered,  last  enough 
longer  to  pay  for  the  extra  work.  Wherever  flat  stones  abound,  a  moderate- 
sized  cistern  should  be  covered  with  them,  laid  shelving  over  each  way,  if 
not  large  enough  to  reach  clear  across.  The  earth-bottom  and  walls  are 
easily  made  tight  by  cement  (water-lime  mortar),  made  -with  three  parts  of 
clean,  coarse,  sharp  sand  to  one  of  lime,  which  has  to  be  wet  up  only  as  it 
is  wanted  for  use,  or  it  will  set  wherever  it  has  a  chance  to  dry  upon  the 
bed  where  mixed.  It  should  be  very  thoroughly  worked  in,  mixing  wliile 
pretty  wet,  and  plastered  on  the  bottom  first  and  then  up  the  sides,  one  coat 
after  another  as  fast  as  one  is  dry — two  or  three  coats — taking  care  that  no 
defect  is  made  in  the  joining  of  tlie  sides  and  bottom  together.  The  bottom 
should  be  dug  liollowing,  and  corners  full ;  and  to  save  cement,  any  little  in- 
equalities in  the  walls  may  be  filled  witli  clay  or  lime-mortar  before  putting  on 
the  cement  plaster.  In  situations  where  cement  can  not  be  obt^ned,  a  good 
cistern  can  be  made  as  follows,  which  will  last  a  dozen  years  certain.  "We 
know  one  good  at  twenty  years  old.  Take  one  and  a  half-inch  plank,  six  or 
eight  feet  long,  six  inches  wide  at  one  end  and  six  and  a  quarter  at  the  other  ; 
joint  and  dowel  the  edges,  and  fit  the  ends  with  a  croze  upon  heads  six  or 
eight  feet  across,  and  hoop  just  enough  to  keep  together  to  roll  into  the  hole, 
biggest  end  down,  upon  a  soft  mortar  bed  of  clay,  four  inches  deep ;  then 
till  the  space,  between  the  tub  and  walls,  which  should  be  four  or  six  inches 
wide,  with  clay  just  moist  enough  to  tamp  in  the  most  compact  manner, 
and  the  cistern  will  never  leak,  and  will  give  great  satisfaction  for  its  small 
cost.  The  top  should  be  covered  over  with  timber  and  earth,  deep  enough  to 
keep  wami  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer. 

Upon  the  roof  of  a  barn  35  by  70  feet — if  three  feet  of  rain  fall  annually 
— three  cubic  feet  of  water  will  be  aftbrded  by  every  square  foot  of  surface — 
more  than  7,000  cubic  feet  from  the  whole  roof — which  woidd  be  about 
1,700  barrels.  This  would  be  enougli  to  water  daily,  the  year  through,  thir- 
teen head  of  cattle,  each  animal  drinking  four  twelve-quart  pails  full  per  day. 
But  if  the  water  were  reserved  for  the  dry  season  only,  or  when  small  streams 
are  dry,  thirty  or  forty  head  might  be  watered  from  one  roof. 

People  are  apt  to  make  their  cisterns  too  small,  so  that  often  they  do  not 
hold  a  tenth  part  of  the  water  from  the  eaves.  In  the  above-mentioned 
instance  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  construct  one  large  enough  to  hold  tlie 
entire  1,700  barrels.  If  the  cattle  were  watered  from  it  the  year  round,  and 
its  contents  thus  constantly  drawn  as  if  fills,  one  large  enough  to  hold  -tOO 


Sec.  17.]  "WATER  FOR  THE  FARMERY.  311 

barrels  would  do ;  but  if  needed  for  the  dry  season  only,  it  should  be  more 
than  double.  A  cistern  fourteen  feet  in  diameter  and  twelve  feet  deep  would 
hold  about  450  barrels — twenty  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  same  depth,  would 
be  sufficient  for  900  barrels.  If  built  imder  ground,  and  contracted  toward 
the  top,  it  would  require  to  be  a  little  larger  in  dimensions,  to  allow  for  the 
contracted  space.  Such  a  contraction  would  be  absolutely  necessary  to 
admit  of  convenient  and  safe  covering  at  the  top,  and  could  be  effected 
without  any  difficulty  if  built  of  masonry.  The  pressure  of  the  water  out- 
ward would  be  counterbalanced  by  the  pressure  of  the  earth  against  the 
exterior,  especially  if  well  rammed  in  as  the  wall  is  built. 

There  are  some  portions  of  the  coimtry  where  the  subsoil  is  underlaid  by 
slate  or  other  rock  which  may  be  excavated.  In  Buch  cases,  it  sometimes 
happens  that  Avith  a  little  care  in  cutting,  the  water-lime  mortar  may  be  ap- 
plied immediately  to  the  rocky  walls,  a  shoulder  above  being  made  on  which 
to  build  the  contracted  part  of  the  wall. 

We  have  such  a  cistern,  dug  in  tolerably  compact  earth,  and  plastered 
with  cement,  put  on  in  two  or  three  coats,  using  about  two  and  a  half  barrels 
for  a  cistern  eight  feet  wide  and  six  feet  deep.  It  was  designed  to  be 
deeper,  which  would  have  made  a  better  proportion,  but  the  excavators 
came  upon  a  ledge  that  could  not  be  blasted,  and  was  very  difficult  to  jjick 
up,  and  the  bottom  being  very  rough,  required  more  plaster.  The  top  is 
covered  with  chestnut  plank,  over  which  is  earth,  and  the  water  is  let  in 
through  a  pij^e  beneath  the  surface,  and  taken  out  by  another  that  leads  to 
the  pump  in  the  kitchen.  Tliere  is  also  an  outlet  pipe  under  the  covering 
for  surplus  water,  so  that  when  full,  tliere  is  a  body  of  water  five  feet  deep 
by  eight  wide,  and  this  gives  about  sixty  barrels;  and  being  supplied  by 
1,600  superficial  feet  of  roof,  is  not  likely  to  fail  for  family  use.  The  water 
is  perfectly  filtered  by  the  most  convenient  filtering  arrangement  for  a  cis- 
tern that  we  ever  saw. 

This  is  b}^  Peirce's  patent  porous  cement  pipes,  which  are  laid  in  a  sort 
of  net-work  in  the  bottom  of  the  cistern,  and  the  pump-pipe  attached  to 
them,  so  that  no  water  can  reach  the  pump  that  has  not  passed  through  the 
substance  of  the  pipes,  which  are  in  appearance  much  like  solid  stone,  and 
more  than  an  inch  thick,  which  certainly  forms  a  very  perfect  strainer  to  free 
the  rain  water  of  all  impurities.  A  writer  in  his  recommendation  to  every- 
body to  build  cisterns,  says  : 

'  I  have  one  in  my  house  cellar,  entirely  below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar, 
six  and  half  feet  deep  and  five  and  a  half  in  diameter,  holding  about  1,000 
gallons.  It  was  dug  six  feet  eight  inches  deep  and  seven  feet  in  diameter. 
The  bottom  being  made  smooth,  was  laid  over  with  brick.  The  mason  then 
began  the  side  with  brick  laid  in  cement,  leaving  a  space  all  round  between 
the  brick  and  earth  about  five  inches.  After  raising  the  work  about  eighteen 
inches,  he  carefully  filled  the  space  between  the  brick  and  side  of  the  hole 
with  earth,  well  and  carefully  pressed  down.  If  you  wet  the  earth  or  clay 
as  you  fill  it  in,  it  will  be  more  compact. 


312  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI. 

"  "When  yoii  get  vrithiu  about  two  feet  of  the  top,  commence  gradually  to 
draw  in  the  work  toward  the  center,  leaving,  when  finished,  a  space  open 
about  two  feet  across.  The  next  thing  is  to  plaster  the  inside  with  cement ; 
also  the  top  on  the  outside,  commencing  where  you  began  to  draw  in.  About 
two  courses  of  brick  are  laid  round  the  mouth  of  the  cistern,  forming  a  neck, 
which  adds  to  tlie  strength  of  the  top.  Now  cover  the  whole  with  earth, 
e.xcept  the  neck.  The  water  is  conducted  to  my  cistern  through  a  small 
brick  drain  laid  in  cement.  I  also  have  a  drain  near  the  top  to  let  off  the 
surplus  water.  If  a  cistern  is  made  out  of  doors,  it  must  be  below  the  reach 
of  frost.  Lead  pipe  would  probably  be  cheaper  than  brick  to  conduct  water 
to  and  from  the  cistern. 

"  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  a  cistern  made  this  way  of  hard  brick  would 
last  a  century.  Mine,  holding  1,000  gallons,  cost  $18.  The  larger  the  size, 
the  less  the  cost  in  proportion  to  the  capacity.  If  the  earth  is  firm  and  hard, 
you  may  lay  the  brick  close  against  it,  thus  saving  the  trouble  of  filling  in 
and  digging  so  large.  I  have  known  them  made  by  cementing  directly  on 
the  earth,  using  no  brick,  and  covering  the  top  with  timbers  or  plank.  One 
made  with  brick  will  cost  more,  but  I  think  it  best  and  cheapest,  taking  into 
consideration  safety  and  durability." 

Tables  of  Coxtents  of  Circulae  Cisterns. — ^The  following  tables  of  the 
size  and  contents  of  circular  cisterns  may  be  convenient  to  those  about  to 
build  them.  For  each  foot  of  depth,  the  number  of  barrels  answering  to 
the  diflerent  diametei-s  is  as  follows  : 

For  5  feet  in  diameter 4.66  barrels. 

6  "  "      6.71 

7  "  "      9.13 

8  "  "      11.93       " 

9  "  "      15.10       " 

10        "  "      18.65       " 

A  cistern  SJ  feet  diameter  will  hold  for  every  10  inches  in  depth 59  gallons. 

4  "         •'     78       " 

4i       "         "      99       ". 

5  "         "      122       " 

6}       "         "     148       " 

6  "         "     176 

8        "         '«      310       " 

You  will  find  by  this  table  that  a  cistern  six  feet  deep  and  six  in  diameter 
will  hold  1,260  gallons,  and  each  foot  you  add  in  depth  will  hold  210 
gallons.  Therefore,  one  ten  feet  deep  and  six  in  diameter  Avill  contain 
2,100  gallons. 

To  find  the  contents  of  any  cistern  in  wine  gallons,  the  diameter  and 
depth  being  known  : 

1.  Multiply  one  half  the  diameter  (in  feet)  by  itself. 

2.  Multiply  the  above  product  by  3|,  which  will  give  the  area  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cistern  ncarhj. 

3.  Multiply  this  by  the  number  of  feet  in  depth  ;  this  will  give  the  cubic 
contents  in  feet. 

4.  Multiply  the  last  product  by  1,728  (tlie  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a 
foot),  which  gives  the  number  of  cubic  inches. 


Seo.  ir.]  WATER  FOR  THE  FARMERY.  313 

5.  Divide  the  whole  result  by  231  (tlie  number  of  cubic  inches  in  the  wine 
gallon),  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  in  the  cistern. 

Divide  the  gallons  by  30,  and  you  will  have  the  number  of  barrels,  and 
thus  you  can  calculate  how  large  to  make  a  cistern  for  the  use  of  house  or 
barn ;  and  be  sure  not  to  neglect  so  important  and  so  inexpensive  an  im- 
provement as  making  a  cistern. 

335.  Digging  Wells. — There  is  no  better  improvement  put  upon  a  farm 
than  wells,  either  in  their  every-day  convenience  or  value  in  estimating 
the  price  of  a  farm.  In  some  localities  it  will  pay  to  dig  a  well  at  the 
house,  at  the  barn,  in  the  stable-yard,  and  in  almost  every  field.  In  com- 
pact earth,  a  well  can  be  dug  without  curbing  to  Bujjport  the  earth  sides 
during  the  excavation. 

Where  curbing  is  necessary,  the  best  way  to  do  it  is  to  build  the  wall 
upon  a  wooden  or  iron  ring,  and  let  that  down  as  the  excavation  proceeds, 
adding  brick  or  stone  at  the  top  as  fast  as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  wall 
even  with  the  surface. 

336.  Horizontal  Wells. — Here  is  a  new  idea  for  dwellers  in  mountainous, 
or  even  moderately  hilly  districts  to  think  of.  Mining  after  coal  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  gold  in  California,  has  clearly  illustrated  the  fact,  that  wells 
may  be  dug  into  hillsides,  or  banks,  or  bluffs,  as  well  level  or  horizontally, 
as  down  perpendicularly,  which  would  save  dangerous  and  severe  labor. 
Water,  so  troublesome  in  digging  common  wells,  has  not  to  be  bailed  in  the 
horizontal,  as  it  takes  care  of  itself.  The  certainty  of  discovering  or  ci;tting 
off  veins  of  water  is  greater  with  the  horizontal  well  than  the  perpendicular, 
if  it  starts  in  near  the  base  of  a  hill,  or  anywhere  as  much  below  the  surface 
as  a  common  shaft  would  be  likely  to  be  sunk.  By  laying  down  wooden  rails, 
all  the  dirt  can  be  brought  out  in  a  little  railway  car,  and  the  stone  or  brick 
carried  in  to  build  the  well  as  fast  as  the  digging  progresses.  It  will  not 
be  necessary  to  make  a  horizontal  shaft  any  larger  than  a  perpendicular 
one,  though  it  should  be  of  a  different  shape.  We  would  make  it  in  the 
form  of  the  figure  we  call  a  naught  or  cipher  in  numerals.  Two  feet  wide 
and  four  feet  high  will  be  large  enough,  with  a  gentle  descent  for  the  water 
to  run  to  the  outlet ;  and  in  many  situations  it  can  be  made  to  run  through 
a  short  pipe  into  the  house  ;  or  if  it  will  not  run,  it  can  be  drawn  by  a  pump 
through  a  horizontal  pipe  any  distance. 

There  is  another  advantage  in  such  a  well.  It  would  not  be  constantly 
liable  to  have  things  falling,  or  being  thrown  into  it,  and  the  water  would 
remain  purer. 

There  are  a  great  many  pastures  where  water  for  stock  has  to  be  drawn 
from  wells,  which  might  have  a  natural  flow  from  hillsides,  with  an  expend- 
iture of  no  more  time  and  money  than  is  required  for  a  perpendicular  well. 

There  are  some  dairy  farms  that  could  have  valuable  spring-houses  sup- 
plied by  such  a  horizontal  well,  and  such  a  supply  of  cold  running  water 
would  add  to  the  value  of  the  farm  almost  as  much,  in  some  cases,  as  its 
whole  value  is  now. 


31i  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

Such  wells  have  been  constructed  in  California,  and  wo  earnestly  com- 
mend them  to  the  attention  of  all  the  farmers  in  the  hilly  portions  of  the 
Atlantic  States.  In  rocky  hills  a  horizontal  shaft  can  be  drifted  in  much 
easier  than  it  can  be  bored  perpendicularly  ;  and  the  work  either  in  rock 
or  earth  digging  can  be  much  better  done  in  winter  in  a  horizontal  than  in 
a  perpendicular  well.     We  hope  to  see  them  extensively  adopted. 

337.  Wells  on  liills> — We  have  seen  a  great  many  wells  on  the  tops  of  hills 
affording  a  large  supply  of  water,  while  the  bottom  was  above  the  plain  or 
valley  in  which  the  farmstead  was  situated.  How  easy  to  obtain  this  water 
by  a  siphon,  or  a  pipe  inserted  on  a  level,  which  can  be  done  without  dig- 
ging a  ditch  the  whole  depth  and  distance.  Ascertain  where  the  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  well  will  strike  on  the  face  of  the  hill,  and  dig  in  there, 
and  set  up  a  frame  to  support  an  earth-boring  auger,  and  drive  a  bore 
straight  through  to  the  well,  which  can  be  easily  done  one  or  two  hundred 
feet,  if  artesian  wells  can  be  bored  one  or  two  thousand  feet  perpendicular. 
Where  the  distance  is  too  great,  or  the  hill  is  rocky,  put  in  a  siphon  pipe, 
with  a  little  hand-pump  to  start  it,  and  you  can  always  have  running  water 
in  your  yard  or  garden  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

33S.  Causes  of  Impure  Water  in  WellSi — It  sometimes  occurs  that  the  water 
of  a  well,  noted  for  its  purity  and  delicious  drinking  quality,  becomes 
offensive  to  the  taste  and  smell  without  any  apparent  cause.  Sometimes  it 
is  occasioned  by  surface  water  from  an  impure  source  finding  its  way  to  the 
well,  after  many  years  of  exemption  ;  and  sometimes  it  comes  from  i-oots  of 
trees  growing  into  the  water  and  decaying ;  and  sometimes  worms  work 
their  way  in  and  decay  ;  and  occasionally  rats,  mice,  or  other  pests  burrow 
in  the  wall  and  injure  the  water.  And  not  unfrequently  a  new  vein  of 
water  finds  its  way  into  an  old  well  and  materially  changes  the  character 
of  the  water.  Generally  a  M-ell  is  improved  by  cleaning,  but  we  have 
known  the  contrary.  In  a  well  of  our  own,  in  the  trap-rock  district  norili 
of  Xew  York  city,  the  quality  of  the  water  was  materially  injured  by  sub- 
stituting a  pump  in  place  of  a  bucket.  The  reason  was  obvious.  The 
water  was  seven  or  eight  feet  deep,  and  the  bucket  drew  it  from  the  surface 
and  the  pump  from  the  bottom,  and  in  the  water  drawn  from  the  bottom 
M-e  found  a  strong  sulphur  taste  and  smell.  Cleaning  it  out  did  no  good  ; 
the  water  at  the  bottom  was  decidedly  different  fi'om  the  toji.  The  only 
remedy,  if  we  continued  to  use  the  pump,  which  was  iron,  and  costly,  and 
extremely  convenient  (it  is  one  of  Gay  &  West's  force-pumps — very  valu- 
able for  farm  use),  was  to  attach  a  gutta-percha  pipe  to  the  bottom  of  the 
iron  pipe,  and  to  a  float,  so  that  it  would  always  draw  the  water  from  the 
surface,  at  whatever  hight  it  might  be  in  the  well  by  the  fluctuations  of 
the  seasons. 

Where  wells  are  injured  by  surface  water,  resort  should  be  had  at  once 
to  the  most  thorough  draining.  Lay  tile  or  stone  drains  five  or  six  feet 
deep,  so  as  to  cut  off  all  leaking  into  the  well.  If  injured  by  trees — which, 
by-the-by,  should  never  be  set  near  a  well — dig  a  deep  trench  so  as  to  cut 


Seo.  ir.j  WATER   FOB   THE   FARMERY.  315 

off  all  the  roots,  and  fill  that  trench  with  coarse  gravel,  or  a  stiff  mass  of 
clay,  that  will  not  be  attractive  to  the  roots.  Remove  all  that  you  can  from 
the  wall  and  earth  near  the  well,  and  time  will  cure  the  water.  Sometimes, 
to  get  rid  of  roots,  insects,  or  other  pests,  it  will  pay  cost  to  unwall  the  well 
and  build  it  anew.  Fill  in  charcoal,  cindei's,  or  other  sweet  substances ; 
and  sometimes  it  will  be  well  to  lay  a  portion  of  the  top  wall  in  cement 
mortar.  . 

It  is  recommended  in  all  cases,  where  well-water  becomes  unpalatable,  to 
agitate  it  freely,  and  very  often.  If  drawn  with  a  bucket,  set  a  man  at 
work  pushing  the  bucket  down  deep  aiid  drawing  it  up  full,  and  pouring  it 
back  again,  so  as  to  fall  in  the  water  till  it  is  all  thoroughly  mixed  and  all 
the  stones  washed,  and  then  when  it  settles  clear  again  it  will  probably  be 
found  as  good  as  ever. 

This  plan  of  agitating  the  water  may  also  be  applied  to  cisterns  to  good 
advantage. 

Looking  into  a  well,  so  as  to  see  anything  at  the  bottom,  can  be  easily 
done  any  sunny  day  (the  morning  is  the  best  time),  by  using  a  looking-glass 
so  as  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light  and  throw  them  quite  to  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  well.  We  have  used  this  means  to  discover  the  position  of  a  bucket 
that  had  broken  loose  and  fallen  to  the  bottom,  and  then  with  the  steel- 
yards hung  to  a  rope  have  been  able  to  liook  on  to  the  bucket  and  draw  it 
up  at  once.     "We  once  recovered  a  tin  pail  of  butter  in  the  same  way. 

339.  Self-Emptjing  Well-Bucket. — If  the  water  is  drawn  from  a  well  by  a 
bucket  and  windlass,  two  ropes  are  better  than  one.  Fasten  by  a  staple  to 
the  center  of  the  windlass  and  wind  each  way  toward  the  ends,  so  that  tlie 
ropes  will  be  widest  apart  when  the  bucket  is  up.  Instead  of  a  bail,  attach 
a  short  chain  or  piece  of  iron  rod  to  each  car  of  the  bucket,  and  set  the  ears 
low  down,  so  that  the  bucket  will  tip  easily.  Cut  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  four 
inches  across,  and  cover  it  with  a  block  coated  with  soft  sole  leather,  like 
the  valve  of  a  pump-bucket,  which  will  open  to  let  in  the  water  as  the 
bucket  descends,  and  close  as  soon  as  it  starts  upward.  To  empty  the 
water  easily,  there  are  two  ways — first,  and  best,  by  a  flat  iron  hook  about 
eight  inches  long,  fastened  to  the  well-spout  in  such  a  way  that  it  may 
catch  the  edge  of  the  bucket  as  it  is  drawn  up,  and  tip  and  empty.  The 
other  way  is  to  have  a  pin  in  the  spout  that  will  strike  the  valve  and  open 
it  when  the  bucket  is  placed  upon  the  spout.  Two  buckets  with  two  ropes 
will  work  much  steadier  and  easier,  and  in  the  long  run  cost  less  than  with 
one,  and  the  valve  to  fill,  and  hook  to  empty  the  bucket,  are  great  labor- 
saving  fixtures. 

It  is  almost  as  important  to  keep  water  pure  for  stock  as  for  family  use. 
Pure  water  is  a  great  luxury  to  the  palate  of  a  thirsty  horse,  and  every  man 
who  is  fortunate  enough  to  be  the  owner  of  so  noble  an  animal,  should  see 
that  the  wants  of  the  same  are  properly  provided  for. 

Unfortunatelj',  very  few  persons  realize  the  importance  of  supplying 
domestic  animals  with  pure  water  ;  yet  they  stand  in  need  of  it  whenever 


316  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

thirsty,  and  as  a  matter  of  iirofit  to  ourselves  and  liuinanitj  to  tliem,  we 
should  see  that  their  -wants  are  well  supplied. 

Pure  water  is  very  nutritious,  and  as  a  nutritious  agent  its  value  is  im- 
paired when  of  inferior  quality,  or  when  mixed  with  indigestible  foreign 
substances,  such  as  are  often  found  in  watering-troughs  located  by  the  way- 
r  ide. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  liave  lately  been  made  on  horses 
belonging  to  the  French  army,  in  view  of  testing  their  endurance  asTegards 
llie  deprivation  of  water,  and  it  was  found  that  some  of  them  lived  twenty- 
live  days  on  water  alone  ;  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  seventy -five  per  cent,  of 
tlic  weight  of  a  horse's  body  is  composed  of  fluid. 

Strange  water,  as  it  is  called,  often  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  digestive  organs 
when  first  used,  and  in  order  to  guard  against  its  consequences,  English 
grooms  always  provide  for  the  wants  of  their  horses,  when  away  from 
home  at  the  race-course,  by  furnishing  them  witli  an  abundant  supply  of 
pure  water  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed,  which  is  transported  from 
place  to  place  in  hogsheads. 

340.  The  Hydraulic  Rami — ^To  those  who  have  no  spring  above  the  level 
of  the  house,  but  have  one  below,  we  press  the  subject  of  a  water-ram — a 
simple,  little,  inexj^ensivo  machine  that  can  be  made  to  throw  about  one 
eighth  or  a  tenth  of  the  water  that  flows  through  it  up  a  steep  hill  and  along 
a  pipe  half  a  mile  or  more,  discharging  it  in  a  cistern  in  the  garret  of  a  house 
or  loft  of  the  barn,  whence  it  is  drawn  as  it  is  wanted  in  any  apartment, 
while  the  overflow  or  surplus  of  water  will  give  you  a  constant  little  stream 
in  the  cattle  water-trough.  Hundreds  of  these  rams  arc  in  use  all  over  the 
country ;  but  there  are  thousands  of  places  where  they  are  not  in  use,  where 
equal  natural  facilities  exist.  Our  object  here  is  only  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact,  that  every  farmer  who  has  a  spring  in  a  valley  where  he  can  get  three 
or  four  feet  fall  from  it  to  work  the  ram,  can  get  a  portion  of  that  water  on 
top  of  a  hill ;  and  in  many  places  where  no  running  springs  naturally  exist, 
sufficient  water  can  be  obtained  by  digging.  We  have  seen  a  stream  dis- 
charged at  the  outlet  of  an  underdrain  sufficient  to  drive  a  ram — water  ob- 
tained without  any  expectation  of  obtaining  it;  because  the  object  was  to 
drain  the  land  of  its  surj^lus  water,  and  prevent  it  from  oozing  out  of  the 
surface  of  the  hillside. 

The  house  of  the  late  John  C.  Stevens,  at  South  Amboy,  is  120  feet  above 
the  level  of  a  spring,  near  the  bay  shore.  At  this  spring  he  set  a  water-ram, 
with  a  two-inch  drive-pipe,  about  sixty  feet  long,  laid  upon  an  inclination 
of  five  feet.  About  one  eighth  of  the  water  which  runs  through  this  pipe 
is  sent,  by  the  action  of  the  ram — a  little  affair,  about  as  big  as  a  teakettle — 
up  through  a  small  lead  pipe  into  the  house,  nearly  half  a  mile  distant. 
Perhaps  the  whole  may  have  cost  $100.  "We  know  a  good  many  places  where 
$50  has  secured  a  full  and  constant  supply  of  water  from  the  bottom  of  a 
hill  almost  impossible  to  climb,  yet  which  had  been  climbed  from  the  first 
settlement  of  the  country  till  the  little  water-ram  was  set  to  work.    We  know 


Sec.  it.]  WATER  FOR   THE  FARMERY.  317 

a  great  many  otlier  places  where  it  is  worth  a  dollar  a  day  to  tote  the  water 
up  the  slippery  rocks  in  buckets,  where  all  that  labor  could  be  saved  by  an 
expenditure  of  $50,  and  an  annual  expense  for  repairs  of  a  shilling  a  year. 
Yet  those  who  own  such  places  do  not  improve  them,  because  they  do  not 
know  they  can. 

3il.  Durability  of  Wooden  Pipes  for  AqneductSi— Charles  Stearns,  of  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  has  proved  by  a  somewhat  lengthy  experience  that  wooden 
pipes  are  nearly  indestructible,  if  laid  deep — deep  en«ugh  to  prevent  atmos- 
pheric action  upon  the  wood.  His  rule  is  six  feet  deep  in  sandy  or  porous 
earth;  four  feet  deep  in  compact,  clayey  earth,  and  three  feet  deep  in 
swampy  earth,  where  the  peaty  condition  of  the  soil,  which  is  antiseptic,  pre- 
serves wood  from  decay.  Thus  laid,  Mr.  Stearns  thinks  wood  will  outlast  iron 
or  lead ;  and  the  wooden  pipes  are  cheaper  than  any  material  that  can  be 
used,  where  a  bore  of  two  to  six  inches  is  required.  In  one  instance,  an 
aqueduct  laid  by  Mr.  Stearns  of  threefourths-inch  caliber  lead  pipe,, cor- 
roded and  failed  in  fifteen  years,  and  had  to  be  replaced.  Another  one, 
made  with  very  heavy  lead  pipe  of  two-inch  caliber,  laid  through  a  wet 
meadow,  in  the  very  kind  of  soil  that  preserves  wood  the  most  perfectly, 
failed  so  as  to  need  repairs  within  three  or  four  years,  and  at  the  end  of  ten 
years  had  to  be  replaced  with  new  pipe,  which  he  then  made  of  wood,  and 
which,  after  twenty  years  of  use,  is  still  in  good  order.  The  aqueduct  pipes 
supplying  Springfield  with  spring  water,  that  comes  to  the  surface  on  the 
sandy  plains  above  the  town,  have  been  in  use  fourteen  years,  and  bid  fair 
to  last  many  years  longer.  The  bore  of  the  logs  is  from  one  and  a  half  to 
seven  inches,  charred  on  the  inner  surface  by  forcing  flame  through 
the  bore,  or  by  the  insertion  of  a  heated  rod,  to  prevent  the  timber  from 
giving  any  unpleasant  taste  to  the  water.  Mr.  Stearns  thinks,  from  experi- 
ments made,  that  lead  pipe  will  last  enough  longer  to  pay  for  the  expense 
of  burying  it  deep,  or  packing  it  closely  in  clay.  He  also  thinks  that  the 
interest  upon  the  diiference  in  cost  betweeii  well-made  and  properly  laid 
wooden  pipes  and  those  of  a  more  costly  material,  called  indestructible,  Avill 
keep  the  wooden  pipes  in  repair  forever.  For  the  branch  pipes  leading  into 
the  houses,  Mr.  Stearns  used  lead  pipes  in  all  the  houses  supplied  from  the 
Springfield  Water- Works,  and  has  never  known  any  injury  to  occur  to  any 
one  using  the  water ;  and  his  own  family  have  used  water  passed  through 
lead  pipe  a  long  distance  for  many  years,  without  suffering  any  of  the 
efiects  frequently  ascribed  to  such  water ;  nor  has  he  ever  heard  of  a  case 
based  upon  any  better  testimony  than  "  they  say  so."  The  water  that  sup- 
plies Springfield  comes  from  several  springs,  improved  by  digging,  and  we 
have  no  doubt  that  there  are  hundreds  of  other  Tillages  that  might  be 
watered  in  the  same  way,  greatly  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. There  is  another  advantage  besides  cheapness  in  wooden  pipes.  It  is 
the  ease  with  which  they  are  tapped,  wherever  and  whenever  a  branch  is  to 
be  taken  ofif,  and  they  are  also  easily  repaired.  We  hope  that  not  only  vil- 
lages, but  farmers,  wherever  a  sp"i:ig  exists  above  the  level  of  the  farmstead. 


318 


THE  FAKMERY. 


[Chap.  ni. 


will  avail  themselves  of  its  benefits.  Many  farmers  have  chestnut  or  cedar, 
the  best  of  timber,  which  they  could  have  prepared  at  very  small  expense  l)y 
their  own  hands,  and  get  an  aqueduct  that  would,  in  case  of  sale  of  the  farm, 
]>;iy  ten  times  its  cost ;  and  it  would  be  worth  still  more  to  the  owner,  for  it 
Would  afibrd  him  a  constant  enjoyment. 

Tliere  is  a  very  curious  maimfactory  of  wooden  aqueduct  pipes  at  Elmira, 
N.  Y.  A  large  pine  log  is  cut  up  into  a  series  of  pipes,  from  an  iiieli  bore 
to  ten  or  twelve  inches,  taking  one  out  of  the  other,  leaving  the  sides  from 
one  to  two  inches  thick.  These  pipes  are  then  banded  with  hoop-iron,  drawn 
by  a  powerful  macliine  through  hot  coal-tar,  and  being  buried  below  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  are  expected  to  last  for  an  indefinite  period. 


SECTION  XVIII.-STACKING  AND  STORING  GRAIN ;  CORN-CRIBS,  PIG- 
GERIES, AND  PIG-FEEDING  ;  SMOKE-HOUSES,  AND  CURING  BACON. 

jLTHOUGH,  like  most  of  our  subjects,  these  are 
treated  briefly,  each  is  worthy  of  notice,  and  must 
have  enough,  if  nothing  more,  to  attract  attention, 
60  as  to  incite  the  reader  to  look  further  into  the 
matter. 
One  of  the  indispensable  buildings  of  a  farmery  is  a 
good  storehouse  for  grain.    Upon  a  small  farm,  a  room 
in  the  barn  can  be  set  apart  for  the  storage  of  small 
grain,  but  it  is  more  liable  to  the  depredations  of  rats 
and  mice  than  in  a  building  made  purposely  for  a  gran- 
ary.    Every  fiirmer  who  annually  raises  a  hundred 
bushels  of  ears  of  Indian  corn  can  not  afford  to  do 
without  a  corn-crib,  because  corn  can  not  be  stored 
safely  except  in  a  room  with  very  open  sides. 

342.  Corn-fribs. — TJie  best  kind  of  a  corn-crib  is  a 
building  twenty  feet  wide,  and  of  such  length  as  will  give  sufiicient  capacity 
— say  thirty  feet  long — for  a  farm  where  ten  to  twenty  acres  of  corn  are 
usually  grown.  Tlie  sides  should  not  be  less  than  ten  feet  high,  and  boarded 
up  and  down  with  strips  two  inches  wide,  one  inch  apart.  Six  feet  from  the 
sides,  partitions  are  made  in  the  same  way.  This  leaves  a  drive-way  eight 
feet  wide,  so  that  you  can  drive  in  a  wagon-load  of  corn  and  throw  it  right 
and  left  over  the  beam  into  the  crib.  This  drive-way  should  be  made  to  close 
at  both  ends  with  slat-gates,  or  lattice-work  gates,  so  as  to  allow  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air. 

313.  Rail-Pen  Corn-CribSi — Cribbing  com,  after  the  Western  fiishion,  in 
open  rail-pens,  is  considered  down  East  a  very  slovenly  method.  Yet  it  is 
one  of  the  best  ways  in  which  it  can  be  stored.     It  is  true  it  wastes  a  little 


Sko.  18.]  STACKING  AOT)  STORING  GRAIN.  319 

by  shelling  if  it  remains  till  spring,  but  not  much  if  the  j^ens  are  so  located 
that  the  pigs  and  poultry  can  be  let  in  to  pick  up  the  scattered  grains.  The 
■way  to  make  a  rail-pen  corn-crib  is  to  take  straight  fence-rails,  as  near  of  a 
size  as  possible,  and  saw  part  of  them  into  halves  of  equal  length,  so  that 
you  can  lay  up  a  pen  half  as  wide  as  it  is  long,  notching  the  corners  so  that 
the  rails  will  come  close  enough  together  to  prevent  the  ears  falling  out. 
If  this  can  not  be  done  with  all  of  the  cracks,  they  must  be  stopped  by 
"  chinking"  from  the  inside,  or  by  boards  nailed  over.  It  is  usual  to  build 
the  pen  upon  a  floor  of  rails,  which  arc  sometimes  laid  on  the  ground,  and 
sometimes  raised  upon  logs,  stones,  or  blocks.  The  pen  should  not  be  over 
eight  feet  high,  and  when  full  is  covered  with  boards  held  on  by  a  heavy 
rail  or  pole.  In  woodland  regions  the  covei-ing  is  usually  made  of  "  shakes" 
—split  clap-boards,  such  as  log-cabin  roofs  are  generally  made  of.  On  the 
prairies,  we  have  frequently  seen  straw  used  for  a  covering;  and  we  have 
also  seen  many  thousands  of  bushels  of  wheat,  both  in  the  chaff  and  after  it  is 
winnowed,  stored  in  the  same  rude  way,  by  simply  calking  the  cracks  with 
straw. 

Nor  is  it  a  very  wasteful  way  of  storing  wheat,  if  the  pen  is  built  upon  a 
hard-beaten  spot,  where  all  the  grain  can  be  swept  up  when  the  pen  is 
empitied. 

We  have  also  seen  corn  put  up  in  rail-pens  without  any  covering,  and 
kept  through  the  winter  without  damage,  the  ears  being  simply  rounded  up 
on  top.  We  have  often  been  told  by  those  who  have  had  a  good  deal  of 
experience  in  storing  corn  in  this  way,  that  rain  does  not  hurt  it — all  that 
does  not  run  through  dries  out  the  first  windy  day.  Wheat  in  the  chafi"  will 
not  injure  in  a  long  rain-storm,  when  simjily  piled  in  a  conical  heap,  if  it 
does  not  wet  at  the  bottom. 

Great  boat-loads  of  Black  Sea  wheat  are  brought  down  long  rivers,  being 
many  weeks  on  the  passage,  without  any  covering.  The  wheat  is  rounded 
up  in  the  center,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  roof,  and  the  outside  gets  wet 
and  grows  into  a  mat,  sometimes  two  inches  thick,  and  that  shelters  the  mass 
below.  It  does  not  strike  us  as  an  economical  method,  but  that  depends 
upon  circumstances,  as  it  does  in  cribbing  Indian-corn.  It  certainly  never 
would  pay  to  build  expensive  cribs  to  store  some  of  the  great  crops  of  the 
West ;  and  it  has  been  found  good  economy,  for  want  of  better  storage,  to 
let  the  corn  remain  where  it  grew  until  wanted  for  use.  Even  with  smaller 
crops,  it  may  not  always  be  evidence  of  bad  farming  where  we  see  the  corn 
stand  in  shocks  until  wanted.  It  certainly  keeps  better  there  than  it  would 
in  a  badly  ventilated  store-room. 

344.  Stathcis  for  Stack  Bottoms. — In  England,  it  is  not  considered  good 
economy  to  build  barns  enough  to  store  all  the  grain,  and  it  is  therefore 
stacked  out.  In  this  country,  if  economy  warranted  the  practice  of  storing 
all  under  roofs,  necessity  would  often  forbid,  and  require  our  great  crops  of 
wheat  to  be  put  up  in  stacks.  In  England,  upon  well-conducted  farms, 
•where  the  practice  of  stacking  prevails,  the  stathels  for  the  stacks  to  rest 


320  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

upon  are  permanent  structures.  Some  of  tbem  are  made  witli  stone  pillars 
and  caps  ;  and  sotne  with  a  wooden  frame  on  stone  pillars  ;  and  in  some  in- 
stances iron  Las  been  substituted  for  wood.  The  stack  being  elevated  a  foitt 
or  two,  allows  a  circulation  of  air,  and  very  much  assists  the  curing  of  the 
grain.  We  recommend  farmers,  wlierever  they  are  in  the  regular  practice 
of  stacking  hay  and  grain,  to  have  a  permanent  stack  yard,  provided  with 
stack  bottoms,  after  the  English  fashion.  Even  for  temporary  stacking, 
building  the  stack  upon  the  ground  is  a  very  wasteful  practice.  "We  have 
seen  stacks  upon  the  "Western  prairie  built  in  a  spot,  dry  at  the  time,  become 
saturated  with  water,  and  half  rotted  two  feet  above  the  ground,  before  they 
were  used  up  in  winter.  For  a  temporary  stack  bottom,  there  is  nothing 
more  convenient  than  fence-rails.  "We  have  built  long  wheat-ricks  on  the 
]irairie  in  this  way.  "We  took  fence-rails  and  laid  them  up  as  though  build- 
ing a  worm  fence,  pretty  straight,  in  two  liiles  about  two  feet  apart  at  the 
bottom,  and  about  four  rails  high,  leaning  inward  so  that  the  two  lines  of 
fence  touch.  Against  this  upon  each  side  the  sheaves  were  set  with  butts 
on  the  ground,  leaning  toward  the  center  until  a  sufficient  bottom  for  the 
rick  was  formed.  This  leaves  an  air  pipe  through  the  bottom,  and  keeps  all 
the  heads  from  the  ground,  and  altliough  the  water  stood  some  inches  deep 
in  a  wet  time  over  the  spongy  soil,  all  the  wheat  came  out  bright  and  sound. 
The  butts  of  the  lower  sheaves  only  were  rotted.  The  fence  sustained  the 
greatest  weight  of  the  rick,  besides  giving  it  air. 

345.  The  Piggery. — No  farmery  is  complete  without  a  well-arranged  pig- 
gery, which  consists  of  a  grain-room,  a  root  cellar,  a  cooking-room,  a  feeding- 
room,  a  sleeping-room — all  under  cover.  All  this  is  requisite  upon  a  farm 
where  only  two  or  three  pigs  are  fatted  annually.  It  is  still  more  requisite 
where  a  dozen  or  more  pigs  are  kept— where  the  leading  object  of  the  farmer 
is  to  convert  coarse  farm  products  into  pork ;  except  Avhere  pigs  are  M'holly 
fatted  in  corniields,  as  at  the  "West.  Upon  all  other  farms  a  well-arranged 
piggery  is  indispensable,  and,  as  we  have  sliown  in  Section  11,  that  cooking 
food  for  pigs  is  advantageous,  the  greater  the  conveniences  for  cooking,  the 
more  profitable  will  be  the  feeding. 

The  best  arranged  piggery  we  ever  saw  for  convenience  and  saving  of  la- 
bor was  built  upon  tlie  side  of  a  "Vermont  hill,  where  potatoes  were  a  lead- 
ing article  in  the  manufacture  of  pork.  The  potatoes  were  stored  in  a  cave 
cellar,  from  which  they  were  shoveled  upon  a  screen,  over  which  they  rolled 
to  the  large  potash-kettle  set  in  an  arch  some  twenty  or  thirty  feet  distant. 
Generally  the  potatoes  thus  screened  needed  no  washing ;  if  they  did,  pro- 
vision was  made  for  doing  it  by  a  copious  stream  of  water  let  on  as  they 
traversed  the  screen.  The  water  was  let  into  the  kettle  from  the  source  sui> 
plying  the  washing  water.  The  floor  where  the  kettle  stood  contained  bins 
for  meal,  which  were  lillcd  from  the  bags  emptied  into  a  spout  on  the  out- 
side. The  cooked  food  was  shoveled  from  the  kettle  into  a  hopper  that 
conducted  it  into  a  cooling-trough  on  the  floor  below,  which  stood  liigh 
enough  to  allow  the  swill  to  run  through  a  long  conductor  to  the  feed- 


Seo.  18.]  PIGS   AND   PIGGERIES.  321 


troHglis.  The  objection  to  tliis  last  arrangement  was,  tliat  the  swill  had  to 
be  made  thin  enough  to  flow  freely.  The  arrangement,  however,  was  a  very 
perfect  one,  and  worthy  of  imitation  upon  all  similarly  situated  farms. 

3i6.  Railway  Cooking  Arrangement  for  Pigs. — We  suggested  the  following 
arrangement,  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  for  cooking  food  for  pigs  or  any 
other  stock,  and  we  afterward  had  a  model  made  and  exhibited  at  the  fair 
of  the  American  Institute,  which  awarded  it  a  silver  medal. 

This  is  the  plan :  arrange  a  steam  chamber  of  any  given  dimensions — say 
tliree  feet  by  six  feet,  and  three  feet  high — over  a  furnace  kettle,  or  any- 
•\vhere  that  steam  could  be  conveyed  into  it  from  a  boiler.  This  chamber 
has  a  door  at  one  end,  made  steam-tight,  and  rails  in  the  bottom  upon  which 
a  car  travels,  and  these  rails  should  extend  outside  to  the  root-bin,  or  meal- 
tubs,  or  reservoirs  of  food  to  be  cooked.  The  car  being  loaded,  is  rolled  into 
the  chamber,  and  door  closed.  When  the  food  is  cooked,  shut  off  steam  and 
open  an  escape-valve,  and  then  the  door,  and  roll  out  the  car  over  cooling 
vats,  and  open  a  trap  in  the  bottom  of  the  car,  and  let  the  contents  drop. 
These  cooling  vats  may  be  placed  near  enough  to  dip  the  swill  into  the  feed- 
troughs,  or  it  may  be  carried  in  another  car  along  an  alley,  and  thence  dipped 
into  the  feed-troughs,  or  made  to  run  into  them  through  conductors.  Such 
an  arrangement  would,  without  doubt,  save  a  great  deal  of  hard  labor,  and 
it  would  not  be  very  expensive.  Whatever  the  arrangement  of  the  piggery, 
keep  tliis  fact  constantly  in  view,  that  in  some  sections  of  the  country  the 
manure  which  yon  can  make  while  fatting  your  pork,  if  your  piggery  is 
well  arranged,  will  prove  to  be  the  most  profitable  part  of  the  pork-making 
process. 

There  is  another  necessary  farm-building  which  we  may  as  well  speak  of 
here,  particularly  as  it  is  one  that  may,  whenever  the  situation  will  admit, 
very  properly  be  located  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  piggery,  and  it  is 
equally  valuable  to  the  farmer  as  a  mine  of  manurial  wealth.     It  is — 

347.  The  Temple  of  Cloacina.— Every  farm-house  must  have  a  temple  set 
apart  for  this  heathenish  deity,  but  no  farm-house  should  have  such  a  neces- 
sary appendage  a  disgrace  to  civilization,  as  too  many  of  them  are.  Such 
a  building  should  be  placed  convenient  to  the  house,  but  never  in  sight. 
It  should  be  located  in  a  clump  of  shrubbery,  mostly  evergreens,  out  of  sight 
from  tiie  house,  or  else  it  should  be  made  part  and  parcel  of  some  of  the  out- 
buildings, so  as  never  to  be  a  prominent  object.  We  have  often  seen  these 
buildings  so  placed  that  they  were  the  most  conspicuous  things  about  the 
place.  A  very  little  refinement  in  a  fai-mer's  family  will  make  it  revolt  at  ex- 
posing the  part  of  a  farmery  that  should  be  hidden  from  public  gaze.  A 
very  little  knowledge  of  the  deoderizing  effect  of  fine,  dry,  swamp  muck,  or 
charcoal,  or  plaster,  or  copperas  will  serve  to  keep  a  place  that  must  be 
visited  every  day,  by  every  member  of  tlie  family,  so  sweet  that  it  never 
will  be  offensive ;  and  the  valuable  contents  of  the  vault,  which  should  be 
always  shallow  and  easy  to  clean,  will  then  become  a  source  of  profit,  instead 
of  a  nuisance  both  disagreeable  and  disgraceful. 


322  TDE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

348.  Smoke-Uonses— How  to  Build  and  how  to  Use  Then.— Wc  lay  it  down 
as  an  axiom,  that  tlie  best  sniokc-liouso  ever  built  is  a  log  cabin,  witli  the 
cracks  all  open.  In  such  a  building  you  can  not  confine  the  smoke  so  as 
to  smother  the  meat  and  spoil  it,  as  it  easily  can  be  and  often  is  in  a  very 
tight  room.  It  is  not  generally  understood  how  much  the  excellence  of 
bacon  depends  on  the  manner  in  Avhicli  it  may  be  smoked.  Indeed,  we  look 
upon  this  part  of  tlie  process  as  more  important  than  a  good  receipt  for 
pickling.  A  ham  that  is  well  pickled  ma}'  be  spoiled  in  smoking  it,  and 
then  no  skill  in  cookery  will  take  away  its  dark  color  and  strong,  rancid 
taste.  To  make  good  hams,  there  must  be  a  free  circulation  of  atmosphere, 
so  tliat  the  smoke  never  shall  become  heated.  A  smoke  never  should  be 
made  in  a  damp,  foggy,  or  rainy  day. 

In  building  a  smoke-house  the  farmer  is  more  apt  to  regard  external 
appearances  than  the  object  for  which  it  is  intended.  It  may  be  very  strong 
and  neat,  but  if  it  be  built  on  wrong  principles,  it  will  never  give  satisfac- 
tion, and  the  good  wife  will  be  always  wondering  how  it  is  that  her  bacon 
is  not  equal  to  that  which  she  eats  away  from  home.  Now,  there  is  no 
bacon  in  this  country  superior  to  that  produced  in  Maryland,  where  the 
smoke-houses  are  certainly  rather  primitive  in  their  construction.  Tliey 
are  usually  made  of  logs,  rudely  plastered  with  clay  on  the  outside,  and 
thatched  with  straw.  The  hams  are  hung  upon  hooks  driven  into  the 
rafters.  The  fire  of  chips — covered  with  saw-dust  in  order  to  prevent  a 
blaze — is  in  the  middle  of  the  floor — ground  floor,  generally  ;  and  the  smoke, 
after  having  done  its  duty,  escapes  through  the  innumerable  cracks  and 
openings  in  the  wall  and  thatch.  Such  a  building  is  not  very  ornamental, 
but  it  is  much  more  eflicient  than  those  we  frequently  see  co"nstructed  of 
brick  or  stone,  with  tight  joof,  a  close-fitting  door,  and  but  one  small  aper- 
ture for  the  escape  of  the  smoke.  The  great  secret  in  the  art  of  smoking 
hams  is  to  dry  them  in  smoke,  but  not  by  heat.  When  they  are  kept  close 
to  the  fire,  they  invariably  acquire  a  disagreeable  flavor,  and  often  become 
soft  and  greasy.  The  smoke  should  not  be  allowed  to  reach  them  until 
nearly  or  quite  cool,- and  to  eflect  this  some  farmers  have  the  fire  outside  of 
the  building,  perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  feet  distant,  and  conduct  the  smoke 
to  the  interior  through  a  narrow  covered  trench.  By  its  passage  through 
the  trench,  it  is  cooled  and  purified,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  giving  an 
unpleasant  taste  to  the  meat.  A  still  better  plan  is  practiced  by  the  people 
of  Westphalia,  which,  as  all  the  world  knows,  is  celebrated  for  its  bacon. 
The  smoking  is  performed  in  extensive  cliambers,  in  the  uppermost  stories 
of  high  buildings.  Some  are  four  or  five  stories  above  the  ground,  and  the 
smoke  Is  conveyed  to  them  by  tubes  from  pipes  in  the  cellars.  Tlie  vapor 
is  condensed,  and  the  heat  absorbed  by  the  tubes,  so  that  the  smoke  is  both 
dry  and  cool  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  meat.  Man}'  of  the  farm- 
houses in  Pennsylvania  have  a  somewhat  similar  arrangement.  A  room  is 
partitioned  oflf  in  the  garret,  next  to  the  kitchen  chimney,  and  the  hams  are 
hung  from  the  rafters  overhead.     Near  the  floor  is  a  small  opening  in  the 


Sec.  18.]  SMOKE-HOUSE  AND  FRUIT-DRYING  HOUSE.  323 

chimney,  by  which  the  smoke  enters  the  apartment ;  and  instead  of  return- 
ing to  the  flue,  it  linds  its  way  into  the  open  air  through  tlie  innumerable 
crevices  in  the  roof.  The  meat  is  tluis  kept  perfectly  dry,  and  it  will  be 
found  to  liave  a  color  and  flavor  unknown  in  that  treated  in  the  common 
metliod. 

A  smoke-house  can  hardly  be  too  open ;  where  the  walls  and  roof  are 
tight,  or  nearly  so,  the  smoke  condenses  on  the  bacon,  rendering  it  flabby 
and  ill-colored.  To  be  sure,  when  there  is  good  ventilation  it  takes  much 
longer  to  complete  the  process,  but  this  delay  we  believe  to  be  rather  bene- 
ficial than  otherwise.  Some  people  have  the  fault  of  always  being  in  a 
huny,  and  their  bacon  is  never  well  smoked.  It  should  be  cured  gradually 
and  slowly,  and  this  is  another  reason  why  the  Germans  are  so  successful  in 
the  business.  In  Virginia,  two  months  is  not  considered  a  long  time  for  the 
operation. 

Green  sugar-maple  chips  are  the  best  for  the  fire,  and  after  maple  are 
ranked  hickory,  sweet  birch,  and  white  ash  or  beech.  Some  think  well- 
dried  corn-cobs  superior  to  everything  else ;  and  they  certainly  furnish  a 
sweet,  penetrating  smoke.  Saw-dust  from  hard  wood  is  also  excellent  for 
the  purpose,  but  rotten  wood  should  never  be  used ;  and  it  is  said  that  locust 
bark  will  actually  spoil  tlie  flavor  of  hams ;  and  we  doubt  not  that  there  are 
many  other  substances  which  will  produce  the  same  result. 

Some  persons  are  always  very  particular  about  hanging  their  hams  with 
the  leg  end  down.  They  should  never  be  allowed  to  touch  each  other,  nor 
touch  any  flat  substance.  In  hanging  large  numbers  of  hams  in  a  crowded 
room,  we  ha,ve  often  kept  them  apart  by  a  small  piece  of  a  corn-cob. 

No  farmery  is  complete  without  a  smoke-house,  and  where  the  amount  of 
meat  to  be  annually  smoked  is  insufficient  to  make  it  an  object  to  erect  a 
building  specially  for  that  purpose,  it  will  be  found  very  easy  to  set  apart  a 
small  room  in  some  of  the  outbuildings,  and  convey  the  smoke  to  it  through 
a  long  flue.  As  the  building  mentioned  in  No.  349  never  will  be  wanted  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  constructed,  wlien  bacon  should  be  smoked,  it 
could,  perhaps,  be  made  so  as  to  answer  both  purposes. 

3i9.  A  Fruit-Drying  House. — In  some  sections  remote  from  cities,  and  upon 
some  farms,  fruit-drying  is  quite  an  object,  and  is  relied  upon  by  the  female 
portion  of  the  family  as  a  means  of  replenishing  their  wardrobe,  independent 
of  the  general  products  of  the  farm.  Upon  fruit  farms  it  is  also  made  a 
considerable  item  of  the  regular  business.  All  such  farms  should  have  a 
fruit-drying  house,  built  upon  scientific  principles,  to  accomplish  the  object 
in  the  most  expeditious  manner,  at  the  least  expense.  The  true  principle  of 
drying  fruit  would  be  to  place  it  on  open-work  hurdles,  in  the  flue  of  a 
Jieated  air  furnace,  so  that  there  would  be  a  continual  draft  of  hot  air  pass- 
ing through  the  fruit,  carrying  off"  the  moisture  into  the  upper  air.  The  best 
one  we  ever  saw,heated  the  air  in  the  basement  of  a  three-story  building.  In 
the  third  story,  one  side  of  the.  large  brick  flue  was  arranged  like  the  drawers 
of  a  bureau,  the  bottom  of  the  drawers  being  basket-work.     In  these,  each  of 


324  THE   FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 


which  hekl  about  a  bushel  of  apples  or  peaches  cut  in  quarters,  the  fruit 
dried  with  wonderful  rapidity.  It  needed  no  other  attention  than  changing 
the  drawers  once  from  top  to  bottom,  to  efjuallzo  the  drying,  so  as  to  finisli 
all  at  once.  Other  things  besides  fruit  were  dried  in  this  flue,  such  as  sweet 
corn,  okra,  pease,  tomatoes,  etc. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  Yidlcy  Farmer,  is  the  description  of  a  dry- 
ing-house in  use  in  "Wisconsin  : 

"  It  consists  of  a  building  of  logs,  brick,  or  stone,  of  any  convenient  size, 
say  ten  feet  wide  by  twelve  or  fourteen  long,  and  one  story  high,  having  an 
ordinary  roof,  with  a  ventilator  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  the  heat  and.  vapor 
arising  from  the  fruit. 

"The  furnace  should  open  on  the  outside  of  the  building,  at  the  end.  It 
should  be  about  two  feet  square.  Tiie  sides  should  be  of  brick,  and  as  thin 
as  may  be  to  sustain  the  top.  The  flue  should  ])e  extended  to  near  the  entire 
lengtli  of  the  building,  and  then  return,  forming  a  parallel  flue,  which  may 
be  reduced  to  two  tliirds  the  size  of  tlio  furnace  or  main  flue,  terminating  in 
a  cliimney  near  the  door  of  the  furnace.  The  top  of  the  furnace  and  flue 
should  be  covered  with  plates  of  thin  boiler  iron  ;  thicker  iron,  or  a  covering 
of  brick  or  stone,  will  not  admit  of  a  suflicient  escape  of  heat  to  facilitate 
the  drying  process.  The  fruit  is  dried  on  trays  or  hurdles,  arranged  in  three 
tiers,  one  above  another,  with  a  space  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  between 
them.  Tlie  hurdles  maj'  be  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  six  or  seven  feet  long, 
and  three  inches  deep.  These  are  made  of  common  boards,  with  a  lath  bot- 
tom, made  thin ;  the  laths  should  be  made  of  hickory,  as  the  fruit  is  found 
to  dry  much  more  readily  on  hard  wood  lath  than  it  does  on  poplar  or  other 
soft  wood.  Through  the  length  of  the  building  frames  are  put  up  to  support 
the  hurdles  of  fruit.  These  frames  or  rails  extend  tlirough  openings  made 
in  the  end  of  the  building  opposite  the  furnace,  and  corresponding  with  each 
pair  of  rails  are  wooden  shutters.  The  i-ails  extend  on  the  outside  about  six 
feet ;  upon  these  the  hurdles  are  placed  crosswise ;  upon  each  of  the  hurdles 
are  rollers  corresponding  with  the  rails ;  being  filled  with  the  fruit  to  be  dried, 
the  hurdles  are  run  in  like  cars  upon  a  railroad.  Thus  arranged,  with  the 
three  tiers  of  rails  filled  with  tra3-s  of  fruit,  about  one  and  a  half  barrels  can 
be  dried  at  once,  requiring  about  twenty-four  hours  to  complete  the  opera- 
tion. The  trays  nearest  the  fire  will,  of  course,  dry  the  fastest,  and,  with  the 
convenience  of  the  railroad  and  the  shutters  in  tlie  end  of  the  buildiiig,  they 
may  be  drawn  out  and  changed  to  the  upper  rails,  when  the  whole  may  be 
finished  within  the  twenty-four  hours  in  the  most  perfect  and  uniform  man- 
ner, and  without  the  least  burning.  The  fire  sliould  be  made  without  grates, 
on  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  which  consumes  less  fuel,  and  keeps  uji  a  more 
uniform  heat  than  if  placed  above  the  draft. 

"In  some  instances  we  have  seen  pieces  of  old  steam-boilers  substituted 
in  the  place  of  brick  walls  for  a  furnace;  to  the  boiler  is  connected  and  re- 
turned a  pipe  of  somewhat  smaller  dimensions,  a  sheet-iron  pipe,  which  ad- 
mits of  the  free  escape  of  heat  and  speedy  drying  of  the  fruit. 


Seo.  19.] 


ECONOMY  IN  BUILDING.— BALLOON  FRAMES. 


325 


"The  ordinary  method  of  drying  peaches  and  apples  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  is  to  construct  a  kihi  of  stone,  witli  a  broad  flat  top,  upon  which  the 
fruit  is  laid,  and  a  fire  kept  up  in  the  flue  beneath  till  the  fruit  is  sufficiently 
dried.  This  is  more  expeditious  than  drying  in  the  sun,  and  the  fruit  is  not 
so  liable  to  be  soiled  by  flies,  yet  it  is  objectionable  on  account  of  liability 
to  burn  the  fruit  in  contact  with  the  over-heated  stone." 


SECTION    X1X.-EC0N0M1CAL   FARM  BUILDINGS,   BALLOON   FRAMES, 
CONCRETE    WALLS,  AND  OTHER  CHEAP  STYLES  OF  BUILDING. 

^(JL 

fE  are  satisfied  that  we  can  do  those  who  desire  to 

build  no  greater  favor  than  making  them  acquainted 
with  the  modern  style  of  building,  known  as  "bal- 
loon fi-ames" — a  name  that  was  at  first  conferred 
upon  them  in  ridicule  on  account  of  their  lightness 
and  unsubstantiability.  This  name  is  only  true  as 
it  applied  to  their  lightness.  Balloon  frames  are  not 
ridiculous  from  anj'  lack  of  sufficient  strength.  There 
is  need  of  no  stronger  building  than  one  made  upon 
this  plan,  except  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  strength 
of  timber  to  sustain  weighty  storage  or  ponderous 
machiueiy.  For  all  ordinary  farm  buildings,  we 
earnestly  recommend  balloon  frames.  And  we  are 
not  alone  in  our  recommendations,  though,  so  far  as 
we  know,  we  were  the  first  in  lecommending  them  to  farmers  in  the  Eastern 
States.  Of  late,  Geo.  E.  Woodward,  au  architect  and  builder  of  New  York 
city,  has  written  some  exceedingly  valuable  articles  upon  this  subject,  and 
published  them  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  with  illustrations,  and  to  him  or 
them  we  respectfully  refer  readers,  who  may  be  incited  from  what  we  say 
here,  to  make  further  inquiries. 

Among  the  sensible  things  said  by  Mr.  Woodward,  are  the  following ; 
"Economy  in  the  construction  of  all  buildings  adapted  to  the  habitation 
or  convenience  of  man  has  been  a  study  of  much  interest  to  those  who  con- 
template the  erection  of  buildings  for  their  own  use  or  for  the  purposes  of  a 
profitable  investment ;  though  we  are  inclined  to  think  experimental  or  in. 
ventive  talent  has  applied  itself  more  to  produce  some  new  and  cheap  build- 
ing material  than  to  develop  the  full  resources  of  such  materials  as  are  found 
best  adapted  to  our  wants. 

"  Necessity  has  done  much  for  the  building  public  by  introducing 
to  their  favorable  notice  the  balloon  stj4e  of  framing  wooden  buildings — 
a  style  which  is  not  well  undej'stood  in  the  old  settled  and  well-timbered 
portions  of  our  country,  but  is,  with  few  exceptions,  the  only  plan  adopted 


326  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

throughout  the  magnificent  agricultural  districts  west  of  our  great  inland 
seas. 

"  The  increasing  value  of  lumber  and  labor  must  turn  the  attention  of  men 
of  moderate  means  to  those  successful  plans  ■which  have  demonstrated  econ- 
omy in  both,  and  at  the  same  time  preserved  the  full  qualities  of  strength 
and  security  so  generally  accorded  to  the  old  fogy  principles  of  framing,  but 
which,  we  presume  to  say,  is  inferior  in  all  the  true  requisites  of  cheap  and 
substantial  building. 

"  Any  intelligent  man  who  can  lay  out  a  right  angle  and  adjust  a  plumb 
line  may  do  his  own  building,  for  it  is  without  a  mortice,  a  tenon,  or  brace, 
and  a  man  and  boy  can  do  all  the  work.  This  principle  is  the  one  applied  to 
the  construction  of  what  are  technically  as  well  as  sarcastically  termed  bal- 
loon frames,  which,  instead  of  proving  a  failure,  stands  with  more  than 
30,000  examples  of  every  conceivable  size  and  form,  a  perfect  success." 

350.  How  to  baild  Balloon  Frames. — The  following  remarks  upon  the  sub- 
ject we  printed  some  years  ago,  not  only  to  show  that  much  labor  and  much 
timber  may  be  saved,  but  tiuit  sawed  timber  may  be  dispensed  with  where 
it  is  very  expensive.  We  know  that  this  article  enabled  many  persons  to 
build  cheap  frames,  and  as  it  once  did  good,  we  reprint  it  that  it  may  do 
miich  more  good  in  future.  The  remarks  were  an  answer  to  the  inquiry  how 
to  build  balloon  houses. 

"I  would  saw  all  my  timber  for  a  frame  house,  or  ordinary  frame  out- 
building, of  tlie  following  dimensions  :  two  inches  by  eight,  two  by  four,  two 
by  one.  I  liave  sometimes  built  them,  when  I  lived  on  the  grand  prairie 
of  Indiana,  many  miles  from  saw-mills,  nearly  all  of  split  and  hewed  stnff, 
making  use  of  rails  or  round  poles,  reduced  to  stn\ight  lines  and  even  thick- 
ness on  two  sides,  for  studs  and  rafters.  But  sawed  stuff  is  easiest  wrought, 
though  in  a  timber  country  the  other  is  far  the  cheapest.  First,  level  your 
foundation,  and  lay  down  two  of  the  two-by-eight  pieces,  flatwise,  for  side- 
sills.  Upon  these  set  the  floor-sleepers  on  edge,  32  inches  apart.  Fasten 
one  at  each  end,  and,  perhaps,  one  or  two  in  the  middle,  if  the  building  is 
large,  with  a  wooden  pin.  These  end-sleepers  are  the  end  sills.  Now  lay 
the  floor,  unless  you  design  to  have  one  that  would  be  likely  to  be  injured 
by  the  weather  before  you  get  the  roof  on.  It  is  a  great  saving,  though,  of 
labor  to  begin  at  the  bottom  of  a  house  and  build  up.  In  laying  the  floor 
first,  you  have  no  studs  to  cut  and  tit  around,  and  can  let  your  boards  run 
out  over  the  end«,  just  as  it  happens,  and  afterward  saw  them  ofl'  smooth  by 
the  sill.  Now  set  up  a  corner  post,  which  is  nothing  but  one  of  the  two-by- 
four  studs,  fastening  the  bottom  by  four  nails;  make  it  plumb,  and  stay  it 
each  way.  Set  another  at  the  other  corner,  and  then  mark  ofi"  your  door 
and  window  places,  and  set  up  the  side-studs  and  put  in  the  frames.  Fill 
up  with  studs  between,  16  inches  apart,  supporting  the  top  by  a  line  or 
strip  of  board  from  corner  to  corner,  or  staid  studs  between.  Now  cover 
that  side  with  rough  sheeting-boards,  unless  you  intend  to  side  up  with  clap- 
boards on  the  studs,  which  I  never  would  do,  except  for  a  small,  common 


Sec.  19.]  HOW   TO  BUILD  BALLOON  FRAMES.  327 

building.  Make  no  calculation  about  the  top  of  your  studs ;  wait  till  you 
get  to  tliat  liight.  You  may  use  them  of  any  length,  with  broken  or  stub- 
shot  ends,  no  matter.  When  you  have  this  side  boarded  as  high  as  you  can 
rejich,  proceed  to  set  up  another.  In  the  mean  time,  other  workmen  can 
be  lathing  the  first  side.  When  you  have  got  the  sides  all  up,  fix  upon  the  hight 
of  your  upper  floor,  and  strike  a  line  upon  the  studs  for  the  under  side  of  the 
joist,  and  cut  a  gain  four  inclies  wide,  half-inch  deep,  and  nail  on  firmly 
one  of  the  inch  strips.  Upon  tliese  strips  rest  the  chamber-floor  joist.  Cut 
a  notch  in  the  joist  one  inch  deep  in  tlie  lower  edge,  and  lock  it  on  the  strip, 
and  nail  each  joist  to  each  stud.  Now  lay  tliis  floor  and  go  on  to  build  the 
upper  story  as  you  did  the  lower  one,  splicing  on  and  lengthening  out  studs 
wherever  needed,  until  you  get  high  enough  for  the  plate.  Splice  studs  or 
joist  by  simply  butting  the  ends  together,  and  nailing  strips  on  each  side. 
Strike  a  line  and  saw  off  tlie  top  of  the  studs  even  upon  each  side  of  the 
building — not  the  ends— and  nail  on  one  of  the  inch  strips.  That  is  the 
plate.  Cut  the  ends  of  the  upper  joist  the  bevel  of  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  and 
nail  them  fast  to  the  plate,  placing  the  end  ones  inside  the  studs,  which  you 
will  let  run  up  promiscuously,  to  be  cut  off  alongside  of  the  rafter.  Now 
lay  the  garret  floor  by  all  means  before  you  put  on  the  roof,  and  you  will 
find  that  you  have  saved  50  per  cent,  of  hard  labor.  The  rafters,  if  sup- 
ported so  as  not  to  be  over  ten  feet  long,  will  be  strong  enough  of  the  two- 
by-four  stuff.  Bevel  tlie  ends  and  nail  fast  to  the  joist.  Tiien  there  is  no 
strain  upon  the  sides  by  the  weight  of  the  roof,  which  may  be  covered  with 
shingles  or  other  materials,  the  cheapest  being  composition  or  cement  roofs. 
To  make  one  of  this  kind,  take  soft,  spongy,  thick  paper,  and  tack  it  upon 
the  boards  in  courses  like  shingles.  Commence  at  the  top  with  hot  tar  and 
saturate  the  paper,  upon  which  sift  fine  gravel  evenly,  pressing  it  in  while 
hot — that  is,  while  tar  and  gravel  are  both  hot.  One  coat  will  make  a  light 
roof;  two  coats  will  make  it  more  durable.  Put  up  your  partitions  of  stuff 
one  by  four,  unless  where  you  want  to  support  the  upper  joist;  then  use 
stuff  two  by  four,  with  strips  nailed  on  top  for  the  joist  to  rest  upon,  fasten- 
ing altogether  by  nails  wherever  timbers  touch.  Thus  you  will  have  a  frame 
without  a  tenon,  or  mortice,  or  brace,  and  yet  it  is  far  cheaper  and  incalcu- 
lably stronger  when  finished  than  though  it  was  composed  of  timbers  ten 
inclies  square,  with  a  thousand  auger-holes  and  a  hundred  days'  work  with 
the  chisel  and  adze,  making  holes  and  pins  to  fill  them.  To  lay  out  and 
frame  a  building  so  that  all  its  parts  will  come  together,  requires  the  skill 
of  a  master  mechanic,  and  a  host  of  men,  and  a  deal  of  hard  work  to  lift 
the  great  sticks  of  timber  into  position.  To  erect  a  balloon  building  requires 
about  as  nmch  mechanical  skill  as  it  does  to  build  a  board  fence.  Any 
farmer  who  is  handy  with  the  saw,  iron  square,  and  hammer,  with  one  of  his 
boys  or  a  common  laborer  to  assist  him,  can  go  to  work  and  put  up  a  frame 
for  an  outbuilding,  and  finish  it  oft'  with  his  own  labor  just  as  well  as  to 
hire  a  carpenter  to  score  and  hew  great  oak  sticks  and  fill  them  full  of 
mortices,  all  by  the  science  of  the  'square  rule.'     It  is  a  waste  of  labor  that 


328  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

we  should  all  lend  our  aid  to  j)ut  a  stop  to.  Besides,  it  wWl  enable  many  a 
fanner  to  improve  his  place  witli  new  buildings,  who,  though  he  has  long 
needed  them,  has  shuddered  at  the  thought  of  cutting  down  half  of  the  Ijcst 
trees  in  his  wood-lot,  and  then  giving  half  a  year's  work  to  hauling  it  home 
and  paying  for  what  I  do  know  is  tlie  wliolly  useless  labor  of  framing.  If 
it  had  not  been  for  the  knowledge  of  balloon  frames,  Chicago  and  San 
Francisco  could  never  have  arisen,  as  they  did,  from  little  villages  to  great 
cities  in  a  single  year.  It  is  not  alone  city  buildings,  which  are  sujiported 
by  one  another,  that  may  be  thus  erected,  but  those  upon  the  open  j)rairic, 
where  the  wind  has  a  sweep  from  Mackinaw  to  the  Mississippi — for  there 
they  are  built — and  stand  as  firm  as  any  of  the  old  frames  of  New  England, 
with  posts  and  beams  sixteen  inches  square." 

To  this  we  add  something  more  from  Mr.  Woodward.     He  says : 

"  We  hear  and  read  very  much  about  the  policy  of  cutting  mortices, 
tenons,  gains,  etc.,  in  the  various  pieces  which  go  to  make  up  the  balloon 
frame.  Now  it  is  our  opinion,  based  upon  a  long  and  thoroughly  practical 
experience,  that  he  who  does  much  of  this  will  have  some  misspent  time 
to  account  for  hereafter,  besides  weakening  his  building  and  hastening  the 
decay  of  the  frame.  A  gain  must  be  cut  in  the  studding  for  the  side  girt, 
unless  the  dwelling  be  lined.  Gains  are  sometimes  cut  in  floor  joists  for 
the  purpose  of  locking  them  over  partitions  that  run  through  the  bight 
of  the  building.  Rafters  projecting  over  the  sides  should  bo  notched,  to 
give  them  a  foothold  on  the  plate.  These  causes  would,  as  a  general  thing, 
constitute  all  the  cutting  necessary. 

"  In  building  houses  one-aud-a-half-story  high,  never  cut  a  gain  for  tlie  side 
girt  on  which  to  rest  the  upper-story  floor  joists,  unless  the  thrust  of  the  roof 
be  well  guarded  against  by  secure  collar  beams.  We  prefer,  wlien  we  cut 
this  gain,  to  use  studding  one  inch  wider  for  the  sides.  Where  the  building 
is  lined,  the  side  girt  rests  on  top  of  the  lining,  and  no  cutting  is  necessary. 

"  Unplastered  buildings,  of  a  moderate  size,  are  suflieiently  strong  if  the 
girt  be  nailed  directly  to  tlie  studding  without  cutting  the  gain  or  recess. 

"We  have  recommended,  in  the  construction  of  a  barn  24  by  40,  alternate 
studs  on  the  sides,  2  by  4  and  2  by  5,  the  side  girt  to  be  nailed  to  tlie  narrow 
stud  and  let  one  inch  into  the  wide  stud.  This  would  not  auswer  for  a 
plastered  building,  as  the  surface  is  not  flush  for  lathing. 

"Two  full  story  buildings  are  abundantly  strong  with  2  by  4  studding  and 
gains  cut  into  them  for  side  girt;  tiie  third  floor  ties  the  top  of  the  studding, 
so  there  is  no  yield.  Tlie  joists  of  tlie  third  floor  should  be  placed  upon  the 
plate,  the  ends  beveled  to  the  same  pitch  of  the  rafters,  and  each  joist  nailed 
at  both  ends  to  each  rafter. 

"  We  prefer  to  build  the  second  story  full  for  a  dwelling-house,  as  we  get 
more  strength,  more  convenient  room,  and  the  real  difl'eronco  in  expense  is 
practically  nothing.  Where  the  studding  is  more  than  five  feet  high  above 
the  second  floor  of  a  barn,  two  or  three  tie-strips  across  the  foot  of  the 
rafters  will  make  all  snug.     There  should  be  tie  or  collar  beams  on  all  rafters. 


Sec.  19.]  COST  OF  A  BALLOON-FRAMK   HOUSE.  329 

"Ie  story-a!id-a-lialf  buildings,  it  is  very  desirable  that  collars  be  put  on 
securely,  so  as  to  prevent  any  thrust  of  the  rafters ;  where  the  side  girt  is 
not  gained  in,  as  in  small  unplastered  buildings,  the  collars  may  be  nailed 
or  spiked  to  the  rafter.  If  the  side  girt  is  set  into  the  studding,  as  it  should 
be  in  a  plastered  building  not  lined  inside,  it  makes  a  weak  point  in  the 
studding,  reducing  them  from  2  by  4  to  2  by  3,  and  the  collars  should  be 
put  on  in  such  a  manner  as  to  guard  against  any  thrust  whatever.  The  size 
of  the  building  and  the  judgment  of  its  constructor  will  indicate  the  best 
course  to  pursue.  Buildings  of  one,  two,  or  more  full  stories  have  no  collars  ; 
the  joists  of  the  upper  floor  tie  the  top  of  the  building,  and  take  the  thrust 
of  the  rafters.  In  the  usual  mode  of  inside  lining,  one  side  laps  the  stud. 
The  ends  of  the  lining  of  the  adjoining  side  are  nailed  to  a  strip  fastened  to 
the  stud  to  receive  them. 

"  "We  have  built  balloon  frames  with  green  oak  studding,  basswood  siding, 
and  butternut  trimmings,  that  have  never  j'ielded.  There  is  a  system  of 
compensation  among  the  light  sticks  of  a  balloon  frame  by  which  the  sea- 
soning process  goes  on  without  injury  to  it.  We  have  seen  warped  surfaces 
produced  by  using  green  oak  siding  and  by  careless  building,  but  there  is 
no  good  reason  why  a  balloon-frame  building  should  not  be  always  square 
and  plumb,  and  the  outside  boarding  remain  secure. 

''Tlie  subject  of  tapering  rafters  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  discussed  here- 
tofore. The  same  amount  of  strength  can  be  had  with  a  less  amount  of 
lumber.  There  is  an  additional  labor  in  sawing  such  I'afters,  as  well  as  a 
different  calculation  to  be  made  in  using  up  a  log  to  the  best  advantage.  It 
is  necessary  always  to  order  this  special  bill  of  rafters  direct  from  the  mill, 
and  the  i-esult  will  be  that  the  extra  cost  will,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  over- 
balance the  amount  saved." 

351.  The  Cost  of  the  Author's  Balloon  House  and  Barui — There  is  not  only 
a  saving  in  first  cost  of  lumber,  but  a  very  large  item  will  be  saved  in  the 
bill  of  carriage,  particularly  where  it  has  to  be  hauled  a  long  distance  on  a 
wagon.  The  saving  in  the  carpenter's  bill  is  very  large,  because  so  much 
of  the  work  may  be  done  by  persons  less  skillful  than  a  well-bred  carpenter. 
And  then  there  is  a  total  saving  of  all  that  troublesome,  dangerous,  hard 
work  attendant  upon  an  old-fashioned  "raising." 

We  have  lately  built  (that  is,  we  were  our  own  architect)  a  house  and  barn, 
a  few  miles  out  of  the  city  of  New  York,  upon  the  plan  we  are  advocating, 
and  therefore  can  speak  from  actual  experience  of  the  benefits  of  the  plan 
in  an  old  as  well  as  in  a  new  country.  The  house,  or  rather  the  addition  to 
an  old  one,  is  18  by  2i  feet,  with  an  attachment  eight  feet  square  upon  one 
side,  and  a  piazza  six  feet  wide  on  the  other.  It  is  one  story  of  lOi  feet,  and 
has  nine  windows  and  seven  doors.  Both  floors  are  deadened  by  a  course 
of  boards  and  heavy  coat  of  clay  mortar.  The  siding  is  nailed  upon  studs 
2  by  I  inches,  and  there  are  two  courses  of  lath  and  plastering — one  half 
way  between  the  siding  and  inside  lath.  Tlie  roof  projects,  and  is  orna- 
mented, and  the  garret  is  lathed  and  plastered,  and  the  lower  part  divided 


330  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  IIL 

into  four  rooms,  and  all  is  of  good  materials  and  workmanship,  at  a  total 
cost,  except  painting  and  papering,  of  §450.  Tlic  sills  and  sleepers  are  pine, 
3  l>y  7,  and  the  joist  3  by  6,  spruce,  and  all  would  have  been  just  as  good, 
if  procurable,  2  by  6  inches ;  and  there  is  not  an  upright  stick  larger  than 
2  by  4  of  hemlock.  Tiiis  house,  notwithstanding  its  cheapness,  is  strong, 
durable,  warm,  and  good-looking.  What  more  could  we  have  of  a  ponder- 
ous, expensive  frame  ? 

Our  horse  barn  is  22  by  24  feet,  and  13  feet  high,  and  has  but  one  upright 
stick  in  it  larger  than  2  by  4  inches.  As  the  hay -loft  is  a  high  half  story,  it 
was  thought  best  to  have  a  center-post,  wliich  is  3  by  7,  to  support  the  ridge 
pole  in  the  middle.  The  studs  are  covered  with  smooth  pine  siding,  and  the 
lower  story  is  lined  with  rough  boards,  and  the  building  is  as  strong  as  we 
desire,  and  cost,  completelj'  tinished,  with  good  floors,  stalls,  mangers,  doors, 
and  windows,  $300.     The  carpenter's  work  was  only  §50. 

We  have  dwelt  more  fully  upon  this  subject  of  balloon  frames  than  upon 
many  others,  because  we  look  upon  it  as  one  of  very  great  importance.  It 
is  one  that,  if  fully  understood,  would  induce  and  enable  farmers  to  have 
better  dwellings  and  other  farm  buildings. 

352.  Concrete  Walls. — The  best  advice  that  we  can  give  one  who  asks  for 
information  about  making  concrete  walls,  or  how  to  build  houses  of  gravel, 
or  broken  stones  and  lime  and  sand,  is  that  he  buy  a  little  book  called  a 
"  Home  for  All,''  published  by  Fowler  <k  Wells,  which  gives  all  the  details 
of  this  mode  of  building.  Mr.  Fowler  directs  mixing  a  large  mortar -bed 
of  lime  and  sand  together,  with  twice  as  much  sand  as  slacked  lime,  made 
quite  thin,  and  well  worked.  Into  this  mixture  of  lime  and  sand  and  water 
the  gravel  or  broken  stone  is  put  and  evenly  mixed,  and  then  shoveled  out 
into  a  barrow  or  hoisting  tub,  and  from  that  dumped  into  a  smaller  mortar- 
bed  on  the  scaifold,  where  it  gets  another  good  mixing,  and  wetting  if 
needed,  and  is  then  shoveled  into  the  box  that  forms  the  mold  to  give  shape 
to  the  walls.  In  tli  mold  it  hardens  in  one  day  so  that  the  mold  can  be 
removed,  but  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  dry  hard  enough  to  put  on  the  next 
course.  Such  walls,  if  well  made,  are  almost  as  solid  as  hewn  stone,  and 
much  cheaper  where  lime  is  not  costly,  and  where  sand  and  gravel  or  broken 
stone  can  be  had  for  hauling. 

The  proportion  of  materials  given  in  the  book  referred  to  for  a  concrete 
wall  are  eight  wheelbarrows  full  of  lime,  mixed  with  sixteen  barrows  of  sand 
into  a  thin  mortar,  to  which  add  sixty  or  eighty  barrows  of  pebbles  or  rubble- 
stone.  The  lime  may  be  of  the  coarsest  kind,  and  not  over  one  bushel  of 
stone  lime  to  thirty  bushels  of  sand  and  stones.  A  wall  three  stories  high 
is  recommended — twelve  inches  thick  for  the  first,  ten  inches  for  the  second, 
and  eight  inches  for  the  third.  To  protect  the  outside  plastering,  the  roof 
should  be  a  projecting  one. 

We  do  not  know  how  far  this  plan  of  building  can  l>c  recommended  upon 
the  score  of  economy.  We  think  that  will  depend  very  much  upon  circum- 
stances.    If  broken  stone  or  pebbles  are  very  convenient  to  the  building  site, 


Seo.  19.]  CONCRETE  WALLS.  331 

and  lime  to  be  bad  for  tbe  burning  on  the  place,  or  at  a  small  cost,  the 
building  will  be  a  cheap  one,  and  not  otherwise.  Horace  Greeley  built  a 
large  barn  of  concrete  upon  his  farm  in  Westchester  County,  of  such  stones 
as  are  spread  over  the  surface  of  these  granitic  hills.  Although  it  is  a  very 
substantial  building,  our  opinion  is  that  we  could  build  a  good  frame,  and 
put  the  surplus  money  into  other  improvements,  to  a  better  profit. 

353.  Building  with  Billets  of  Wood.— A  new  style  of  building  has  been 
adopted  in  several  places  at  the  West,  where  brick  and  stones  are  inconve- 
nient, and  sawed  lumber  and  carpenter's  work  are  expensive.  The  plan  is  to 
saw  billets  of  wood  of  an  even  length,  say  one  foot  long,  from  limbs  of  trees ; 
or  split  stuff;  slabs,  we  suppose,  would  answer  a  good  purpose,  if  split  up  into 
fire-wood  size.  These  billets  must  be  straight  enough  to  pile  up  well.  The 
wall  is  made  by  laying  them  in  lime  mortar,  and,  we  believe,  in  some  cases, 
in  good  clay  mortar,  where  lime  and  sand  are  scarce,  and  then  plastering 
the  wall  outside  and  in.  The  great  objection  seems  to  be  that  the  outside 
plastering  cleaves  off,  as  it  does  from  all  plastered  buildings  exposed  to  rain, 
frost,  and  heat.  A  friend  writes  us  inquiring  whether  there  is  any  composi- 
tion for  outside  plaster  that  will  stand  the  weather.  We  answer,  none  that 
can  be  wholly  depended  upon.  A  mortar  made  of  hydraulic  cement 
(water  lime),  of  good  quality,  mixed  with  clean,  coarse,  sharp  sand — two 
parts  of  sand  to  one  of  cement — would  stand  until  some  crack  occurred,  and 
water  and  frost  get  in  behind.  Perliaps  the  mortar  described  in  No.  359 
will  answer  the  purpose.  But  as  it  is  cheaper,  and  perhaps  equally  good, 
we  would  recommend  an  ordinary  coat  of  plaster,  and  then  take  cement  aud 
any  cheap  oil,  and  mix  a  pretty  thick  paint,  and  put  on  thoroughly  two  or 
three  coats.  Another  good  paint  may  be  made  as  follows :  Take  four  pounds 
of  rosin  and  one  pint  of  linseed  oil,  and  boil  together,  adding  about  an 
ounce  of  red  lead,  and  put  it  on  hot,  and  afterward  paint  any  color  you  like. 
If  a  crack  ever  occurs,  stop  it  at  once  with  the  rosin  and  oil  mixture.  We 
have  no  doubt  that  these  billets-of-wood  houses  can  be  built  in  many  places 
cheaper  than  any  other,  and  that  they  can  be  made  neat,  comfortable,  and 
durable. 


332 


THE  FARMERY. 


[Chap.   III. 


SECTION  XX.-ROOFS  AND  ROOFING-PAINTS  AND  WHITEWASH  FOR 
FARM  BUILDINGS-NAILS  AND  MORTAR-FARM  GATES. 

]HATEVER  the  st}'!©  of  building  adopted  for  anv 
of  tiie  farmery  structures,  a  good  roof  never  should 
be  lost  sight  of,  for  upon  that,  much  of  the  farm 
economy  depends.  A  leaky  roof  on  a  dwelling  de- 
stroys comfort  and  property,  and  is  the  source  of 
many  unpleasant  days  and  nights  to  the  family,  and 
sometimes  productive  of  sickness,  as  well  as  injury 
to  furniture.  A  leaky  roof  upon  a  barn  will  destroy 
every  year  a  greater  value  of  hay  and  grain  than  it 
would  cost  to  make  it  tight.  It  is  for  this  that  we  give 
special  attention  to  this  part  of  the  farm  buildings. 
We  also  give  some  valuable  hints  upon  painting  and 
whitewashing,  because  both  beauty  and  economy 
may  be  thus  promoted. 
354.  Sawed  SbingleSi — Of  all  the  inventions  ever  contrived,  that  of  sawed 
shingles  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  least  value  to  the  country.  The  only 
profit  is  to  the  patentee  and  manufacturer.  To  every  one  who  has  used 
them,  sawed  shingles  have  proved  a  loss,  no  matter  what  the  saving  lias 
been  in  first  cost,  unless  the  shingles,  previous  to  laying  on  the  roof,  were 
prepared  so  as  to  prevent  their  saturation  with  water  every  time  the  rainfell- 
upon  them.  It  is  this  repeated  saturation  of  sawed  shingles  that  rots  them, 
and  gives  us  leaky  roofs  in  one  fourth  the  time  that  split  shingles  remain 
sound.  It  is  true  that  good  shingle  timber  is  becoming  scarce,  and  more 
and  more  so  every  year,  and  that  farmers  must  have  something  as  a  sub- 
stitute. What  that  something  is  we  know  not,  but  are  quite  sure,  where 
economy  is  studied,  that  it  will  not  be  sawed  shingles.  If  they  must  be 
used,  let  the  roof  have  a  very  steep  pitch.  On  a  flat  roof  we  liave  known 
them  rot  entirely  through  in  five  years.  Another  roof,  ten  years  old,  both 
shingles  and  roof-boards,  when  taken  off,  crumbled  into  a  mass  of  rotten 
wood,  that  scarcely  bore  any  resemblance  to  boards  and  shingles. 

"A  retired  mechanic"  writes  us  that  he  followed  building  eighteen  years, 
and  prefers  sawed  shingles  if  they  are  planed  on  the  upper  side,  and  says 
that  a  smart  hand  can  plane  from  two  to  three  thousand  a  day.  We  think 
a  machine  miglit  be  constructed  to  plane  one  side  of  sawed  shingles  without 
adding  much  to  the  cost.  Witliout  planing  or  dipping  in  boiling  oil  or  tar, 
we  do  not  believe  sawed  shingles  should  ever  be  used  by  any  one  who  wants 
a  good  roof,  or  who  cares  for  economy.  The  writer  of  a  letter  now  before 
us  spe.iks  in  very  severe  terms  of  the  manufacturers  of  sawed  shingles.  He 
says  they  are  often  made  of  small  cross-grained,  sapling  spruce,  and  that 


Seo.  20.]  ROOFS   AND   ROOFING.  333 

the  bark  of  the  tree  will  last  about  as  long  as  snch  shingles  on  a  roof.  Tlie 
carelessness  of  persons  employed  to  lay  shingles  is  notorious,  and  a  cross- 
grained  shingle  is  just  as  apt  to  be  laid  wrong  side  up  as  right.  Then  the 
surface  wears  rough,  and  water  soaks  into  the  wood  and  rots  it  through  so 
as  to  leak  in  a  few  months.  This  writer  thinks  the  fault  of  sawed  shingles 
is  much  more  in  tlie  timber  than  in  the  manufacture ;  that  is,  that  sawed 
shingles  from  good,  sound,  straight-grained  timber  will  last  as  long  as 
split  ones. 

Another  letter  writer  suggests  that  sawed  shingles  should  never  be  laid 
upon  a  boarded  roof,  but  upon  narrow  laths,  one  to  each  course.  He  says : 
"  I  know  of  a  building  where  the  shingles  were  put  on  boards  and  the 
boards  put  close  together,  which  have  been  on  but  a  few  years  and  are  very 
leaky  ;  the  shingles  and  boards  have  rotted  through  in  places,  while  other 
]>arts  are  sound  and  good.  I  think  the  reason  is,  the  shingles  lie  so  close  to 
the  boards  that  when  they  get  wet  they  never  dry  through  ;  while  if  laid  upon 
laths,  sawed  shingles  will  last  as  long  as  split  ones  from  the  same  timber." 

Another  writer,  speaking  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  using  something  as 
a  substitute  for  split  shingles  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  timber,  wants  to 
know  M-hy  we  can  not  have  tile  manufactured  that  will  be  a  better  substi- 
tute for  shingles  than  anything  else  that  we  have,  both  for  economy  and 
certainty  of  having  a  good  roof. 

A  correspondent  speaks  of  shingles  cut  by  a  machine  patented  by  J.  L. 
Brown,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  at  the  rate  of  50,000  a  day,  that  are  altogether 
superior  to  sawed  sliingles,  even  should  the  latter  bo  planed.  This  may  be 
so,  but  we  have  no  faith  in  the  economy  of  using  shingles  made  by  any  kind 
of  machinery  that  cuts  wood  across  the  grain.  No  shingles  thus  made  will 
be  as  durable  as  split  ones,  unless  saturated  with  oils  or  resins,  or  kyanized, 
and  then  they  would  be  as  expensive  as  those  made  by  riving  and  shaving, 
or  perhaps  as  much  so  in  the  long  run  as  slate  or  tin.  Depend  upon  it,  using 
poor  shingles  upon  farm  buildings  is  very  poor  economy. 

355.  Preserving  Shiugles  on  Roofs. — "  Some  paint  roof  shingles  after  they 
are  laid.  This  makes  them  rot  sooner  than  they  otherwise  would.  Some 
paint  the  courses  as  they  are  laid  ;  this  is  a  great  preservative  if  each  shingle 
is  painted  its  full  length,  and  not  by  courses." 

Mr.  Ed.  Emerson,  of  Hollis,  Mass.,  thus  gives,  in  the  New  England 
Farmer,  some  hints  that  ai-e  worthy  of  preservation  upon  shingling  roofs. 
He  says : 

"  Twenty- three  years  ago  I  had  quite  a  lot  of  refuse  shingles  on  hand,  both 
sappy  and  shaky,  and  I  laid  them  on  the  back  kitchen  and  wood-shed.  I 
have  just  examined  them,  and  think  they  will  last  at  least  seven  years  longer. 
The  building  has  not  leaked,  to  my  knowledge.  I  soaked  these  shingles  in 
a  very  thin  whitewash,  made  with  brine  instead  of  clear  water.  There  has 
been  nothing  done  to  them  since,  although  T  have  no  doubt  that  to  have 
whitewashed  or  served  a  coat  of  dry-slaked  lime  or  fine  salt  once  in  two  or 
three  years  on  them,  would  have  been  of  great  advantage  to  them. 


334  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI 

"  As  I  shingle  differently  from  almost  every  one  else,  I  will  give  you  my 
method,  and  my  reasons  for  it.  Uowever  wide  the  shingles  may  be,  I  do 
not  allow  the  nails  to  be  put  more  than  two  inches  apart,  liioson — If  yonr 
shingle*  are  wet  or  green,  and  the  wide  ones  are  nailed  at  the  edges,  the 
shingles  must  split  or  one  of  the  nails  must  draw  when  the  shjnglc  shrinks. 
If  the  shingle  is  dry,  it  must  huff  or  crowd  the  nail  out  when  it  swells. 
Thus  your  nails  are  kept  in  constant  motion  by  every  shrink  or  swell  of  the 
sliingle  till  they  are  broken,  pulled  out,  or  the  shingle  is  split.  I  do  not 
want  the  nails  driven  quite  in,  or  so  as  to  6ink_the  head.  Jitason — The 
heads  of  the  nails  hold  up  the  butts  of  the  next  row  of  shingles,  and  give 
the  air  a  free  circulation. 

"  I  lay  all  my  shingles  in  whitewash.  I  prefer  brine  for  making  it.  I 
line  with  red  chalk.  I  then  whitewash  the  last  course  laid  down  to  the 
line,  and  after  the  building  is  shingled  I  whitewash  the  whole  of  the  roof. 
Reason — ^To  make  the  shingles  last  twice  as  long  as  they  would  without  the 
whitewash,  and  I  consider  it  much  better  than  just  whitewashing  the  roof 
after  shingling." 

'■'■  Whitewashed  shingles  are  never  mossy.  If  slaked  lime  is  sprinkled  upon 
wet  roofs,  it  will  prevent  moss  from  growing,  and  if  the  shingles  are  cov- 
ered ever  so  thick  with  moss,  putting  the  lime  on  twice  will  take  all  the 
moss  off  and  leave  the  roof  white  and  clean,  and  it  will  look  almost  as  well 
as  if  it  had  been  painted.  It  ought  to  be  done  once  a  year,  and,  in  my  opin- 
ion, the  shingles  will  last  almost  twice  as  long  as  they  will  to  let  the  roof  all 
grow  over  to  moss."     One  who  has  tried  this  plan  says : 

"  I  tried  it  on  the  back  part  of  mj-  house  ten  years  ago,  when  the  shingles 
were  all  covered  over  with  moss,  and  appeared  to  be  nearly  rotten.  I  then 
gave  the  roof  a  heavy  coat  of  lime,  and  have  followed  it  nearly  every  year 
since,  and  the  roof  is  better  now  than  at  first." 

356.  Roofs — their  Form— Shingled  and  Composition.— It  is  a  serious  defect  iu 
our  roof  architecture  that  the  roofs  of  most  buildings  are  so"flat  that  the  rain 
finds  its  way  under  the  shingles.  Sharp  roofs  keep  out  rain  and  last  longer, 
and  although  the  first  cost  is  a  trifle  greater,  they  are  cheai^cr  in  the  end. 
We  know  of  no  composition  we  can  recommend  to  cure  leaky  shingled 
roofs,  though  several  arc  advertised  as  sure  cures.  "We  are  afraid  they  are 
like  the  Indian's  gun — "cost  more  than  he  worth."  There  is  a  patent 
asphalt  roofing  felt  that  can  be  easily  put  on  by  any  person.  It  weighs  only 
about  forty-two  pounds  to  the  square  one  hundred  feet.  It  must  be  stretched 
tight  and  smooth,  overlapping  full  one  inch  at  the  joinings,  and  closely 
nailed  through  the  overlap.  It  should  then  receive  a  coating  of  coal-tar  and 
lime — two  gallons  of  the  former  to  six  pounds  of  the  latter — well  boiled  to- 
'gether  and  kept  constantly  stirred  while  boiling,  and  put  on  with  a  swab, 
and  while  it  is  soft  some  coarse  sand  may  be  sifted  over  it.  This  coating 
needs  renewing  once  in  five  or  six  j-ears. 

There  is  also  roofing-paper — a  soft,  spongy  substance,  saturated  with  tar, 
which  comes  in  rolls,  and  is  sold  for  about  four  cents  a  pound.     It  is  un- 


Sbo.  20.]  ROOFS  AND  ROOFIXG.  335 

rolled  upon  a  flat  boarded  roof,  and  tacked  sufficiently  to  hold  it  in  place, 
and  then  saturated  with  tar,  which  glues  it  to  the  boards,  and  it  is  covered 
with  sand  ;  then  more  tar  and  another  coat  of  sand. 

Another  i^ceipt  for  composition  roofs  is  given  as  follows :  Take  coal-tar, 
300  pounds;  hydraulic  lime,  150  pounds;  ocher,  75  pounds;  and  whiting, 
40  pounds.  Mix  these  substances  together  thoroughly,  and  they  will  make, 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  cement  to  cover  1,000  square  feet  of  roofing.  It 
should  be  laid  down  upon  strong  cotton  sheeting  nailed  to  the  roof-boards, 
and  on  the  top  of  all  a  coat  of  dry  sand  or  gravel  is  to  be  laid  and  pressed 
firmly  down.  The  cost  of  such  roofing  is  about  $2  30  per  ten  feet  square. 
It  answers  very  well  for  sheds  and  other  outhouses. 

357.  Protecting  Roofs  from  Fire. — In  a  country  where  wood  is  used  as  fuel, 
and  where  roofs  are  made  of  pine  shingles,  and  where  droughts  are  among 
the  things  occurring  every  summer,  there  is  constant  danger  of  conflagration 
of  the  dwelling  from  sparks  on  the  roof.  This  may  be  guarded  against  in 
a  very  great  measure  in  a  very  inexpensive  manner.  A  roof  carefully 
washed  with  three  coats  of  either  composition  mentioned  in  Kos.  360  or  361, 
once  in  three  years,  would  be  a  hundred  times  less  liable  to  take  fire  from 
sparks  than  an  unwashed  roof. 

Such  a  wash  would  be  a  very  cheap  preventive  of  danger  from  fire.  So  is 
the  paint  mentioned  in  the  following  extract: 

"  A  wash  composed  of  lime,  salt,  and  fine  sand  or  wood  ashes,  put  on  in  the 
ordinary  way  of  whitewashing,  renders  the  roof  fifty-fold  more  safe  against 
taking  fire  from  falling  cinders  or  otherwise,  in  cases  of  fire  in  the  vicinity. 
It  pays  the  expense  a  hundred-fold  in  its  preserving  influence  against  the  effect 
of  the  weather.  The  older  and  more  weather-beaten  the  shingles,  the  more 
benefit  derived.  Such  shingles  generally  become  more  or  less  warped,  rough, 
and  cracked ;  the  application  of  the  wash,  by  wetting  the  upper  surface,  re- 
stores them  at  once  to  their  original  form,  thereby  closing  the  space  between 
the  shingles,  and  the  lime  and  sand,  by  filling  up  the  cracks  and  pores  in 
the  shingle  itself,  prevent  its  warping  for  j'ears." 

358.  Cheap  NailSi — ^The  cheapest  nails  are  not  the  lowest  priced  ones. 
Cut  nails,  made  of  iron  of  good  quality,  will  outlast  such  as  can  be  bouglit 
at  the  lowest  rates  about  two  to  one.  Never  use  nails  for  siding  or  shingles 
that  break  very  easily ;  and  be  sure  not  to  allow  your  carpenter  to  use 
nails  of  very  light  weight.  First-rate  cut  nails  of  suitable  size  may  cost 
twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  the  poorest  and  lightest,  but  in  the  end  they 
are  a  hundred  per  cent,  the  best.  Nails  made  of  poor  iron  will  rust  out  a 
great  deal  quicker  than  nails  made  of  good  tough  malleable  iron,  like  that 
known  as  old  sable.  It  is  about  on  a  par  with  sawed  shingles  to  use  the 
cheapest  or  lowest  priced  nails,  particularly  for  shingling.  In  building 
balloon  frames  none  but  the  very  best  quality  of  nails  should  be  used. 
Those  known  as  "  fence  nails"  are  far  the  best,  being  made  of  thicker  iron 
than  the  ordinary  nails  of  the  same  number. 

Weathet'-Proof  Ifails — are  described  in  the  Ohio  Cultivator.     It  says: 


336  THE  FAEMERT.  [Chap.  IH. 

"Everybody  knows  what  a  difficult  thing  it  is  to  nail  roof-boards  and 
weather-boards  so  tliat  they  will  hold  for  a  good  length  of  time.  Tliere  arc 
many  other  places  in  which  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  make  nails  do  the 
office  for  which  they  are  intended.  A  remedy — and  tlie  only  one  I  ever 
saw — I  discovered  a  few  years  ago;  it  is  very  simple  and  never  fails.  Take 
tcnpenny,  malleable  nails,  and  place  the  head  in  a  vice,  and  with  a  pair  of 
pincers  grip  the  nail  near  the  point,  and  twist  it  half-way  round,  minding  to 
make  the  twist  somewhat  elongated.  In  driving,  the  nail  becomes  a  screw, 
and  neither  sun  nor  hammer  can  withdraw  it." 

359.  To  make  Mortar  Impervious  (o  Wet. — "  Provide  a  square  wooden 
trough,  say  S  by  4  feet,  and  2  feet  deep  ;  put  in  a  quantity  of  fresh  lump 
lime,  and  add  water  quickly.  When  the  lime  is  well  boiled,  having  assisted 
that  operation  by  frequent  stirring,  add  tar  (the  heat  of  boiling  lime  melts 
the  tar),  stir  it  well,  taking  care  that  every  part  of  the  lime  is  intimately 
mixed  with  the  tar;  then  add  sharp  sand  or  crushed  clinker,  and  stir  it  well 
as  before ;  after  which,  in  about  twenty  hours,  it  Avill  be  fit  for  use." 

360.  Cheap  Paints  for  Farm  DuildingSt— Tar  and  lime  may  be  used,  in 
order  to  make  either  wood  or  mason-work  watei-proof  The  best  way  to 
prepare  gas  or  coal  tar  for  coating  wood-work  with,  is  to  get  some  of  the 
best  stone  lime,  avoiding  chalk  lime,  and  slake  it  to  a  fine  powder;  boil  the 
tar  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  then  add  about  one  pint  of  hot  lime-powder 
to  a  gallon  of  tar,  and  boil  it  about  half  an  hour  longer,  stiiTing  it  coniinu- 
ally,  and  using  it  iiot. 

We  give  the  above  as  we  find  it,  but  prefer  the  following :  Take  the  com- 
mon "  Rosendale  cement"  (water  lime),  sift  it,  and  mix  the  fine  powder  with 
coal-tar,  or  any  kind  of  oil,  and  it  will  make  an  excellent  paint,  of  a  drab  or 
brown-stone  color. 

361.  Permanent  Whitewash  Paint.— Another  excellent  paint  is  made  of 
the  following  ingredients:  that  is,  one  bushel  of  well-burnt  white  lime 
unslaked,  20  lbs.  Spanish  whiting,  17  lbs.  rock-salt,  12  lbs.  brown  sugar. 
Slake  the  lime,  and  sift  out  any  lumps  or  stones,  and  mix  it  into  a  good 
whitewash,  say  with  40  gallons  of  wafer,  and  then  add  the  other  ingredients, 
and  stir  all  well  together,  and  put  on  two  or  three  thin  coats  with  a  common 
whitewash  brush.  Five  dollars'  worth  of  this  cheap  white  paint  will  give 
the  farmery  such  an  improved  appearance  that  it  would  sell  readily  for  $100 
more  than  it  would  in  its  old  wood  colored  coat  and  neglccted-looking  con- 
dition. Tliis  mixture  makes  a  paint  that  is  very  clieap,  and  makes  a  coat 
that  does  not  wash  off  or  rub  off,  and  looks  well — that  is,  makes  the  rough 
boards  of  a  barn,  shed,  outbuilding,  or  fence  look  much  better  than  in  their 
natural  wood-colored  condition  ;  and  it  will,  by  its  antiseptic  qualities,  tend 
beneficially  toward  the  preservation  of  the  wood.  It  can  be  tinted  by  any 
of  the  articles  mentioned  in  362.  This  is  intended  for  the  outside  of  build- 
ings, or  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  order  to  give  a  good  color, 
three  coats  are  necessary  on  brick  and  two  on  wood. 

Another  cheap  and  good  paint  may  be  made  of  any  pure  clay ;  such  as 


Sko.  20.]  PAINTS   AND   WHITEWASH.  337 

potters  use  is  the  right  sort ;  or  that  known  as  "  blue  day"  will  answer  a 
good  purpose  in  its  natural  condition.  Even  such  as  brick-makers  use  can 
be  washed  of  all  its  impurities,  by  thoroughly  mi.xing  it  with  a  large  bulk 
of  water,  and  lotting  it  settle  and  then  draw  oft'  the  water,  and  also  reject 
the  bottom  of  the  mass,  which  will  contain  all  the  sand. 

To  prepare  clay  for  paint,  first  dry  it,  either  in  the  sun  or  by  fire,  and 
then  pulverize  it  fine,  which  may  be  done  with  a  cannon-ball  in  a  swinging 
iron  jjot.  Then  sift  it,  and  mix  with  boiled  linseed  oil,  pretty  thick,  and  you 
will  have  just  as  good  a  fire-proof  paint,  or  a  weather-protecting  paint,  as 
any  that  are  sold  as  such  in  the  shops. 

In  some  localities  soft  slate,  or  slate-dust  from  a  manufactory,  can  be  had, 
and  that  will  make  a  good  "  mineral  paint." 

362.  Zinc  and  Lime  Whitewash  Paint. — Take  a  clean  barrel  that  will  hold 
water.  Put  into  it  half  a  barrel  of  quicklime,  and  slake  it  by  pouring  over 
it  boiling  water  sufficient  to  cover  it  four  or  five  inches  deep,  and  stirring  it 
until  slaked.  When  quite  slaked,  dissolve  it  in  water,  and  add  two  pounds 
of  sulpliate  of  zinc  and  one  of  common  salt,  wliich  in  a  few  days  will  cause 
the  whitewash  to  harden  on  the  wood-work.  Add  sutficient  water  to  bring 
it  to  the  consistency  of  thick  whitewash. 

To  make  the  above  wash  of  a  pleasant  cream  color,  add  three  pounds  of 
yellow  ochcr. 

For  fawn  color,  add  four  pounds  of  umber,  one  pound  of  Indian  red,  and 
one  pound  of  lampblack. 

For  gray  or  stone  color,  add  four  pounds  of  raw  umber  and  two  pounds 
of  lampblack. 

The  color  may  be  put  on  witli  a  common  whitewash  brush,  and  will  be 
found  much  more  durable  than  common  whitewash. 

363.  Stucco  Whitewash. — To  make  a  brilliant  stucco  whitewash  for  all 
buildings,  inside  and  out,  take  a  bushel  of  clean  lumps  of  well-burnt  lime, 
slaked  ;  add  one  fourth  pound  of  whiting  or  burnt  alum  pulverized,  one 
pound  of  loaf  sugar,  three  quarts  of  rye  flour,  made  into  a  thin  and  well- 
boiled  paste,  and  one  pound  of  the  cleanest  glue,  dissolved.  This  may  be 
put  on  cold  within  doors,  but  should  be  applied  hot  outside. 

The  following  is  another  receipt  for  stucco  whitewash :  Take  half  a  bushel 
of  nice  unslaked  lime,  slake  it  with  boiling  water,  covering  it  during  the 
process,  to  keep  in  the  steam.  Strain  tlie  liquid  through  a  fine  sieve  or 
strainer,  and  add  to  it  a  peck  of  salt,  previously  well  dissolved  in  water ; 
three  pounds  ground  rice,  boiled  to  a  thin  paste,  and  stirred  in  boiling  hot ; 
half  a  pound  Spanish  whiting,  and  a  pound  of  clean  glue,  which  has  been 
previously  dissolved  by  soaking  it  first,  and  then  hanging  over  a  slow  fire, 
in  a  small  kettle  inside  a  large  one  filled  with  water.  Add  five  gallons  of 
hot  water  to  the  mixture,  stir  it  well,  and  let  it  stand  a  few  days  covered 
from  the  dirt.  It  should  be  put  on  quite  hot;  for  this  purpose  it  can  be 
kept  in  a  kettle  on  a  furnace.  It  is  said  that  about  a  pint  of  this  mixture 
v.-ill  cover  a  yard   square  of  the   outside  of  a  house,  if  properly  applied. 


338  THE  FARMERY.  [CnAP.  UI. 


The  size  of  the  brushes  used  should  be  adapted  to  the  work  required.  This 
composition  answei-s  as  well  as  oil  paint  ou  wood  or  stone,  and  is  cheaper. 
It  retains  its  brilliancy  for  many  years. 

Coloring  may  be  put  in,  and  made  of  any  shade  you  like.  Spanish  brown 
stirred  in  will  make  red  pink,  more  or  less  deep  to  the  quantity.  A  delicate 
tinge  of  this  is  very  pretty  for  inside  walls.  Finely  pulverized  common 
clay,  well  mixed  with  Spanish  brown,  makes  a  reddish  stone  color.  Yellow 
ocher  stirred  in  makes  yellow  wash,  but  chrome  goes  further,  and  makes  a 
color  generally  esteemed  prettier.  In  all  these  cases  the  darkness  of  the 
shades  is  determined  of  course  by  the  quantity  of  coloring  used.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  make  rules,  because  tastes  are  different;  it  would  be  best  to  try 
experiments  on  a  shingle,  and  let  it  dry.  "We  have  been  told  that  green 
must  not  be  mixed  with  lime.  The  lime  destroys  the  color,  and  the  color 
has  an  effect  on  the  whitewash,  which  makes  it  crack  and  peel.  When 
walls  have  been  badly  smoked,  and  you  wish  to  have  them  a  clean  white,  it 
is  well  to  squeeze  indigo  plentifully  through  a  bag  into  the  water  you  use, 
before  it  is  stirred  into  the  mixture.  If  a  larger  quantity  than  five  gallons 
be  wanted,  the  same  proportion  should  be  observed. 

The  above  is  the  receipt  that  has  been  so  long  in  circulation  as  that  wliich 
gave  the  original  whiteness  to  the  "  "White  House"  at  "Washington. 

In  oil  painting,  never  suffer  a  painter  to  use  unboiled  oil  upon  any  of 
your  buildings  or  farm  implements,  and  certainly  never  suffer  yourself  to 
leave  any  of  them  unpainted.  Take  care  that  the  painter  is  not  too  liberal 
in  the  use  of  his  "  driers"  in  your  paint.  Tint  is  to  please  the  eye.  Oil 
preserves  the  wood,  and  one  coat  of  boiled  oil  is  worth  three  of  unboiled. 

All  farm  buildings  sliould  be  oil-painted  or  whitewashed.  "Whitewash 
fends  to  preserve  wooden  buildings  niore  than  any  ordinary  coat  of  paint, 
particularly  such  a  one  as  would  bo  given  to  unplaned  boards,  wliich  is  a 
better  condition  for  whitewashing  than  Avhen  smooth.  The  ice-house  should 
be  whitewashed  on  the  outside  as  often  as  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  perfectly 
white,  as  that  is  an  important  aid  toward  keeping  it  cool. 

364.  Farmery  Gates. — No  farmery  can  be  considered  at  all  complete  that 
is  not  amply  furnished  with  gates,  constructed  with  particular  adaptation  to 
their  several  situations,  and  arranged  in  tlic  most  ])erfect  manner  with 
hinges,  latches,  and  fastenings.  There  is  to  us  no  greater  evidence  of  a 
slovenly  farmer  than  is  furnished  by  half-dilapidated,  or  at  best  incon- 
venient, barf.  These  bar-ways  may  answer  in  ticld  fences,  wliere  they  are 
seldom  to  be  opened,  but  they  are  a  nuisance  about  the  farmery.  Most  of 
the  farmery  gates  should  be  self-closing,  and  made  to  swing  so  that  an 
animal  could  not  push  against  and  open  the  gate.  In  some  places  a  gate 
can  not  be  made  to  swing  cither  way ;  then  it  must  be  made  to  open  npon 
some  one  of  the  several  ^ilans  that  have  been  made  for  convenient  opening 
in  a  straight  line.  One  of  the  sort  patented  by  some  one  in  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y.,  is  a  very  easy  working  gate.  It  is  made  of  very  light  stuff,  and  for 
a  wagon-way  a  pair,  each  five  feet  long,  are  set  between  posts  nine  feet 


Sec.  20.]  IMPEOVED  FARM  GATES.  339 

apart,  and  lield  against  the  posts  by  guides,  M'liich  allow  of  their  easy  work- 
ing. Attached  by  bolts  to  the  upper  outward  corner  are  two  light  strips  of 
boards,  one  on  each  side,  and  two  others  in  the  center.  These  strips  are 
hinged  to  posts  at  the  bottom  in  the  same  way  they  are  at  the  top  to  the 
gate,  and  when  tlie  gate  is  shut  they  stand  at  an  angle  with  the  gate  like 
braces,  and  when  the  gate  is  to  be  opened  it  lifts  upon  these  centers,  and 
passes  over  and  stands  alongside  of  the  fence  in  a  straiglit  line.  Such 
gates  are  very  convenient  in  case  of  snow,  as  they  lift  up  right  out  of  the 
drift,  so  as  to  allow  a  passage  without  shoveling.  When  closed,  the  two 
gates  are  fastened  together  by  hooks  or  bolts,  or  any  convenient  fastening. 
As  they  are  not  hinged  to  the  posts,  these  may  be  made  quite  light. 

Another  plan  of  a  gate,  to  open  without  swinging,  is  to  suspend  it  upon 
rollers  running  upon  a  rail  overhead.  Some  one  has  improved  upon  this 
plan  to  make  the  gate  openable  by  a  person  driving  up  in  a  wagon.  Tin's 
is  done  by  lifting  the  gate  at  the  front  end  by  a  lever,  which  changes  the 
level  of  the  railway-bar  upon  which  the  gate  hangs,  so  that  it  rolls  back  by 
its  own  gravity.  The  principle  will  be  understood  by  looking  at  any  gate 
made  to  run  off  on  rollers  upon  a  bar  above  the  top,  by  supposing  one  end 
of  the  bar  raised,  when  the  gate  rolls  down.  A  touch  of  another  lever,  as 
the  wagon  passes,  reverses  the  position  of  the  bar,  and  the  gate  rolls  back 
again  to  its  closed  i^osition. 

The  great  objection  to  this,  and  almost  all  the  plans  for  opening  gates  from 
the  wagon,  without  alighting,  is  the  unsightly  appearance  of  the  gallows- 
frame  necessary  to  support  the  levers,  ropes,  and  pulleys. 

We  have  seen  gates  which  opened  by  the  weight  of  the  wagon  passing 
over  a  bar,  and  shutting  it  by  anotlier  touch  of  a  bar  on  the  other  side. 
There  is  a  good  deal  of  machinery  to  this  plan,  as  well  as  to  nearly  all  of 
the  contrivances  to  open  and  shut  gates  without  labor,  and  the  most  of  them 
are  very  liable  to  fail  of  working  easily. 

The  most  simple  one  of  the  kind,  and,  so  far  as  we  could  judge  from  a 
single  examination,  the  least  liable  to  ^et  out  of  working  order,  was  one  ex- 
hibited at  the  New  York  State  Fair  of  1860  by  Jasper  Johnson,  of  Genesee 
County.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  this  invention  is,  that  it  can  be 
applied  to  gates  already  in  use,  so  that  one  can  be  opened  by  a  person  in  a 
wagon  and  shut  as  he  passes  through  without  stopping. 

Any  erection  that  will  sustain  a  single  cord  upon  each  side,  and  a  bar  of 
iron  about  four  feet  long,  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  crowbar,  and  one  or 
two  small  rods,  comprises  all  that  need  be  added  to  any  gate  to  fix  it  for 
this  convenient  way  of  opening.  This  bar  of  iron  is  made  in  a  peculiar 
form,  and  attached  to  the  gate-post  by  a  loose  joint  at  one  end,  while  the 
other  works  in  a  long  staple  attached  to  the  gate.  Its  position  is  moved  by 
pulling  the  cord,  and  its  specific  gravity  being  thus  changed,  throws  the 
gate  open,  and  shuts  it  by  another  pull  at  the  same  cord,  or  the  other  one, 
as  the  person  drives  through.  The  attachment  certainly  is  a  very  cheap 
one,  and  its  operation  was  entirely  satisfactory. 


S40 


THE  FARMERY. 


[Chap.  III. 


Kol)insoii's  Farm  Gale  is  the  name  given  to  one  invented,  and  not 
patented,  by  Dr.  D.  A.  Robinson,  Union  Springs,  N.  Y.,  of  whicii  wo  tliink 
pretty  liiglily.  One  of  its  good  points  is  the  clieapness  of  the  liinges.  These 
are  fignred  and  fully  described  in  tliat  excellent  pocket  manual,  tiie  "Rural 
Register,"  published  by  Luther  Tucker,  from  whicli  we  copy  the  following 
description : 

"This  gate  may  be  made  of  any  light,  tough,  and  durable  wood,  but  an- 
swers a  good  purpose  wlien  made  of  pine,  -with  the  upright  or  cross-bars  of 
white  oak.  The  upper  horizontal  bar  is  11  feet  long,  .3  inches  wide  horizon- 
tally, and  5  inches  deep  at  the  hinge,  and  2^  at  the  latch.  The  mortises  arc 
only  two  thirds  through,  to  shut  out  rain,  and  f  by  3  inches — except  in 
the  heel-piece  they  are  an  inch  and  quarter.  The  heel-piece  is  3  by  5  inches, 
and  the  four  lower  bars  are  boards  1  by  5  inches.  The  cross-bars,  the 
brace,  and  the  two  pieces  forming  tlie  head-piece  are  1  by  3  inches.  They 
are  secured  at  each  crossing  by  wrought  or  annealed  nails.  The  head-piece 
consists  merely  of  two  boards,  nailed  on  each  side  of  the  horizontal  boards. 
The  hinge  is  made  by  driving  an  iron  rod,  at  least  three  fourtlis  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  into  the  top  of  tlie  post,  which  turns  in  a  hole  seven  eighths  of 
an  inch,  bored  two  thii-ds  of  tlie  distance  through  the  large  end  of  the  upper 
bar.  A  short  iron  plug  driven  into  this  hole  makes  a  hard  resting  point 
tliat  will  not  wear,  for  the  gate  to  turn  upon.  The  lower  hinge  is  a  wooden 
block,  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  gate,  and  hollowed  out  so  as  to  lit 
upon  the  round  post.  The  latch  is  not  attached  to  the  gate,  but  to  tlie  post, 
so  that  it  catches  over  the  top  rail,  which  is  made  to  project  bej'ond  the  end 
of  the  gate  for  that  purpose.  If  it  is  preferred  to  have  the  latch  fastened  on 
the  gate  lower  down,  a  pin  can  be  tixed  in  or  one  of  the  slats  projected  for- 
ward. This  gate  is  not  liable  to  sag  much,  because  tluire  is  no  xockjht  what- 
ever straining  the  hi^iges,  excej}t  while  the  gate  is  open.  A  pin  or  spike  is 
driven  into  the  post  on  which  the  hinges  turn,  just  above  the  lower  hinge, 
to  prevent  hogs  or  other  animals  from  lifting  the  gate,  but  which  does  not 
prevent  it  from  being  placed  on  its  hinges  while  open.  The  post  holding 
the  latch  may  be  rough,  except  the  face,  and  the  other  need  be  rounded  only 
where  the  hinge  turns. 

"  The  whole  cost  of  the  hinges  need  not  exceed  ten  cents,  and  the  gate 
itself  may  be  made  at  no  greater  expense  than  a  common  set  of  bars." 

An  excellent  gate-fastening  is  one  in  common  use  in  Mississippi  and  some 
other  Southern  States,  which  we  have  never  seen  in  any  of  the  Northern 
ones.  A  gain  is  cut  in  the  corner  of  the  post,  say  three  by  four  inches,  and 
in  that  is  hung  a  piece  of  flat  bar  iron,  say  one  incii  wide  and  one  fourth 
of  an  inch  thick,  bent  in  somewhat  the  form  and  of  the  length  of  half  a 
horse-shoe,  the  upper  end  hammered  thin  and  bent  over  a  staple  which  is 
driven  in  the  upper  part  of  the  gain,  so  that  the  lower  end  of  tlie  bar  rests 
on  the  bottom,  near  the  outer  edge.  An  iron  pin  in  the  upright  of  the  gate 
strikes  against  this  little  bar  and  lifts  it  up  and  passes  beyond  the  end  of  it, 
when  it  falls  back,  and  no  power  but  a  man's  hand  can  open  the  gate — but 


Sec.  20.]  IMPROVKD   FARM   GATES.  341 

for  tliat  it  is  very  easy.  It  is  one  of  tlie  best  latches  we  ever  saw  to  prevent 
nnrnly  animals  from  getting  the  gate  open,  and  it  is  very  cheaply  made,  and 
would  be  a  very  safe  one  for  all  the  gates  about  the  farmery  liable  to  be 
opened  hj  the  hogs  and  cattle. 

The  following  is  a  good  plan  of  a  new  gate-hinge  or  plan  of  fastening  the 
upper  hook  or  eye  of  a  gate-hinge  into  the  post,  which  we  have  seen  de- 
scribed lately,  and  like  it  so  much  that  we  M'ish  all  farmers  to  know  it.  In- 
stead of  driving  the  hook  into  the  post,  a  hole  is  bored  quite  through  it  just 
at  the  top  of  the  upper  rail  of  the  fence,  and  the  shank  is  made  long  enough 
to  reach  some  inches  beyond  the  post,  and  has  several  notches  on  its  upper 
side.  Bore  a  hole  through  tlie  rail  and  put  a  small  bolt  with  a  loophole  at 
one  end,  to  bite  into  a  notch  of  the  hinge,  and  nut  at  the  other.  Of  course, 
when  screwed  up,  the  sag  of  the  gate  can  not  draw  the  hook ;  but  if  neces- 
sary it  can  be  made  shorter  by  shifting  a  notcli  or  two. 

The  following  dimensions  of  a  good  strong  farm  gate,  and  the  timber 
for  it,  may  be  taken  as  pretty  near  correct : 

Space  between  posts,  12  feet ;  hight  of  posts  above  ground,  5i  feet ;  slats, 
12  feet  long,  5  inches  wide,  li  inches  thick  for  the  bottom  one,  and  3  inches 
wide  for  the  other  six  ;  hight  of  gate,  44  feet.  The  ends  into  which  the 
slats  are  tenoned  are  2i  by  3  inches,  5  feet  long.  Some  prefer  to  have  the 
top  rail  double  the  strength  of  the  middle  slats.  There  are  two  braces  and 
a  center  upright  fastened  with  STnall  screw  bolts  or  rivets.  If  a  strap  hinge  is 
used,  they  should  be  riveted  to  the  slats.  If  straps  are  not  used,  the  iron 
should  be  made  to  clasp  the  upright,  and  not  go  through  it. 

In  soft  land,  like  that  of  the  "Western  prairies,  it  is  difficult  to  make  gate- 
posts stand  firm,  and  they  are  often  formed  with  a  gallows-looking  cross-bar 
overhead. 

A  better  way  is  to  put  this  cross-bar  and  braces  at  the  bottom.  Frame 
the  posts  and  braces  into  a  sill,  and  bury  that  three  feet  deep,  and  it  will 
effectually  prevent  the  posts  from  sagging,  and  then  you  may  use  them  of 
much  smaller  timber. 

A  good  light  gate  is  made  as  follows :  Take  strips  of  board's  three  inches 
wide,  half  an  incii  thick,  of  any  strong  wood ;  pine,  free  of  knots  and  weak 
spots,  will  answer,  and  cut  them  suitable  lengths  for  the  length,  and  others 
for  the  width  of  the  gate.  Lay  down  upon  a  smooth  surface  several  of  the 
short  strips  not  over  three  feet  apart,  and  then  lay  the  long  strips  on  for  a 
close  gate  three  inches  apart  at  the  bottom,  gradually  widening  to  the  top ; 
then  lay  down  short  strips  directly  over  the  others,  and  nail  through  these 
with  clinch  nails.  We  have  sometimes  reversed  the  order,  and  used  two  long 
strips  opposite,  instead  of  two  short  ones,  which  makes  a  stronger  but  heavier 
gate.  Small  gates  made  either  way  are  quite  strong  enough.  The  hinges 
should  \)o.  of  a  peculiar  form,  with  long  straps  to  clasp  the  gate  so  as  to  rivet 
through  and  hold  the  wood  between  the  iron. 

In  Section  LIT.,  in  an  article  npon  farm  fences,  something  will  be  found 
about  how  to  make  gate  and  fence  posts  durable. 


342 


TILE   FARMERY. 


[Chap.  III. 


SECTION  XXI.-LIGHTNING  COXDUCTORS-PROTECTION  OF  FARM 
BUILDINGS  FROM  FIRE. 

T  is  a  great  question  for  the  owner  of  farm  buildings 
rr     whether  lie  can  protect  them  from  destruction  by  light- 
ning-rods.    Being  almost  faithless  ourselves,  yet  not  quite 
sure  that  lightning-rods  are  all  useless,  we  will  give  the 
opinions  of  several  who  have  investigated  the  question. 
3C5.  Opinions  of  the  Value  of  Lightning  Conductors. — Mr. 
Quinby,   a    practical    electrician,   gave    the  following  view 
of  the  subject  in  an  article  in  the  Worki?};/  Farmer  : 

"  Tliere  can  be  few  subjects  of  equal  importance  less  gen- 
erally understood,  or  perhaps  more  tiniversally  misunder- 
stood, than  the  science  of  electricity  in  its  application  to 
lightning-rods.  The  errors  of  the  past  are  verj'  slow  of  erad- 
ication, although  it  must  be  admitted  that  progress  has  been 
made  since  the  famous  discussion  in  George  III.'s  time  as  to 
whether  lightning-rods  should  be  pointed  or  blunt  at  the  top.  So  little  is 
known  of  electricity  itself,  and  so  largely  is  it  a  purely  speculative  science, 
that  it  is  no  wonder  that  doctors  disagree. 

"  It  is  clear  that  the  most  valuable  opinion  on  this  subject  is  to  be  looked 
for  from  those  who  have  made  the  study  of  electricity  and  thunder-storms  a 
specialty,  with  the  practical  result  in  view  of  ascertaining  the  most  efteetnal 
means  of  protection,  and  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  those  who  have  done  this 
have  arrived  at  similar  conclusions. 

"  It  is  a  common  eiTor  to  suppose  that  lightning-rods  should  be  insulated, 
and  a  very  natural  one,  arising  from  a  superficial  view  of  the  subject.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  currents  of  electricity  in  a  rarefied  state  are  con- 
tinually circulating  through  masses  of  matter  silently  and  without  producing 
any  manifest  effects  ;  the  effect  of  insulation  is  to  interrupt  the  flow  of  these 
currents,  whereas  the  lightning-rod  ought  rather  to  be  so  contrived  as  to  fa- 
cilitate their  free  passage  from  the  building  to  the  rod,  and  thence  to  the  at- 
mosphere, and  mci  versa. 

"  During  that  disturbed,  electi-ificd  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
Ave  call  a  thunder-storm,  these  currents  circulate  in  greater  volume  and 
rapidity,  and  a  sulKcient  interruption  of  them  brings  about  a  discharge  of 
lightning. 

"  At  such  times  tlic  insulation  of  the  rod  from  the  building  is  a  most  ex- 
cellent device  for  causing  an  explosion  of  accumulated  electricity  eitlier 
from  or  into  the  building,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  rod,  on  the  contrary, 
ought  to  act  somewhat  as  a  safety-valve,  as  regards  any  electrical  disturb- 
ance within  the  house,  neutralizing  it  gradually,  and  thus  preventing  an 
explosion. 


Sec.  21.]  LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS.  343 

"Should  the  rod  be  struck  by  lightning,  its  efficacy  in  carrying  off  the 
shock  will  depend  on  whether  it  presents  a  continuous  chain  of  conducting 
matter,  in  the  line  or  direction  of  the  discharge,  which  is  superior  to  any- 
thing witliin  ihe  building.  If  it  does  not,  all  the  glass  in  the  world  will  not 
prevent  fluid  from  leaving  the  rod  and  passing  througli  the  building  on  such 
conductors  as  it  may  find  there. 

"The  true  theory  or  purposes  of  the  lightning-rod  is  to  facilitate  electric- 
ity in  following  out  its  natural  laws  and  tendencies,  and  nothing  can  be 
more  truly  unscientific  or  practically  absurd  than  the  idea  of  presenting  a 
barrier  or  obstruction  to  lightning." 

This  theory  fully  accords  with  all  our  information  upon  this  subject. 

The  following  are  the  views  of  another  practical  electrician,  S.  D.  Cush- 
man,  of  South  Bend,  Ind.     He  says : 

"  A  conductor  for  the  protection  of  life  and  property  from  the  effects  of 
lightning  should  be  so  constructed  and  applied  that  it  will  add  to  the  con- 
ducting power  of  the  building  so  as  to  admit  of  the  most  intense  discharge 
being  securely  transmitted,  without  explosion  or  damage  to  the  building  or 
structure. 

' "  Attkaction. — The   utility  of  a   lightning-rod   does  not   consist  in  its 
attracting  power. 

"Insulation. — ^The  conducting  power  of  a  lightning-rod  is  frequently 
diminislied  by  insulation,  and  never  is  increased;  it  should  never  be  insu- 
lated.    It  may  be  fastened  to  the  building  with  brackets  of  wood  or  staples. 

"  Points. — The  attaching  to  the  upper  end  of  a  lightning-rod  a  copper, 
silver,  gold,  or  any  kind  of  a  point,  does  not  add  to  the  utility  of  the  rod, 
but  when  attached  always  diminishes,  more  or  less,  the  conducting  power 
of  the  rod,  by  breaking  up  the  perfect  continuity  that  a  rod  should  possess, 
and  interrupting  its  polarity. 

"  Size. — An  iron  lightning-rod  should  never  have  less  than  three  inches 
conducting  surface,  possessing  solidity  sufficient  to  have  strength  and  dura- 
bility. 

"  CoNSTEUcTioN. — A  liglituing-rod  should  not  possess  in  its  construction 
sharp  edges,  neither  should  it  be  in  sections  nor  pieces  (the  sections  or  pieces 
being  hooked  or  screwed  together),  but  it  should  be  all  in  one  piece,  possess- 
ing an  equal,  even  unbroken  surface  in  its  whole  length. 

"  Application. — In  the  application  of  the  rod  to  the  building  the  conduct- 
ing power  of  the  building  should  be  brought  into  the  general  line  of  con- 
duction ;  that  is,  the  rod  should  come  in  good  metallic  contact  with  all  the 
important  metallic  substances  upon  the  outside  of  the  building,  such  as 
gutters,  spouts,  etc.  That  part  of  the  rod  that  comes  in  contact  with  the 
earth  should  be  increased  in  its  surface  and  conducting  power,  so  that  there 
will  not  be  less  conducting  sijrface  in  contact  with  the  earth  than  is  exposed 
to  the  building  and  atmosphere,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the  earth 
around  and  in  contact  with  the  rod  is  always  moist. 

"  Shade-Teees. — Shade-trees  should  not  be  relied  upon  as  a  protection 


344  "  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

from  lightning,  because  their  conducting  power  varies  so  much,  and  very 
often,  when  in  tlieir  best  conducting  condition,  tliey  are  damaged  by  the 
lightning  passing  over  them.  Tlie  conducting  power  of  shade-trees,  then, 
should  be  increased  and  made  permanent  by  the  application  of  an  iron  or 
copper  wire. 

"Errors. — One  of  the  errors  committed  in  protecting  from  lightning  is 
an  improper  estimate  placed  upon  the  conducting  power  of  the  building, 
compared  with  the  material  used  for  protection.  When  a  liglitning-con- 
ductor  terminates  or  ends  in  a  substance  of  imperfect  or  less  conducting 
power,  it  is  reduced  to  the  conducling  power  of  the  body  in  which  it  ends. 

"Dry  earth  is  a  non  or  imperfect  conductor.  Earth  owes  its  conducting 
power  to  water.  According  to  Cavendish,  the  conducting  power  of  iron,  as 
compared  to  the  conducting  power  of  water,  is  as  four  hundred  millions  to 
one.  The  electrical  size  of  the  mass  of  lightning-rods  is  not  as  large  as  a 
common  knitting-needle,  being  reduced  by  so  small  a  portion  of  the  rod's 
surface  coming  in  contact  with  damp  earth. 

"Another  error  is  in  constructing  the  rod  in  sections.  Rods  properly 
applied,  of  perfect  continuity,  being  all  in  one  piece,  without  coupling  or 
hooking,  have  never  failed  to  carry  the  quantity  of  electricity  that  may 
have  passed  upon  them  safely  and  successfully  to  the  ground,  while  the  sec- 
tioned, or  the  rods  hooked  or  screwed  together  by  burs  or  nuts,  have  fre- 
quently failed  to  do  their  duty.  Scarcely  a  day  or  a  week  passes  during 
the  summer  months  but  we  hear  of  the  failure  of  the  coupled  lightning-rods. 

"However  well  the  fact  of  electrical  conduction  may  be  known — however 
well  scientific  men  may  be  agreed  that  by  the  judicious  employment  of 
metallic  bodies  we  may  increase  protection  against  lightning,  certain  it  is 
that  they  have  taken  too  much  upon  trust,  and  neglected  the  investigation 
of  the  facts. 

"  Men  ignorant  of  every  electrical  principle  have  professed  to  furnish 
security  against  lightning,  until  the  scientific  electrician  who  attempts  to 
sell  lightning-rods  is  received  with  jeers  and  contempt  as  a  designing 
swindler ;  his  story  is  listened  to  with  impatience,  and  his  presence  consid- 
ered an  intrusion." 

The  rod  recommended  by  Mr.  Cushman  is  made  of  four  copper  and  four 
iron  wires  laid  together,  with  a  pointed  cap  on  the  top,  and  some  metal  plates 
at  the  bottom.  There  must  never  be  a  splice  in  the  wire,  but  several  wires 
carried  up  from  the  ground,  in  the  main  body,  may  be  taken  ofl'  and  con- 
nected with  the  metal  roof  of  a  building,  or  with  other  points. 

The  following  language  we  used  upon  a  discussion  of  this  subject  before 
the  American  Institute  Farmers'  Club  : 

"As  lightning-rods  are  most  commonly  constructed,  they  are  not  what 
they  are  generally  conceived  to  be — that  is,  attractors  of  an  approaching 
thunderbolt,  ])icking  it  up  on  the  sharp  points,  and  conducting  it  down  a 
carefully  insulated  rod  to  a  safe  deposit  in  the  earth.  If  a  lightning-rod 
ever  performed  such  a  service,  I  should  like  to  be  assured  of  the  fact.     At 


Sec.  21.]  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS.  345 

present  I  have  no  faith.  I  believe  that,  when  the  atmosphere  is  surcharged 
with  electricity,  any  metallic  substance  will  absorb  it  just  in  proportion  to 
its  natural  affinity,  and  if  there  is  an  excess  of  fluid  in  the  air  around  tlic 
top  of  a  rod,  it  will  run  down  it  to  the  earth,  just  as  it  runs  along  telegraph 
wires ;  and  experience  has  proved  that  a  bright,  sharu  ooint  is  more  attract- 
ive than  a  blunt  one. 

"Still,  a  blunt  rod  will  become  charged,  and  so  will  a  metal  roof,  and, 
more  than  all,  an  iron  building,  and  the  water-conductor,  or  whatever  otlier 
metallic  substances  reach  from  the  top  to  the  earth,  will  tend  to  dissipate  the 
excess  of  electricity  in  tlie  air  above  and  around  the  building,  and  prevent 
an  accumulation  of  it  sufficient  to  produce  an  explosion.  But  I  have  not 
one  particle  of  faith  that  any  building  that  happened  to  be  situated  in  the 
path  of  what  we  call  a  thunderbolt,  ever  was  saved  by  the  best  lightning- 
rod  ever  erected.  And  if  iu  its  course  the  discharge  from  the  cloud,  coming 
like  a  rifle-ball  from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  happens  to  strike  the  sharp 
point  of  the  rod,  it  is,  to  my  mind,  a  preposterous  idea  to  suppose  that  perfect 
insulation  of  that  rod  from  the  building  can  be  of  any  possible  advantage." 

This  opinion  we  still  abide  by.  The  world  is  full  of  theories  upon  the 
subject.  "We  wish  we  could  elucidate  them.  We  want  all  these  lightning 
theories  reduced  to  two  or  tliree  facts.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  iron  is 
the  best,  and  by  others  that  copper  is  best.  One  contends  that  blunt  iron  is 
just  as  good  as  sharp  gold  or  platina.  One  says  that  insulation  is  necessary, 
and  the  otlier  that  it  is  not.  Now  it  is  facts  that  we  want.  Farmers  want 
to  know  whether  they  can  protect  their  buildings  from  danger  of  beino- 
struck  by  lightning. 

A.  B.  Dickenson,  a  practical  and  close  observing  farmer  of  Steuben 
County,  N.  Y.,  is  of  opinion  that  no  lightning-rod  will  protect  a  barn  while 
giving  oflT  steam  arising  from  newly  stored  hay  and  grain.  Tlien,  of  what 
advantage  to  erect  one  ?  for  that  is  the  very  time  it  is  most  needed  to  save 
the  farmers'  barns  from  destruction,  which  are  much  more  likely  to  be  de- 
stroyed than  any  other  buildings,  and  the  loss  is  much  greater. 

Adrian  Bergen,  of  Long  Island,  relates  one  case  of  a  barn  apparently 
saved  by  the  conductor.  The  force  of  the  shock  was  so  great  that  a  man  in 
the  barn  was  knocked  down.  Tlie  rod  was  a  small,  round  one,  fastened  to 
the  barn  by  wooden  supports.  After  the  explosion  a  hole  was  found  at  the 
foot  of  the  rod. 

So  we  have  read  of  many  cases  where  there  was  an  apparent  good  eff"ect 
from  having  conductors  upon  buildings.  A  very  heavy  crash  fell  upon  or 
over  a  house  and  barn  in  New  Hampshire,  which  melted  the  points  of  new 
conductors  and  apparently  dissipated  the  fluid  so  as  to  prevent  damage, 
though  the  barn  appeared  to  be  filled  with  electricity. 

The  Temple  at  Jerusalem  stood  ten  centuries  without  oeing  injured  ;  but 
this  building  had  a  great  deal  of  metal  about  it,  and  perhaps  conductors  for 
water  that  carried  the  electricity  from  the  roof  to  the  ground.  Yet  we  have 
many  instances  in  this  country  where  buildings  have  been  struck  that  were 


346  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  HI. 

fully  provided  with  liglitning-rotls.  Tiiis  may  be  owing  to  bad  coiistnietiou 
of  tlic  rods.  In  the  case  of  a  great  explosion,  like  the  one  in  Xew  Hamp- 
shire, it  is  not  likely  that  a  single  rod  could  convey  all  the  charge  to  the 
ground.  If  a  rod  was  full  of  points  along  its  length,  it  would  serve  to  dissi- 
pate the  charge,  and  a  square  rod  is  better  than  a  round  one. 

AVm.  S.  Carpenter,  of  the  eastern  part  of  "Westchester  County,  N.  Y.,  says : 

"The  farmers  in  my  section  have  no  faith  in  lightning-rods,  because  the 
proportion  of  barns  that  have  been  struck  Avith  rods  upon  them  is  greater 
tlian  those  without  conductors.  A  scientific  work  states  that  a  cop])er  rod 
one  inch  in  diameter  is  better  than  an  iron  rod  four  inches  in  tliametcr,  and 
nothing  less  than  that  seems  to  be  sufficient.  This  rod,  too,  must  be  contin- 
uous, and  well  connected  at  the  bottom  with  damp  earth." 

Cases  have  occurred  where  a  tin  roof  appeared  to  act  as  a  great  absorbent 
of  the  electricity,  which  it  conducted  down  the  tin  water-spouts,  and  in  one 
case  into  a  water-cask,  which  it  burst,  and  passed  on  into  the  wet  earth. 

Single  rods  arc  apparently  not  always  reliable.  It  is  not  doubted  that  an 
extensive  spread  of  metal  diffuses  lightning.  Then,  are  buildings  safe  with 
metal  roofs  ?  Flagstaffs  have  been  torn  to  pieces  on  their  tops,  and  no  mark 
of  injury  left  about  the  dwelling.  Would  it  not  answer  the  purpose  and  be 
also  economical  to  place  a  stout  rod  on  the  center  of  a  wooden  roof,  and  at- 
tach to  the  bottom,  where  it  touches  the  roof,  a  number  of  telegraph  wires, 
carried  in  many  directions  to  the  ground  ?  Would  the  stroke  on  the  center 
rod  be  carried  safely  off  by  such  radii  ?  If  so,  the  plan  is  vastly  cheaper 
than  an  entire  metal  roof.  Faraday  experimented  on  iron  cages  snsj^ended 
in  air — in  one  of  them  a  man  ;  in  another  small  cylindrical  one,  a  mouse; 
The  cages  powerfully  charged  with  electricity,  produced  no  effect  on  the 
man  or  mouse.  The  plan  of  one  central  rod,  with  many  wires  covering  the 
building,  may  produce  like  results. 

It  is  wortli  a  trial.  It  is  also  worthy  of  observation  how  many  more  barns 
than  houses  are  struck  by  lightning.  A  calculation  of  an  average  of  seven 
persons  to  a  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  basing  the  population  at 
30,000,000,  would  give  4,200,000  dwellings.  And  assuming  that  there  are 
5,000,000  of  farmei's,  we  may  say  there  are  700,000  barns.  Now,  greatly 
as  the  number  of  dwellings  exceeds  that  of  bai-ns,  our  ojiinion  is  that  there 
are  two  barns  to  one  dwelling  destroyed  by  lightning. 

Tlie  impression  is  common,  that  barns  when  first  filled  with  iho  harvest 
are  attractive  of  the  fluid  by  the  medium  of  the  ascending  gas  of  their  con- 
tents. This  is  probabl}'  true,  and  it  is  our  opinion  that  a  rod  to  serve  as 
a  conductor,  so  as  to  be  a  sure  protection,  must  reach  higher  than  this  col- 
umn of  vapor.  Some  barns  need  several  rods ;  others  may  need  but  one. 
It  depends  upon  the  location  very  much,  whetlicr  on  a  damp  or  dry  soil,  etc. 

Prof.  Hen  wick,  of  New  York,  says  : 

"I  doubt  whether  a  barn  was  ever  struck  by  lightning  which  was  prop- 
erly protected  by  a  conductor." 

Ah  !  but  what  is  that  proper  protection  ?     That  is  what  we  would  gladly 


Sko.  21.]  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTORS.  347 

tell  the  farmers.  AYe  know  of  a  fact  tliat  two  barns  were  burned  the  last 
season  in  Westchester  County,  which  were  provided  with  conductors,  wliicli 
the  owners  thought  as  perfect  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them.  Several  cases 
have  come  within  our  knowledge  where  green  trees  were  torn  to  shivers 
near  buildings,  whicli  saved  the  buildings  from  destruction,  while  lightning- 
rods  on  the  buildings  touclied  by  the  trees  did  not  attract  or  conduct  the 
fluid. 

Then,  as  trees  certainly  are  protectors,  let  every  farmer  plant  trees  around 
all  the  farmery.  That  they  are  the  very  best  conductors  wc  believe,  but 
they  are  never  tall  enough  to  protect  the  barn  when  giving  off  its  towering 
column  of  steam. 

366.  Material  of  Conductors  and  Insulators. — If  a  farmer  has  determined 
to  erect  a  lightning-rod,  the  first  and  most  important  thing  for  him  to  be  as- 
sured of  is,  what  constitutes  the  best  conducting  material.  As  there  are  but 
two  materials,  copper  and  iron,  and  as  both  are  good  conductors,  and  only 
vary  in  power  according  to  size,  the  clioice  may  be  regulated  by  the  cost. 
M.  Ponlet,  a  French  scientific  writer,  gives  the  conducting  power  of  copper 
as  five  and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half  times  (varying  with  the  specimens  tried) 
greater  than  iron.  Then,  if  iron  is  six  cents  a  pound  and  copper  thirty-six 
cents,  the  cost  would  be  equal  for  a  given  length  of  rod.  Tliis  is  probably  a 
fair  average  of  the  difference  in  the  conducting  power,  as  Dr.  Priestly  makes 
copper  five  times  greater  than  iron,  and  Prof.  Faraday  six  and  two-fifth  times 
greater.  As  scientific  men  have  calculated  tliat  a  copper  rod,  to  possess  suf- 
ficient conducting  power,  should  be,  for  short  rods,  half  an  inch  diameter, 
and  for  very  long  ones,  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  it  follows  that  none  of  the 
iron  rods  in  use  are  large  enough,  for  they  are  generally  under  one  inch  di- 
ameter. We  believe  that  that  is  large  enough,  and  we  do  not  believe  that 
insulators  are  necessary,  but  that  the  rod  should  be  in  one  continuous  piece, 
and  if  it  can  not  be  welded  together  on  the  ground  where  it  is  to  be  erected, 
it  should  be  firmly  screwed  togetlier,  so  as  to  be  as  nearly  solid  as  possible. 

If  the  rod  is  continuous,  it  may  be  safely  fastened  to  the  building  witli 
ordinary  iron  staples.  If  it  is  insei'ted  deep  in  the  earth,  so  as  always  to  be 
moist,  there  is  no  danger  about  the  lightning  leaving  it  while  passing  from 
the  cloud  to  the  earth,  should  it  be  attracted  by  the  ever  briglit  point  which 
the  rod  should,  and  must,  possess,  to  be  of  any  practical  value  as  an  at- 
tractor  of  electricity. 

Instead  of  insulating  a  rod  from  the  house,  it  would  add  to  its  efficiency, 
if  the  house  has  a  tin  roof,  to  connect  it  with  the  conductor.  It  would  also 
be  beneficial,  we  believe,  to  connect  the  conductor  with  the  tin  water-spouts 
"of  a  wooden  building. 

367.  The  Area  of  Attraction  of  Lightning  fonductorst — It  is  of  much  import- 
ance to  a  farmer,  if  he  intends  to  protect  his  buildings  by  lightning-rods,  to 
know  how  far  a  single  rod  will  afford  protection  ;  that  is,  the  area  of  attraction 
over  which  the  single  briglit  point  of  the  rod  is  supposed  to  exercise  an  in- 
fluence— so  as  to  attract  or  bend  a  stream  of  electricity  from  its  course — so 


348  Tin:  FARMERY.  [Chap.  IH. 


as  to  carry  it  down  the  conductor  to  tlic  eartli  witliout  liarni  to  tlie  building 
My  own  opinion  is,  that  the  area  is  mnch  snaallcr  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. If  a  rod  is  erected  at  one  gable  of  a  barn  forty  feet  long,  projecting 
ten  feet  above  the  peak,  we  do  not  believe  it  would  aftbrd  the  least  protection 
to  the  other  end. 

If  a  conductor  is  erected  upon  a  dwelling,  it  should  have  a  point  ten  feet 
above  each  gable  and  each  chimney,  and  then  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
steaui  and  smoke  arising  from  a  wood  fire  would  not  prove  a  better  con- 
ductor than  a  rod. 

We  should  not  feel  any  protection  from  the  very  best  lightning  conductor 
projecting  ten  feet  above  the  roof,  at  over  ten  feet  from  it.  Probably  this 
fact,  that  the  area  is  very  small  over  Avhich  protection  extends,  may  account 
for  buildings  being  struck  and  destroyed  which  were  furnished  with  well- 
arranged  lightning  conductors.  The  area  exposed  was  too  great  lor  the  at- 
tractive power  of  the  rod. 

3GS.  Protection  from  Fire. — There  is  no  mistake  about  the  matter  of  pro- 
tecting buildings  from  danger  of  fire,  whatever  there  may  be  about  protect- 
ing them  from  lightning. 

In  the  first  place,  haven  careful  supervisory  care  in  building  that  no  wood 
is  allowed  to  be  placed  where  it  can  be  heated  to  a  point  of  ignition.  Here 
is  a  case  in  point.  In  building  a  chimney  upon  the  soft,  damii  soil  of  the 
Western  prairie,  where  brick  was  too  expensive  to  encourage  excavating 
down  to  a  solid  foundation,  the  mason  suggested  placing  hewed  timber  on 
the  ground,  to  which  I  readily  assented,  as  it  would  save  brick,  and  being 
two  feet  below  the  hearth  there  was  no  thought  of  danger  from  the  fire. 
So  upon  this  foundation  the  chimney  was  built,  and  as  it  was  built  right 
end  up,  it  afforded  the  opportunity  of  having  large  fires,  thougli  the  fire- 
place was  but  a  small  one. 

After  keeping  a  hot  fire  through  several  extremely  cold  days  and  nights  in 
midwinter,  we  began  to  be  annoyed  by  the  smell  of  wood  burning  in  a  con- 
fined situation.  This  continued  several  days,  and  began  to  be  alarming,  yet 
no  one  would  believe  it  could  be  possible  that  those  solid  oak  timbers  under 
the  chimney  were  being  consumed  by  subterranean  fire.  Yet  it  was  so,  and 
it  was  found  imjiossible  to  extinguish  the  fire  without  digging  uj)  the  hearth, 
and  with  great  labor  working  out  the  most  exposed  timber;  and  as  the  other 
could  not  be  taken  out  without  danger  of  throwing  down  the  whole  chimne}', 
we  saturated  it  with  salt,  alum,  and  lime,  to  prevent  it  from  taking  fire 
again. 

This  case  we  have  introduced  solely  to  prove  how  dangerous  it  is  to  allow 
any  wood  to  come  near  enough  to  the  fire  to  be  heated  very  hot,  for  wood 
will  ignite  from  heat,  without  any  possible  contact  with  the  fire.  Another 
case : 

A  gentleman  in  this  city  set  a  stove  in  a  lower  room,  and  conducted  the 
pipe  througli  the  room  above,  used  as  a  nurser\'.  For  convenience  of  warm- 
ing food  he  had  a  liole  made  in  a  slab  of  stone,  just  large  enough  for  the 


Sec.  21.]  WINDMILLS  AND  THEIR   USE.  349 

pipe  to  fit  closely.  This  stone  was  neatly  set  in  the  floor,  forming,  as  the 
owner  and  the  mason  thougfit,  a  very  safe  way  to  conduct  the  stove-pipe, 
which  did  not  stand  within  a  foot  of  any  of  the  wood- work.  It  was  for  a 
long  time  a  great  convenience,  and  very  safe ;  but  one  day  the  stove  below 
was  heated  pretty  hot,  and  communicated  its  heat  to  the  stone,  and  the 
wooden  beams  it  rested  upon,  which  had  been  long  seasoning,  ignited,  and 
the  house  was  within  a  very  narrow  chance  of  destruction.  Five  minutes 
more  of  absence  from  that  room,  and  it  would  have  been  too  late. 

We  could  name  many  instances  like  these  which  have  come  within  our 
own  observation,  but  we  hope  these  are  sufficient  to  put  all  who  read  them 
on  their  guard  against  similar  dangerous  practices  in  building. 

Stove-pipes  may  be  safely  passed  through  floors  and  wooden  walls  by  in- 
serting an  earthen  pipe,  at  least  one  inch  in  diameter  larger  than  the  stove- 
pipe, which  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  the  earthen  pipe,  but  should  be 
wedged  ofl"  from  it  by  little  pieces  of  stone,  brick,  or  broken  earthenware. 
This  allows  a  current  of  air  continually  to  circulate,  and  renders  it  impossible 
to  become  heated  so  much  as  to  convey  fire  through  the  earthen  pipe  to  the 
wood-work.  If  the  stove-pipe  fits  tightly  in  the  earthen  one  it  will  be  liable 
to  become  hot,  like  the  stone  mentioned,  and  set  fire  to  the  house. 

369.  Wiudmiils  and  their  Fse  iu  a  Farmery. — There  is  one  more  building, 
or  an  adjunct  of  some  of  the  buildings  of  the  farmery,  that  should  be  men- 
tioned, before  closing  this  chapter,  more  fully  than  it  is  in  the  commence- 
ment of  Sec.  XVII.  We  allude  to  the  windmill.  Besides  pumping  water, 
which,  by-the-by,  would  be  a  great  help  in  the  way  of  protection  against 
fire,  a  windmill  attached  to  a  barn  could  bo  made  serviceable  for  a  great 
many  purposes,  such  as  threshing,  corn-shelling,  cutting  straw,  grinding 
feed,  sawing  wood,  and  turning  the  grindstone. 

Wind  is  undoubtedly  the  cheapest  power  that  a  farmer  can  use,  and,  not- 
withstanding its  inconstancy,  the  improvement  mentioned  below  operates 
well,  and  has  been  often  applied  to  many  valuable  uses.  By  windmills, 
swamps  may  be  drained  and  upland  irrigated.  What  an  advantage  in  a 
drought  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  besides  the  economy  of  using  a  great 
amount  of  fertilizing  matter  in  water  at  all  times  ! 

We  have  often  suggested  the  idea  of  using  wind-power  to  pump  up  water 
into  a  reservoir,  or  wind  up  a  weight,  to  be  held  as  a  reserved  power,  that 
could  be  used  when  the  wind  did  not  blow. 

There  is  no  doubt  in  our  mind  that  such  a  cheap  power  could  be  econom- 
ically established  to  do  a  great  deal  of  work  that  requires  a  motor  upon 
almost  every  large  farm.  If  the  seat  of  the  power  is  at  the  barn,  it  can  be 
carried  to  the  house  by  a  couple  of  wires,  to  do  the  churning.  We  have  seen 
power  carried  thus  from  a  water-wheel,  nearly  half  a  mile  from  the  dairy, 
and  it  was  used  not  only  to  drive  the  churn,  but  the  washing  machine,  the 
sausage-cutter,  a  small  grindstone,  and  the  coffee-mill.  To  obtain  the  power 
from  the  wind-wheel,  all  that  would  be  necessary  for  the  dairywoman  to  do 
would  be  to  pull  a  cord  or  wire  at  the  house,  which  would  throw  into  gear- 


350  THE  FARMERY.  [Chap.  III. 

ing  a  driving-wheel,  and  lliat  would,  by  means  of  the  wires,  convey  a  crank 
motion  from  the  windinill  to  the  cliuni,  no  matter  how  distant ;  and  the 
motion  can  be  stopped  and  started  as  easily  as  though  churning  by  hand. 

The  objection  to  wind-power  is  want  of  constancy.  Tliis  can  only  be 
obviated  by  accumulating  power.  If  the  situation  is  such  that  a  water 
reservoir  can  be  filled  upon  high  ground,  to  be  used  in  a  calm,  the  accumu- 
lation of  power  would  not  be  expensive. 

The  method  of  couvx-ying  power  by  wires  a  long  distance,  from  the  water- 
wheel  to  the  churn,  may  be  seen  in  several  places  along  the  Chenango  Canal. 

370.  Self-regulating  Wiudmills.— One  of  the  best  contrivances  for  a  self- 
regulating  windmill  was  invented  by  Daniel  Ilalliday,  of  Ellington,  Tolland 
Co.,  Ct.  The  size  mostly  built  by  him  has  five-feet  wings,  that  is,  the  diam- 
eter of  the  wind-wheel  is  ten  feet,  and  the  first  one  was  in  operation  for  six 
months  without  a  hand  being  touched  to  it  to  regulate  the  sails.  It  run 
fifteen  days  at  one  time  without  stopping  day  or  niglit,  and  it  stood  through 
some  hard  gales.  The  beauty  of  the  improvement  is,  that  it  stands  still  when 
the  wind  rages  hardest,  witii  the  edge  of  the  wings  to  the  wind,  and  as  it 
lulls  they  gradually  resume  their  position  for  a  gentle  breeze.  It  is  so  con- 
trived that  nothing  but  a  squall  of  great  severity  falling  upon  it  without  a 
moment's  warning  can  produce  damage. 

The  mill  mentioned  has  drawn  water  from  a  well  2S  feet  deep,  100  feet 
distant,  and  forced  it  into  a  small  reservoir  in  the  upper  part  of  the  barn, 
sufficient  for  all  farm  purposes,  garden  irrigation,  and  "  lots  to  spare."  The 
cost  of  such  a  mill  will  be  $50,  and  the  pumps  and  pipes  about  §25.  It  is 
elevated  on  a  single  oak  post  a  foot  square,  the  turn  circle  being  supported 
by  iron  braces.  The  wings  are  made  of  one  longitudinal  iron  bar,  through 
which  run  small  rods ;  upon  these  rods,  narrow  boards,  half  an  inch  thick, 
are  fitted,  holes  being  bored  through  from  edge  to  edge,  and  screwed 
together  by  nuts  on  the  ends  of  the  rods.  This  makes  strong,  light  sails, 
which,  it  will  be  seen,  are  fixtures  not  to  be  furled  or  clewed  up  ;  but  they 
are  thrown  up  edgewise  to  the  wind  by  a  very  ingenious  and  simple  arrange- 
ment of  the  machinery,  which  obviates  the  great  objection  to  windmills  for 
farm  use— the  necessity  of  constant  su"  ervision  of  the  sails  to  suit  the 
strength  of  the  wind. 

■  With  this  much  food  for  reflection,  we  will  close  the  chapter  upon  the 
farmery. 


CHAPTER   IV. 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY. 

SECTION  XXII.-THE  FOOD  QUESTION-QUANTITY,  QUALITY,  VARIETY, 
ADAPTATION,  ADULTERATION,  AND  CHANGES  PRODUCED  BY  COOK- 
ING, BRIEFLY  CONSIDERED. 

vT^^OMESTIC  ECONOMY !    What  is  it?    ''Domestic, 
belonging  to  the  house  or  home ;  Economy,  from 
two  Greek  -words,  signifying  a  Iioiise  or  family 
law — that  which   relates   to  the  family  concerns 
of  a  household,  and  the  disposition  or  arrange- 
ment of  any  household  work." 
Snch  is  the  character  of  this  chapter.     It  is  full  of 
information  useful  to  every  household.     "Without  it, 
■we  should  have  fallen  short  of  our  object  in  writiii<i' 
this  book.     It  was  never  our  intention  to  make  a  work 
for  the  sole  benefit  of  the  male  portion  of  farmers. 
Mucli  of  the  preceding  chapter,  and  nearly  all  of  this, 
is  intended  to  promote  the  comfort  of  those  who  ad- 
minister all  of  our  home  comforts. 

We  shall  also  say  something  that  will  be  valuable 
upon  the  subject  of  the  dairy,  at  least  to  new  beginners  in  the  various  arts 
and  mysteries  of  domestic  economy. 

No  question  can  be  discussed  between  the  master  and  mistress  of  the 
house,  nor  between  parents  and  a  family  of  growing  cliildreii,  tliat  is  of 
greater  importance  than  the  one  that  heads  this  section.  To  the  employer- 
and  his  hirelings,  to  the  master  and  his  slave,  it  is  a  question  not  only  of 
interest,  but  of  health,  and  it  is  all  concentrated  in  four  words :  quantity, 
quality,  variety,  adaptation. 

There  is  only  one  thing  more  requisite,  and  that  is,  that  each  of  these 
words  should  be  fully  understood  and  properly  acted  upon.  Believing  that 
they  are  not  so,  we  shall  treat  upon  each  briefly  in  its  order.     And  first — 

371.  What  Amount  of  Food  is  Required  by  a  Hard-working  Man?— This  de- 
pends on  the  quality  of  the  food,  the  nature  of  the  climate,  and  on  such  a 
variety  of  circumstances  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer. 
The  average  allowance  to  British  sailors  in  active  service  is  302  ounces  of 
solid  food  per  week,  and  a  pint  and  a  half  of  rum.  Dr.  Percy,  an  English 
author,  mentions  the  diet  of  a  prize  fighter  during  a  course  of  rigorous  train- 
ing, who  ate  one  pound  of  mutton  at  each  meal  three  times  a  day ;  at  dinner 


I  I 


352  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

lie  ate  in  addition  two  ounces  of  bread,  and  .at  each  niciil  drank  half  a  pint 
of  ale.  lie  walked  regularly  17  miles  per  day.  The  total  solid  food  con- 
tained  in  this  diet  is  350  ounces  weekl}'.  We  suppose  about  three  pounds 
of  solid  food  per  day  in  temperate  climates  may  be  taken  as  the  average 
consumed  by  hard-working  men.  But  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions 
tlie  amount  of  food  that  can  be  disposed  of  is  truly  immense.  Tims  Ross 
tells  us  that  the  'Esquimaux  eat  10  lbs.  of  meat  at  a  moal,  accompanied  by 
the  same  quantity  of  oil.  Parry  weighed  the  food  of  nn  Esquimaux  lad, 
scarcely  full  grown,  and  found  that  he  consumed,  daring  the  day — sea- 
horee  flesh,  %\  lbs.;  bread,  If  lbs. ;  rich  gravy  soup,  \\  pint;  raw  spirits, 
3  glasses;  strong  grog,  1  tumbler;  water,  1  gallon  1  pint.  Cochrane  de- 
scribes a  Taknt  or  Tongouse  as  eating  40  lbs.  of  flesh  in  a  day,  saying  that  a 
good  calf,  -weighing  200  lbs.,  "  may  serve  four  or  five  good  Yakuts  for  a 
single  meal,"  and  that  he  has  seen  three  of  them  "  consume  a  reindeer  at  one 
meal."  Admiral  Saritclieff  says  he  knew  a  Yakut  wlio  consumed  "  the  hind 
quarters  of  a  large  ox,  20  lbs.  of  fat,  and  a  proportionate  quantity  of  melted 
butter  for  his  drink"  in  a  day.  The  admiral  tried  an  experiment  with  liim 
by  giving  him  '•  a  thick  porridge  of  rice,  boiled  down  with  3  lbs  of  butter, 
weighing  toscther  28  lbs.  ;  and  although  the  glutton  had  already  break- 
fasted, yet  did  he  sit  down  to  it  with  great  eagerness,  and  consumed  the 
whole  without  stirring  from  the  spot ;  and,  except  that  his  stomach  be- 
trayed more  than  an  ordinary  fullness,  he  showed  no  signs  of  inconve- 
nience or  injury."  Barrow  states  that  three  Hottentots  ate  one  sheep  in  a 
(lay,  and  that  ten  of  them  ate  an  ox  all  but  the  hind  legs  in  three  days. 
Tlic  Saraoyedes  are  stated  to  consume  S  or  10  11)S.  of  meat  at  a  meal,  fla- 
voi-cd  with  a  dozen  tallow  candles,  and  washed  down  with  a  quart  or  two 
of  train-oil.  Extravagant  as  these  statements  appear  to  be,  most  of  them 
have  been  verified  by  numerous  observations. 

We  need  not  go  to  savage  lands  to  find  gluttons.  We  liave  the  well-au- 
thenticated fact  of  one  who  lived  in  Connecticut,  about  seventy  years  ago, 
who  ate  tliree  shad  a  day,  upon  a  wager,  thirty  days  in  succession.  The 
same  man  repeatedly  ate  a  goose  or  a  turkey  at  a  meal.  These  were  acts 
of  gluttony,  and  we  look  upon  gluttony  as  a  great  sin.  There  is  just  as 
much  wrong  in  feeding  too  much  to  those  who  labor  for  us,  who  may  hap- 
pen to  possess  gluttiinous  natures,  as  there  is  in  feeding  others  too  little. 
Every  laboring  man  requires  a  sufficiency  of  sound,  nutritious  food  to 
enable  him  to  perform  a  fair  task  of  labor.  The  question  is.  What  is 
sufficient  ? 

372.  Rations  of  Southern  Slares. — Tlie  average  ration  of  negro  slaves  in 
our  Southern  States  is  3i  lbs.  of  bacon  and  a  peck  of  corn-meal  per  -week  to 
each  adult.  Tiic  meal  will  weigh  1-ii  ISs.,  making  IS  lbs.  of  the  strongest 
kind  of  solid  food.  Then  tliey  always  eat  potatoes,  turnips,  greens,  pindars, 
green  corn,  and  other  things  in  their  season;  enough  to  make  up  an  average 
of  three  pounds  of  solid  food  a  day. 

As  it  is  the  policy  of  planters  to  give  the  slaves  all  the  food  that  is  neces- 


Sec.  22.]  THE  FOOD   QUESTION".  353 

sary  to  give  them  strength,  and  as  it  is  against  tlie  rules  of  good  economy  to 
give  more,  we  may  safely  calculate  that  three  pounds  a  day  is  all  that  a  la- 
boring man  requires. 

373.  Soldiers'  Rations. — The  English  are  proverbially  hearty  eaters,  and 
the  English  government  have  not  only  studied  economy,  but  the  wants  of 
their  healthy,  strong  men  in  fixing  tiieir  rations  so  as  to  give  all  that  is  nec- 
essary, and  this  is  found  to  consist  of  the  following  articles.  While  the  men 
are  in  barracks,  1  lb.  of  bread  and  ^  of  a  lb.  of  meat  per  day.  In  camp  or 
actual  service,  1^  lbs.  of  bread  and  f  of  a  lb.  of  meat.  On  foreign  service, 
1  lb.  of  bread  or  |  lb.  of  biscuit  and  1  lb.  of  meat.  AVhen  billeted  for  board, 
the  allowance  is  1  lb.  of  bread,  1\  lb.  of  meat,  1  lb.  of  potatoes,  and  1  quart 
of  beer. 

This  was  mainly  followed  in  the  American  army  until  the  summer  of 
1861,  when  in  consequence  of  grumblings  among  the  soldiers  about  insuffi- 
cient food,  the  rations  were  increased,  and  are  now  as  follows : 

Ratioxs — Daily — li  lbs.  of  pork  or  bacon,  or  li  lb.  of  fresh  or  salt  beef; 
22  oz.  of  bread  or  flour,  or  1  lb.  of  pilot  bread. 

Rations  to  One  Hundred  Men — Daily — Eight  quai»ts  of  beans,  10  lbs. 
of  rice  or  hominy,  besides  1  lb.  of  potatoes  three  times  a  week  to  each  man, 
or  a  substitute  therefor ;  10  lbs.  of  coffee ;  15  lbs.  of  sugar ;  i  quarts  of 
vinegar;  IJ  lbs.  of  adamantine  candles;  i  lbs.  of  soap;  2  quarts  of  salt. 
Extra  issues  of  molasses  occasionally  made. 

Rations  may  be  commuted  at  forty  cents  per  day  when  stationed  in  cities, 
or  when  there  is  no  opportunity  of  messing,  or  when  in  regular  camp,  at  the 
cost  of  the  rations. 

374.  Variety  of  Food. — Man  craves  a  change  of  food,  that  is,  a  variety  of 
substances,  either  one  of  which  would  sustain  life,  but  would  not  be  satis- 
factory. Nature  demands  the  variation,  and  the  mixing  together  of  the 
several  substances.  "Why  ?  Simply  because  no  one  will  give  all  the  ele- 
ments that  go  to  make  up  the  animal  economy.  One  article  furnishes  phos- 
phate for  boues,  which  another  article  is  destitute  of,  yet  it  may  contain 
matter  that  will  clothe  the  bone  with  muscle.  Food  that  contained  neither 
fat  nor  sugar  would  be  insufficient  to  keep  up  the  animal  heat.  Food  that 
contained  all  the  elements  of  bone,  muscle,  fiber,  fat,  and  heat-producing 
qualities,  might  be  so  concentrated  as  to  be  unwholesome. 

A  man  fed  upon  pemmican  would  have  a  dispo,^ition  to  eat  straw,  husks, 
and  twigs,  or  gnaw  the  bark  from  trees  to  get  something  to  distend  the 
stomach,  and  enable  it  to  perform  its  functions  healthily.  Let  this  be 
thought  of  in  feeding  domestic  animals  as  well  as  men.  It  will  furnish  an 
easy  rule  for  your  guidance.  Judge  them  by  yourself,  and  act  accordingly. 
You  will  find  it  an  easy  and  sure  road  tx>  success.  We  do  not  for  animals, 
quadruped  or  biped,  recommend,  a  variety  of  food  at  the  same  meal — only 
a  change  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  give  variety,  and  consequently  all  the 
elements  necessary  to  produce  growth. 

And  neither  man  nor  beast  will  reach  a  high  point  in  the  scale  of  perfee- 


354  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

tioii  who  is  conlined  to  one  single  article,  or  to  two  or  three  articles  of  food. 
Look,  for  example,  at  the  rice-catiDg  nations ;  also  to  those  who,  like  the 
Esquimaux,  live  principally  upon  the  fat  of  seals  and  whales ;  or  to  savage 
nations,  confined  to  an  almost  exclusive  diet  of  meat.  Each  shows  a  lack 
.of  some  quality  that  we  consider  essential  in  civilized  man.  The  confine- 
ment of  a  large  portion  of  a  nation  of  people  to  a  diet  of  potatoes  is  rapidly 
working  a  deterioration  in  the  race. 

"  The  profusions  of  nature  tempt  the  appetite  of  man.  The  productions 
of  all  the  earth  are  at  his  command.  But,  for  tlie  control  of  his  appetites, 
man  is  endowed  with  reason  and  conscience.  The  brute  is  governed  in  re- 
gard both  to  the  quantity  and  kind  of  its  food  by  an  instinct  from  which 
it  rarely  deviates,  unless  when  domesticated,  and  conseq^uently  corrupted. 

"  Tliere  are  three  practical  laws  to  be  observed  in  the  taking  of  food.  One 
regards  the  time,  another  the  quality,  and  the  third  the  quantity. 

"  An  interval  of  at  least  five  hours  should  elapse  between  meals  for 
adults,  unless  some  extraordinary  exertion  has  exhausted  the  system,  or 
something  has  interrupted  or  prevented  the  reception  of  a  full  meal  at  the 
stated  hour.     The  stated  hours  should  be  regular.'' 

375.  Quality  of  Food  Suited  to  a  Farmer's  Family. — "  As  to  the  quality  of 
the  food,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  more  simply  it  is  cooked  the  more  easily 
it  is  digested. 

"  Chemical  analysis  should  be  the  guide  for  the  cookery  book. 

"No  one  would  think  of  eating  raw  potash,  a  substance  that  dissolves 
metals,  but  we  do  not  hesitate  to  eat  saleratus,  which  is  a  modified  prepara- 
tion of  it,  and  has  the  same,  though  a  more  gradual  eti'ect,  upon  the  organic 
tissues  and  the  blood.  Soda,  it  is  well  understood,  rots  cloth  and  takes  the 
skin  from  the  hands  when  it  is  put  into  soap,  or  even  when  used  to  '  break 
hard  water,'  as  the  washerwomen  term  it ;  yet  we  put  it  into  bread  and 
cakes.  Our  stomachs  were  not  made  to  digest  metals,  and  when  we  powder 
them  and  eat  them,  we  try  to  cheat  nature. 

"Spices  were  undoubtedly  made  for  use  in  those  climates  where  they 
grow,  but  the  native.s  of  those  climates  use  them  much  more  sparingly  than 
we  do.  "We  may  reasonably  suppose  that  they  are  more  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  hot  climates  than  of  cold  ones,  as  nature  lias  placed  them  in  the 
former,  and  yet  we  saturate  our  food  with  them,  mix  them  together,  destroy 
the  flavors  of  each  by  so  doing,  and  make  a  stimulus  to  appetite  by  a  con- 
glomeration, which  is  a  most  unnatural  one,  and  gradually  injures  tiie  very 
power  of  digestion.  We  thus  conceal,  also,  that  fine  aronui  of  vegetables 
and  meats  which  distinguishes  one  from  the  other,  and  deprive  oui-selves  of 
the  pleasure  God  designed  we  should  feel  in  partaking  of  them.  There  is 
a  delicate  fruit  of  the  tropics  resembling  a  muskmelon,  which  grows,  how- 
ever, not  upon  a  vine,  but  upon  a  tree,  the  taste  of  which  is  so  finely  deli- 
cate, that  a  foreigner  can  not  even  perceive  it  at  first ;  but  if  he  does  not 
cover  it  with  pepper  and  salt,  as  we  have  seen  many  foreigners  do,  to  'give 
it  a  taste,'  he  will,  after  partaking  of  it  a  few  days  or  weeks  (according  to 


Sec.  22.]  THE  FOOD  QDESTION.  355 

the  simplicity  or  sophistication  of  liis  appetite),  appreciate  its  flavor,  which 
is  that  of  the  most  delicate  aromatic  nut.  In  our  climate  we  lose  the  flavor 
of  many  vegetables  in  the  same  way,  by  covering  them  with  pepper,  and 
also  by  putting  them  into  water  below  the  boiling-point  when  we  cook  them. 
Everj'  one  who  is  so  happy  as  to  live  in  the  country,  and  can  gather  vege- 
tables daily  from  his  own  garden,  knows  the  difference  between  them  when 
gatliered  thus  and  properly,  cooked,  and  those  which  have  been  picked  and 
kept  for  market  even  one  night. 

"  When  substances  like  rice,  corn-starch,  and  farina  are  used,  which  have 
very  little  taste  (rice,  because  it  has  been  so  long  exposed  to  the  air  after  it 
is  gathered,  and  corn-starch  and  farina,  because,  from  the  mode  of  their 
prejjaration,  they  lose  a  great  part  of  the  nutritious  ingredients  of  the  corn), 
a  delicate  flavoring  of  spice  may  be  used  without  injury  to  health. 

"Science  may  at  last  bring  us  to  the  conclusion,  that  each  climate  and 
region  produces  those  articles  of  food  which  it  is  most  healthful  to  eat  in 
their  respective  localities. 

"The  quality  of  children's  food  should  differ  from  that  of  adults,  so  far 
as  that  it  should  consist  of  more  substances  containing  starch,  gum,  and 
sugar. 

"It  is  not  the  most  costly  or  most  luxurious  living  that  we  would  advo- 
cate, but  it  is  a  variety  of  food.  The  difBculty  is,  that  we  are  tempted 
sometimes  by  a  great  variety  of  dishes  at  one  meal  to  eat  too  much.  This 
is  no  argument  against  variety  of  food. 

"It  is  important  that  we  should  study  to  increase  earth's  products,  and 
improve  their  quality,  to  produce  the  highest  condition  of  perfection  in  man. 
A  man,  it  is  true,  may  be  a  glutton,  and  consume  mountains  of  flesh  and  rich 
dishes,  but  that  is  not  the  point.  It  is  that  we  all  should  consume  the  best 
food  possible  to  be  produced,  and  in  sufiicient  variety  to  give  healthy 
results." 

376.  flow  Food  Affects  the  System. — "  The  prevalent  idea  that  soup  which 
sets  into  strong  jelly  is  most  nutritious,  is  altogether  a  mistake.  The  soup 
sets  because  it  contains  the  gelatin  of  the  sinews,  flesh,  and  bones ;  it  has 
been  fully  proved  that  no  animal  can  live  upon  this  imagined  richness 
alone.  In  fact,  such  jelly  is  unwholesome,  for  it  loads  the  blood  with  useless 
substances ;  hence  what  are  termed  rich  soups,  being  loaded  with  gelatin, 
are  not  ranked  among  the  articles  of  wholesome  food.  Marked  results  of 
the  effects  of  cooking  upon  food  may,  be  seen  in  the  contrast  between  civil- 
ized and  savage  nations.  In  every  nation  on  earth,  those  who  rule  the 
masses  are  invariably  better  fed  than  the  masses  themselves.  This  is  evi- 
denced in  the  power  exercised  by  the  beef-eating  British  over  the  rice-eating 
East  Indian  nations."  It  is  further  evidenced  by  the  condition  of  the  people 
of  this  country,  where  the  masses  are  better  fed  than  in  any  other  on  earth, 
and  where  there  are  greater  numbers  of  men  fit  to  be  rulers  than  in  any 
other.  And  this  proportion  will  increase  as  the  laws  of  hygiene  are  better 
understood,  for  then,  those  who  control  the  preparation  of  food  for  those 


356  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Cbap.  IV. 

masses  will  understand  how  cooking  affects  the  raw  material  of  food,  so  as 
to  make  it  wholesome  and  nufi-itious,  or  otherwise. 

Next  to  the  knowledge  of  the  differences  in  the  human  constitution  and 
the  nature  of  food  proper  for  man,  tlie  art  of  cooking  so  as  to  make  the  food 
most  agreeable  to  the  jialate  should  be  studied  by  every  good  housekeeper. 
Bear  in  mind  that  in  preparing  food  three  things  are  to  be  united — the  pro- 
motion of  health,  the  study  of  economy,  and  tlie  gratification  of  taste. 

Pie-catin(j  is  an  Americanism  that  we  can  not  approve  nor  recommend  to 
tlie  extent  it  is  practiced.  Though  pie  be  nearly  allied  to  piety,  this  does 
not  save  it  from  condemnation.  Pies  are  eaten  for  breakfast,  for  lunch,  for 
dinner,  supper,  and  many  go  to  bed  on  pies.  "Oh,  pies  save  a  great  deal 
of  cooking!"  says  the  frugal  housewife,  "and  are  so  convenient  for  the 
children  to  take  to  school,  and  then  they  are  not  so  hungry  when  they  have 
pie  to  eat."  Pies  are  New  England's  favorite  refection ;  but  that  does  not 
prove  them,  as  a  general  thing,  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  liuman 
system.  Pies  of  every  description,  as  used  in  almost  every  New  England 
farm-house,  may  safely  be  classed  "unwliolesome  food."  The  woi-st  of  tlie 
family  is  the  one  most  prized — the  rich,  sweet,  highly  spiced  mince-pie.  It 
is  one  of  the  prolific  parents  of  dyspepsia. 

377.  Adaptation  of  Food  to  Tircumstances. — One  of  the  great  mistakes  of 
many  families  is  in  not  adapting  the  food  to  the  season,  the  climate,  and 
circumstances.  A  hard-working  negro  slave  may  eat  fat  bacon  and  corn- 
bread  in  August,  and  bask  in  the  sun  in  Mississippi.  It  would  not  be  good 
diet  for  a  sedentary  white  man. 

Fruit  is  an  essential  article  of  food  for  the  preservation  of  health,  in 
bilious  localities.     It  seems  particularly  adapted  by  nature  to  that  end. 

A  sensible  man  always  adapts  his  eating  to  his  labor.  The  following 
remarks  upon  this  subject  we  adopt,  because  they  are  pertinent : 

"  I  have  been  asked  sometimes  how  I  could  perform  so  large  an  amount 
of  work  with  apparently  so  little  diminution  of  strength.  I  attribute  my 
power  of  endurance  to  a  long-formed  habit  of  observing,  every  day  of  my 
life,  the  -simple  laws  of  health,  and  none  more  than  the  laws  of  eating.  It 
ceases  any  longer  to  be  a  matter  of  self-denial.  It  is  almost  like  an  instinct. 
If  I  have  a  severe  tax  on  my  brain  in  the  morning,  I  can  not  eat  heartily  at 
breakfast.  If  the  M-hole  day  is  to  be  one  of  exertion,  I  eat  very  little  till 
the  exertion  is  over.  I  know  that  two  forces  can  not  be  concentrated  in 
activity  at  the  same  time  in  the  body.  I  know  that  wiien  the  stomach 
works,  the  brain  must  rest — and  that  when  the  brain  works,  the  stomach  must 
rest. 

"  If  I  am  going  to  be  moving  about  out  of  doors  a  good  deal,  I  can  give 
a  fuller  swing  to  my  appetite,  which  is  never  exceedingly  bad.  But  if  I 
am  engaged  actively,  and  necessarily  in  mental  labor,  I  can  not  eat  much. 
And  I  have  made  eating  with  regularity  and  with  a  reference  to  what  I 
have  to  do,  a  habit  so  long  that  it  ceases  any  longer  to  be  a  subject  of 
thought.     It  almost  takes  care  of  itself.     I  attribute  much  of  my  ability  to 


Sko.  22.]  THE   FOOD   QUESTION.  ,  357 

endure  work  to  good  habits  of  eating,  constant  attention  to  the  laws  of  sleep, 
physical  exercise,  and  general  cheerfulness. 

"There  is  one  thing  more  to  be  said  in  this  connection.  It  is  not  a  matter 
of  epicureanism  that  a  niiin  sliould  be  dainty  concerning  the  food  he  eats. 
On  the  contrary,  I  hold  tiiat  a  civilized  man  ought  to  be  civilized  in  his 
cookery.  I  suppose  one  of  tlie  infallible  signs  of  the  millennium  will  be  a 
better  regulated  kitclicn — a  kitchen  that  sends  out  food  that  will  help  to 
promote  health  and  increase  Christianity." 

378.  The  Food  and  CEothia^  a  Man  may  Consume  in  a  Lifetime. — Alex. 
Soyer's  "  Modern  Housewife"  gives  the  follovving  calculation  as  the  probable 
amount  of  food  that  an  epicure  of  seventy  years  might  have  consumed. 
"Supposing  his  gastronomic  performances  to  commence  at  ten  years,  he  will 
make  65,700  breakfasts,  dinners,  and  suppers,  to  say  nothing  of  luncheons 
and  extra  feastings.  To  supply  the  epicure's  table  for  sixt^''  years,  Soyer  cal- 
culates he  will  require  30  oxen,  200  sheep,  100  calves,  200  lambs,  50  pigs ; 
ill  poultry,  1,200  fowls,  300  turkeys,  150  geese,  400  ducklings,  203  pigeons; 
1,400  partridges,  pheasants,  and  grouse;  600  woodcocks  and  snipes;  600 
wild  ducks,  widgeon,  and  teal;  450  plovers,  ruffs,  and  reeves;  800  quails, 
ortolans,  and  dotterels,  and  a  few^  guillemots  and  other  foreign  birds ;  also 
500  hares  and  rabbits,  40  deer,  120  Guinea-fowl,  10  peacocks,  and  360  wild- 
fi.wls.  In  the  way  of  fish,  120  turbot,  140  salmon,  120  cod,  260  trout,  400 
iuaekerel,  300  whitings,  800  soles  and  slips,  400  flounders,  400  red  mullet, 
200  eels,  150  haddocks,  400  herrings,  5,000  smelts,  and  some  hundred  thou- 
sand of  those  delicious,  silvery  whitebait,  besides  a  few  hundred  species  of 
fresh-water  fishes.  In  shell-fish,  20  turtle,  30,000  oysters,  1,500  lobsters  or 
crabs,  300,000  prawns,  shrimps,  sardines,  and  anchovies.  In  the  way  of 
fruit,  about  500  lbs.  of  grapes,  360  lbs.  of  pineapples,  600  peaches,  1,400 
apricots,  240  melons,  and  some  hundred  thousand  plums,  green-gages,  ap- 
ples, pears,  and  some  millions  of  cherries,  strawberries,  raspberries,  currants, 
mulberries,  and  an  abundance  of  other  small  fruit,  viz.,  walnuts,  chestnuts, 
dry  figs,  and  plums.  In  vegetables  of  all  kinds,  5,475  lbs.  weight,  and 
about  2,434f  lbs.  of  butter,  684  lbs.  of  cheese,  21,000  eggs,  800  tongues.  Of 
bread,  4i  tons,  half  a  ton  of  salt  and  pepper,  near  2i  tons  of  sugar.  His 
drink  during  the  same  period  may  be  set  down  as  follows :  49  hogsheads  of 
wine,  13,683  gallons  of  beer,  584  gallons  of  spirits,  342  gallons  of  liqueur, 
2,394|  gallons  of  coffee,  cocoa,  tea,  etc.,  and  304  gallons  of  milk,  2,736  gal- 
lons of  water.  This  mass  of  food  in  sixty  years  amounts  to  no  less  than 
333  tous  weight  of  meat,  farinaceous  food  and  vegetables,  etc.,  out  of  which 
I  have  named  in  detail  the  probable  delicacies  that  would  be  selected  by  an 
epicure  through  life.  But  observe  that  I  did  not  count  the  first  ten  years 
of  his  life,  at  the  beginning  of  which  lie  lived  upon  pap,  bread  and  milk, 
etc.,  also  a  little  meat,  the  expense  of  which  I  add  to  the  age  from  then  to 
twenty,  as  no  one  can  really  be  called  an  epicure  before  that  age ;  it  will 
thus  make  the  expenses  more  equal  as  regards  the  calculation.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  list  of  what  I  consider  his  daily  meals : 


358  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

"  Breakfast. — Three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  coffee,  four  ounces  of  bread,  one 
ounce  of  butter,  two  eggs,  or  four  ounces  of  meat,  or  four  ounces  of  fish. 

"  LuNcn. — Two  ounces  of  liread,  two  ounces  of  meat,  or  poultry,  or  game, 
two  ounces  of  vegetables,  and  a  half  pint  of  beer,  or  a  glass  of  wine. 

"  Dinnf:r. — Half  a  pint  of  soup,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  fish,  half  a  pound 
of  meat,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  poultry,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  savory 
dishes  or  game,  two  ounces  of  vegetables,  two  ounces  of  bread,  two  ounces 
of  pastry  or  roasts,  half  an  ounce  of  cheese,  a  quarter  of  a  |X)und  of  fruit,  one 
pint  of  wine,  one  glass  of  liqueur,  one  cup  of  coffee  or  tea ;  at  night  oue  glass 
of  spirits  and  water." 

To  tliis  we  have  added  the  following  calculation  of  the  clothing  the  same 
man  may  have  used.  AYe  estimate  that  a  full-dr*ssed  man  carries  about 
fifty  yards  of  cloth  upon  his  body,  or  at  least  it  has  taken  so  many  square 
yards  of  cloth  to  make  the  following  garments :  one  under  and  one  over 
shirt  and  drawers,  eight  yards  ;  vest,  with  all  its  inside  and  out,  four  yards ; 
coat,  overcoat,  and  cloak,  32  yards ;  the  handkerchiefs  in  the  coat  and  cloak 
pockets,  two  yards ;  pants,  lined,  four  yards.  Then  we  may  add  a  night- 
shirt, four  yards,  and  morning  wrapper,  10  yards,  and  we  have  Gi  yards  for 
a  single  suit.  Allow  six  of  these  suits  a  year — of  some  garments  he  will 
want  more,  and  some  less  than  six,  but  take  that  as  an  average,  and  Ave  have 
384  yards  for  the  gentleman's  wardrobe  one  year.  Multiply  tliat  l)y  sixty 
years,  and  we  have  23,040  yards  of  cloth,  which  appears  a  iair  allowance,  as 
we  throw  out  the  ten  years  of  childhood.  With  these  garments  he  will  want 
each  year  two  pair  of  boots,  two  pair  of  shoes,  two  pair  of  slijipers,  two  pair 
of  rubbers  or  overshoes — 480  pairs.  "With  these  he  will  wear  sixty  dozen 
pairs  of  stockings  and  (four  hats  a  year)  240  hats.  I  Avill  say  nothing  about 
the  yards  of  cloth  that  he  will  want  about  his  toilet  and  table,  his  carpets 
and  curtains,  and  his  bed,  with  its  daily  change  of  bedding ;  but  you  can 
imagine  it  would  make  a  large  spread.  The  great  question  for  considera- 
ti,on,  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  is  this  :  Could  such  a  consun)er  of 
earth's  products  produce  as  much  as  lie  consumed,  with  all  industry  applied 
during  life,  or  would  he  be  dependent  upon  the  labor  of  otliers  ? 

379.  How  Cooking  Cbanges  Food. — We  are  not  going  to  make  a  cook-book, 
but  simply  to  attract  attention  to  some  of  the  leading  scientific  principles  of 
the  efl'ect  of  fire  upon  articles  of  food. 

Meat,  for  instance,  often  loses  more  than  half  its  substance,  which  is 
wasted  and  lost  in  the  process  of  cooking,  because  the  cook  did  not  under- 
stand some  of  the  simple  elements  of  the  chemistry  of  cooking,  and  the 
eft'ect  of  water  and  heat  upon  flesh. 

If  meat  is  to  be  boiled  for  eating,  particularly  fresh  lean  beef  or  mutton, 
never  soak  it  in  cold  water.  Have  your  water  boiling  over  a  brisk  fire,  and 
plunge  the  meat  into  it,  and  see  that  the  heat  is  kept  up.  If  soup  is  to  be 
made,  then  the  meat  should  soak  a  long  time  in  cold  water,  because  it 
extracts  the  substance  that  is  wanted  in  the  soup,  leaving  the  fibrous  portion 
of  the  meat  almost  worthless.     If  the  meat  is  to  be  boiled  for  eating,  plung- 


THE  FOOD  QDESTIO>f.  359 

i:ig  it  in  hot  water  has  the  same  effect  tliat  is  produced  upon  an  egg — the 
albumen  is  coagulated,  and  remains  in  the  meat,  and  cooks  witli  it,  and 
becomes  the  most  nutritive  portion  of  it.  Therefore  remember  it  as  one  of 
the  most  important  items  of  knowledge  ai)out  cooking,  never  to  put  a  piece 
of  meat  into  water  to  boil,  unless  the  water  is  boiling  hot ;  and  never  put  a 
p  ec8  of  meat  to  roast  until  your  fire  is  very  hot ;  and  if  it  goes  into  an  oven 
to  bake,  see  that  the  oven  is  hot  enough  to  cook  the  outside  almost  instantly. 
If  you  let  it  simmer  slowly,  it  will  ooze  out  the  richest  portion  of  its  property 
for  food.  "Tiie  first  efi"ect  of  applying  a  strong  heat  to  a  piece  of  fresh 
meat,  is  to  cause  the  fibers  to  contract,  to  squeeze  out  a  portion  of  the  juice, 
and  partially  !o  close  the  pores  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  more.  Heat 
is  applied  to  meat  chiefly  in  three  ways — boiling,  roasting,  and  baking. 
During  these  operations,  fresh  beef  and  mutton,  when  moderately  fat,  lose, 
on  an  average,  about  as  follows : 

In  boiling.  In  baking.  In  roasting. 

4  lbs.  of  beef  lose lib lib.  3  oz llb.Soz. 

4  lbs.  of  mutton  lose 14  oz 1  lb.  4  oz 1  lb.  6  oz. 

The  greater  loss  in  baking  and  roasting  arises  chiefly  from  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  water  evaporated,  and  of  fat  which  is  melted  out  by  either  of  these 
two  methods  of  cooking. 

"  In  preparing  meat  for  the  table,  we  discover  that  it  is  most  desir- 
able to  retain  all  the  ingredients  of  its  juice  ;  how  this  is  to  be  done  will 
depend  much  upon  the  method  of  culinary  procedure.  K  the  piece  of 
meat  be  introduced  into  the  water  when  briskly  boiling,  the  albumen  at  its 
surface,  and  to  a  certain  depth  inward,  is  immediately  coagulated,  thus 
inclosing  the  mass  in  a  crust  or  shell,  which  neither  permits  its  juice  to  flow 
out,  nor  the  external  water  to  penetrate  within,  to  dissolve,  dilute,  and 
weaken  it.  The  greater  part  of  the  sapid  constituents  of  the  meat  are  thus 
retained,  rendering  it  juicy  and  well-flavored.  It  should  be  boiled  for  only 
a  few  minutes,  and  then  kept  for  some  time  at  a  temperature  from  158  to 
165  degrees.  Meat  is  underdone  or  bloody  when  it  has  been  heated 
throughout  only  to  the  temperature  of  coagulating  albumen  (140  degrees) ; 
it  is  quite  done  or  cooked  when  it  has  been  heated  through  its  whole  mass 
to  158  or  165  degrees,  at  which  temperature  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood  coagulates.  As  in  boiling,  so  in  baking  or  roasting ;  for  whether  the 
meat  be  surrounded  by  water  or  in  an  oven,  as  soon  as  the  water-proof  coat- 
ing is  formed  around  it,  the  further  changes  are  efl'ected  alike  in  both  cases, 
by  internal  vapor  or  steam.  In  roasting  or  baking,  therefore,  the  fire  should 
be  at  first  made  quite  hot,  until  the  surface-pores  are  completely  plugged 
and  the  albuminous  crust  formed.  Hence,  a  beefsteak  or  mutton-chop  is 
done  quickly  over  a  smart  fire,  that  the  richly-flavored  natural  juices  may 
be  retained." 

The  above  is  extracted  from  a  most  valuable  book — one  that  no  house- 
keeper can  afford  to  do  without.  It  is  "  Youmans'  Hand-Book  of  Household 
Science."     It  is  science  in  such  an  attractive  form  that  all  may  read  it  with 


360  DOMESTIC  ECONOrr.  [CnAP.  IV. 

pleasure  and  profit.  Weshall  drawupon  its  valuable  store-house  of  knowledi^e 
for  other  facts  in  confirmation  of  wliat  we  have  to  say  upon  the  food  question. 
3S0.  How  the  Aibumea  of  Meat  is  Extracted.— When  we  wish  to  dissolve 
out  the  albumen,  and  not  the  gelatin  of  meat,  for  soup  or  for  beef-tea,  which 
is  much  used  as  nutritive  food  for  the  sick,  the  meat  should  be  cut  fine — the 
finer  the  better — and  soaked  a  few  minutes  in  an  equal  weight  of  cold  water, 
then  slowly  heated  to  boiling,  and  so  continued  a  few  minutes  more,  and 
when  strained  you  will  have  as  much  weight  of  pure  extract  as  you  had  of 
meat,  and  it  will  afford  equal  nutriment.  It  M-ould  not  do  so  if  boiled  for 
liours,  in  a  large  mass.  Hence,  meat  for  soups  should  be  finely  divided. 
The  efl"ect  of  long  boiling  of  meat  for  soup  is  to  thicken  the  soup,  and  make 
it  apparently  richer;  but  it  is  so  only  apparently.  The  albumen  is  extracted 
by  cold  water.  It  is  cooked  in  the  water  in  as  short  a  time  as  an  egg  would 
cook.  The  substance  extracted  by  long  boiling,  making  the  soup  appear 
thick  when  cold,  is  gelatin.  Still  further  boiling  would  make  glue,  whicli 
would  harden  by  drying,  like  the  glue  of  commerce.  It  is  not  considered  a 
nutritious  kind  of  food. 

381.  French  Experiments  with  Gelatinons  Food.—"  The  French  attempted 
to  feed  the  inmates  of  their  hospitals  on  gelatinous  extract  of  bones  ;  mur- 
murs arose,  and  a  commission  was  appointed,  with  Magendie  at  its  head,  to 
investigate  the  matter,  the  conclusion  of  which  was,  that  giving  gelatin  to 
the  poor  was  just  equivalent  to  giving  them  nothing  at  all.  The  use  of 
gelatin  as  a  nutritive  or  invigoi-ating  substance  may  be  regarded  as  given 
up.  The  utmost  claim  now  put  forth  for  it  is  that,  mixed  with  other  food,  it 
makes  it  go  furtlier ;  but  at  tlie  same  time  we  must  be  careful  not  to  use  it 
to  excess,  as  it  is  apt  not  only  to  weaken  the  individual  by  its  insuflicicucy 
as  an  article  of  diet,  but  causes  also  diarrhea,  whether  by  acting  as  a  foreign 
body,  or  by  some  spontaneous  decomposition.  Hence  the  unwholesomeness, 
to  healthy  stomachs,  of  dishes  containing  a  great  quantity  of  gelatin,  such 
as  mock-turtle  soup,  calvcs'-foot  jelly,  etc." 

The  healthiness  of  any  kind  of  strong  meat  soup  is  not  a  matter  of  doubt 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  given  the  subject  a  thought.  It  may  be 
taken  in  small  quantities  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal,  when  it  will  be  imme- 
diately followed  with  fibrous  food ;  but  the  appetite  never  should  be  sat- 
isfied upon  soup  alone,  unless  it  is  soup-maigre,  or  soup  made  almost  entirely 
of  vegetables. 

382.  Relative  Values  of  Food  for  giving  Warmth  or  making  Flesh. — Tlic  fol- 
lowing table  shows  Liebig's  estimate  of  the  proportion  of  warmth-giving 
substances  to  the  flesh-producing  substances  in  various  articles.  Basing  the 
flesh-producing  power  at  10,  each  of  the  following  articles  gives  the  propor- 
tion of  warmth-producing  power  set  opposite. 


ITiiman  milk 40 

Cow's  milk 30 

Lfutils 21 

Horse  beans 22 

I'cas 23 

Fat  mutton 27 


Fat  pork 30  1  Ryo  flour 57 

ISccf 17    Hi*il.-y C7 

Hare 2    White  potatoes 86 

Veal 1    Black  potatoes 115 

Wheat  flour 40]  Uice V2i 

Oatme.ll 60   Buckwheat 130 


Seo.  22.]  THE   FOOD   QUESTION".  3G1 

This  table  gives  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  reason  why  buckwheat  is 
always  used  as  winter  food.  The  reason  is  still  more  apparent  when  we 
know  that  butler  and  syrnp,  which  are  eaten  with  buckwheat  cakes,  ai'e 
also  producers  of  heat.  It  shows  that  veal  is  a  very  fit  food  for  children 
and  very  unfit  for  aged  people.  In  cold  climates,  particularly,  where  men 
are  much  in  the  open  air,  they  instinctively  crave  fat  meat.  At  the  tropics, 
instinct  teaches  man  to  consume  an  abundance  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  In 
temperate  regions,  where  we  may  indulge  with  impunity  in  a  variety  of 
food,  instinct  is  not  so  strong,  or  at  least  does  not  point  out  so  imerringly 
what  wc  should  eat,  and  therefore  the  question  should  be  more  fully  dis- 
cussed ;  for  among  all  the  arts  of  civilized  life  there  are  none  in  which  all 
arc  more  interested  than  the  preparation  of  our  daily  food. 

3S3.  Changes  produced  in  Cooking  Vegetables. — Many  vegetables,  for  in- 
stance the  potato,  in  a  raw  state,  are  wholly  unfit  for  food.  Every  lioiise- 
keeper  knows  that  cooking  renders  them  palatable  and  wholesome,  but  every 
one  does  not  know  how  they  are  affected  by  heat,  nor  why  one  mode  of 
cooking  makes  them  acceptable  to  the  taste,  while  they  may  be  nearly 
spoiled  by  a  different  application  of  heat.  Hence  it  is  not  always  applied 
in  the  right  manner  to  produce  the  best  effect. 

It  is  often  said  of  potatoes,  "  they  were  spoiled  in  the  cooking."  Look  at 
the  reason.  A  i:)Ound  of  potatoes  contains  on  an  average  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  pound  of  water  and  two  to  two  and  a  half  ounces  of  starch.  It  also 
contains  about  one  fourth  as  much  sugar  and  gum  as  it  does  starch,  and 
about  one  sixth  as  much  woody  fiber. 

If  a  good,  sound  potato  is  plunged  whole  into  boiling  water  and  kept  boil- 
ing until  softened  throughout  to  such  a  degree  that  it  could  be  readily  mashed, 
the  starch-grains  burst  and  absorb  the  water,  so  that  the  mass  appears  moi'c 
like  meal  than  like  starch  boiled  in  water,  and  is  then  in  a  condition  to  af- 
ford its  nutritious  properties  readily  to  the  system.  If  potatoes  are  naturally 
bad,  cooking  will  not  make  them  good,  but  bad  cooking  will  make  the  best 
potatoes  quite  unfit  for  human  food.  If  they  are  put  into  cold  water  and 
simmered  slowly  till  soft,  they  will  generally  become  so  waxy  that  they  are 
quite  indigestible. 

If  potatoes  are  i-oasted  or  baked,  they  should  be  put  into  a  hot  oven 
or  buried  in  hot  embers,  and  kept  hot  until  taken  out,  which  should  be 
as  soon  as  sufficiently  cooked — otherwise  a  new  change  takes  place,  the  wa- 
ter begins  to  evaporate,  and  the  outside  burns,  while  the  interior  soon  be- 
comes worthless. 

In  frying  potatoes,  the  starch  and  fibrin  are  often  turned  to  charcoal, 
which  is  just  as  nutritious  and  digestible  as  charcoal  made  of  wood.  As  it 
is  with  potatoes,  so  it  is  with  many  other  vegetables — they  may  be  spoiled 
by  improper  cooking.  As  a  general  rule,  put  all  into  boiling  water  and 
keep  it  boiling  briskly  till  the  articles  are  sufficiently  cooked.  Never  at- 
tempt to  cook  green  vegetables  in  what  is  termed  hard  water ;  it  will  some- 
times render  green  peas  wholly  unfit  for  food.     The  difficulty  is  often  rem- 


362  DOJIESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

cdicd  by  putting  a  little  lump  of  potasli,  saleratus,  or  soda  in  the  water.  If 
too  iiiiich  is  used,  it  causes  the  vegetables  to  fall  to  pieces. 

SSi.  Reasons  for  Improved  Cookery. — Erasmus  says:  "  Bad  feeding  makes 
the  vulgar  seditious  and  quarrelsome."  Perhaps  this  -will  account  for  the 
quarrelsome  character  of  some  families.  We  seriously  think  every  young 
woman  should  have  some  knowledge  of  cooking.  Ignorance  upon  this 
subject  ought  to  be  a  reproach.  Few  nations  have  the  wealth  of  material 
for  fine  cookery  that  we  possess.  Fish,  flesh,  and  fowl  are  abundant ;  fruits 
and  vegetables  unsurpassable,  and  can  be  raised  without  great  labor  or  ex- 
pense, and  it  is  owing  to  our  own  culpable  carelessness  in  all  that  pertains 
to  licalth  that  we  are  not  the  Iiealthiest,  best  fed,  and  best  trained  people  in 
the  world.  Yet  Americans  generally  undervalue  preparations  for  eating. 
Disdaining  gluttony,  despising  pampering  to  fancies,  they  run  into  the  op- 
posite extreme  of  neglecting  that  which  is  of  real  value  to  their  bodies.  This 
inattention  proceeds  not  from  inability  to  comprehend  the  science  of  cook- 
ery, nor  real  dislike  to  good  things,  for  their  a[)preciatlve  power  of  such  is 
on  a  par  with  that  of  other  nations ;  but  they  grow  up  with  the  idea  that  it 
is  unbecoming  to  be  dainty,  and  beneath  their  dignity  and  independence  of 
character  to  think  too  much  of  their  stomachs.  American  mothers  too 
seldom  instruct  their  daugliters  in  the  culinary  art. 

In  early  times  necessities  were  stronger  than  comforts ;  kitchens  were  un- 
furnished with  conveniences  ;  cooking  utensils  were  clumsy  and  scarce ; 
pots  and  kettles  did  double  dutj^ ;  iron  skillets  were  used  instead  of  sauce- 
pans. This  is  not  and  need  not  be  the  case  now.  Every  farm-house  shouM 
have  all  the  modern  improvements  for  cooking,  and  then  as  a  general  thing 
our  cooking  should  be  better;  and  as  necessities  are  no  longer  stronger  than 
comforts,  the  reason  that  we  lack  the  comforts  is  because  our  young  Ameri- 
can housekeepers  lack  the  knowledge,  and,  for  a  certainty,  their  Irish  cooks 
do  not  possess  much  of  the  science  of  the  useful  art  of  cookery. 

Every  beginner  thinks  it  an  easy  thing  to  learn,  and,  without  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  necessary  rudiments,  expects  to  blunder  into  some  sort  of  pro- 
ficiency, so  that  in  time  ihe  mistakes  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  rule,  and 
they  abide  by  their  own  experience,  rather  than  accept  of  rules  that  science 
teaches. 

Another,  and  perhaps  to  most  people  the  most  important  reason  for  im- 
proved cookery  is,  the  economy  of  food.  "  What  shall  Ave  eat  ?"  and  "  How 
shall  it  be  cooked  ?"  should  bo  made  a  part  of  the  household  economy  of 
every  family,  particularly  every  one  who  purchases  food  by  the  wages  of 
daily  labor.  This  question  is  not  an  idle  one,  and  only  interesting  to  those 
who  live  in  cities.  It  is  equally  so  to  those  who  furnish  the  city  with 
food.  Let  us  glance  at  the  prices  which  the  consumers  in  the  city  have 
to  pay. 

Of  late  years,  the  price  of  butchers'  meats  in  New  York,  at  retail,  have 
been  frequently  at  the  following  rates : 

For  roasting  pieces  of  beef  and  beef-steaks,  the  nominal  price  per  pound 


Sec.  22.]  THE  FOOD  QUESTION.  363 

is  from  IS  to  25  ceuts,  while  the  real  price,  owing  to  the  cheating  in  weight, 
is  often  25  2>er  cent,  higher.  A  piece  only  fit  for  soup  is  charged  at  about 
12  or  15  cents,  and  a  shin-bone,  with  very  little  meat,  rates  at  10  cents  a 
pound.  Plates,  navels,  necks,  briskets,  and  rounds  are  rarely  sold  fresh, 
and  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  given  by  butchers  for  selling  the  portions 
universally  called  for  at  such  high  prices  is,  that  they  can  not  retail  the 
coarser  parts  at  any  price,  except  the  small  portion  taken  as  corned  beef,  and 
for  this  the  price  is  sometimes  from  12  to  18  cents  a  pound.  A  leg  or  loin 
of  mutton  is  sold  at  16  to  20  cents  a  pound,  and  all  the  coarser  parts  at  12 
to  16  cents,  and  some  of  them  are  coarse  and  poor  enough.  Yeal  that  is  fit 
to  eat,  is  sold  at  about  the  same  price  per  pound  as  mutton.  Lamb  is  fifty 
per  cent,  liiglier.  Fresh  pork — miserably  poor,  too — sells  at  12  to  15  cents. 
Salt  pork  and  smoked  bacon  sell  for  15  to  18  cents,  and  smoked  beef  the 
same. 

"When  the  greatest  meat-eating  people  in  the  world  pay  such  prices,  it 
would  be  reasonable  to  expect  that  they  would  be  willing  to  learn  and 
practice  improved  cookery.  We  are  sorry  to  say  that  they  do  not.  A  school 
that  teaches  the  art  is  rare.  It  should,  as  a  universal  rule,  be  taught  in  all 
schools.  In  many  families,  with  all  the  economy  of  the  best  housekeeping, 
it  certainly  is  a  question  of  serious  import  as  to  what  we  shall  eat,  that  will 
afford  sufficient  nourishment  and  variety  of  food  for  health,  and  still  enable 
those  whose  income  is  limited  to  keep  expenses  below  that  limit.  In  such 
families  it  is  important  that  they  should  learn  how  to  cook  butchers'  meat 
more  economically  than  it  is  generally  in  America.  In  some  measure  ad- 
vantage can  be  taken,  though  it  seldom  is,  in  buying  fresh  meat.  The 
price  by  the  piece  or  by  the  quarter,  of  beef  and  mutton,  often  varies  fifty 
per  cent,  and  a  fore-quarter  always  sells  the  lowest;  yet,  to  the  consumer, 
it  is  absolutely  the  most  valuable. 

The  truest  economy  is  to  cat  less  expensive  meat  and  more  vegetables, 
and  learn  how  to  compound  them  as  the  French  do,  so  as  to  make  whole- 
some, nutritious,  economical  food  by  improved  cookery. 

385.  Water  for  Cooking. — One  reason  why  we  have  treated  so  largely  upon 
cisterns  (see  333,  334),  and  why  we  made  one  for  fomily.use  while  we  had 
a  nevei"-failing  well  of  water,  is  because  rain-water  is  the  best  of  all  for 
culinary  purposes.  What  is  termed  hard-water  is  unfit  for  cooking  some 
kinds  of  vegetables,  and  is  never  good  for  tea.  We  have  already  stated  that 
■water  is  sometimes  so  hard  that  green  peas  could  not  be  cooked  soft  in  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  care  must  be  taken  in  the  use  of  rain-watei*,  or  the  tender 
vegetables  will  be  broken  down  by  a  little  over-boiling.  In  sucli  water 
always  be  careful  to  throw  as  much  salt  as  will  serve  to  season  the  vege- 
tables for  the  palate.  Onions  lose  nearly  all  their  peculiar  flavor  when  boiled 
in  soft  water  without  salt.  This  matter  of  suitable  water  for  the  kitchen 
has  quite  as  much  importance  to  the  cook  as  it  has  to  the  laundress. 

386.  A  New  Cooking  Vessel  Wanted. — A  writer  in  the  Scientific  Americati 
suggests  an  improvement  in  cooking  vessels  that  we  hope  will  bo  at  once 


364  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


acted  upon.  It  is  to  coat  the  inside  with  silver  or  platinum,  which  could  bo 
done  by  the  galvanic  battery,  so  that  the  expense  would  not  be  too  great  lor 
ordinary  use  in  the  houses  of  those  who  are  able  to  live  in  a  way  suited  to  a 
high  order  of  civilization.  This  would  be  a  particularly  desirable  improve- 
ment in  kettles  for  heating  water  for  tea.  So  it  would  for  such  cookery 
as  requires  porcelain-lined  kettles.  From  the  greatly  increased  supply  of 
silver  from  "Washoe,  Arizona,  and  other  silver  mines,  we  may  yet  be  able 
to  improve  our  domestic  utensils.  Iron,  copper,  brass,  zinc,  are  all  objec- 
tionable for  many  purposes,  and  porcelain  lining  is  soon  destroyed  by  care- 
less cooks. 

3S7.  Flour — How  to  Select  Good. — Farmers  of  all  the  Eastern  States  buy 
flour,  and  some  of  them  are  not  very  good  judges  of  what  they  buy.  There 
are  a  few  plain  rules  to  observe  in  buying  flour  by  whicli  you  can  tell  its 
quality,  and  select  that  which  is  good.  The  best  flour  is  not  snowy  white, 
but  has  a  yellowish  tint  when  a  handful  is  squeezed  together  and  then 
broken  open.  Lay  a  little  in  the  palm  of  your  hand  and  smooth  it  with  a 
knife  or  your  finger,  and  see  that  it  is  free  from  specks,  and  of  even  fineness, 
but  not  an  impal2:)able  powder.  To  prove  this,  throw  a  little  lump  against  a 
perpendicular  board  or  smooth  wall,  upon  which  the  inost  of  it,  if  good, 
should  stick.  Good  flour,  squeezed  in  the  hand,  will  retain  its  shape.  If 
you  wet  a  little  in  your  hand,  see  that  it  does  not  work  soft  and  sticky,  or 
you  may  get  spring-wheat  instead  of  winter-wheat  flour.  Flour  that  works 
sticky  is  not  good.  If  it  has  a  bluish  tint  it  is  not  good.  If  it  falls  in  dr}' 
])owder  when  thrown,  or  if  it  falls  apart,  dry  and  powdery,  when  squeezed, 
it  is  not  good.  "We  commend  to  all  families  who  buy  flour  the  trial  of  these 
tests  with  the  flour  now  on  hand,  the  quality  of  which  is  known. 

3SS.  Adulteratious  of  Food. — The  first  object  of  a  housekeeper  should  be 
to  procure  unadulterated  articles.  This  is  very  difiicult  for  city  people  to 
do,  owing  to  the  adulteration  of  almost  every  article  of  food  prepared  for 
sale.  But  this  is  not  the  case  with  most  of  the  food  used  by  farmers,  because 
it  is  made  of  home  products. 

Many  of  the  adulteratious  of  such  articles  as  are  usually  purchased  may 
1)0  detected  by  simple  tests.  The  microscope  reveals  the  adulterations  of 
flour,  sugar,  farina,  arrow-root,  starch,  salt,  etc. 

Bread,  that  most  important  article  of  food,  is  always  more  healthful  in  a 
farmer's  family,  because  it  is  free  from  adulterations,  or  at  least  much  more 
free  than  baker's  bread. 

3S0.  Uoff  Eating  .\ffects  tUe  Health.— To  meet  at  the  breakfast-table,  father, 
mother,  children,  all  well,  ought  to  be  a  happiness  to  any  heart ;  it  should 
be  a  source  of  humble  gratitude,  and  should  wake  \\y  the  warmest  feelings 
of  our  nature.  Make  it  a  rule  never  to  come  to  the  table  in  a  churlish  mood. 
Let  joy  pervade  3'our  meals. 

"The  tables  of  the  rich  and  the  nobles  of  England  are  centei-s  of  mirth, 
wit,  and  honJwmic,  and  they  live  long.  It  takes  hours  to  get  through  a 
repast.     The  negroes  of  a  well-to-do  family  in  Kentucky,  while  at  their 


Sec.  22.]  THE  FOOD  QUESTION.  365 

meals,  abandon  themselves  to  jabber  and  mirth,  and  they  enjoy  life.  At  the 
family-table  all  should  meet  to  make  a  common  interchange  of  high-bred 
courtesies ;  of  warm  affections ;  of  cheering  mirthfulness,  and  that  generosity 
of  nature  which  lifts  us  above  the  brutes  which  perish  ;  for  such  things  pro- 
mole  good  digestion,  health,  and  long  life.  Cliildren  in  good  health,  if  left 
to  themselves  at  the  table,  become,  after  a  few  mouthfuls,  garrulous  and 
noisy  ;  but  if  within  bounds  at  all  reasonable  or  bearable,  it  is  better  to  let 
them  alone ;  they  eat  less,  because  they  do  not  eat  so  rapidly  as  if  compelled 
to  keep  silent,  while  the  Very  exhilaration  of  sjiirits  quickens  the  circulation 
of  tlie  vital  fluids,  and  energizes  digestion  and  assimilation." 

Let  this  excellent  advice  of  HalVs  Journal  of  Health  be  followed  univer- 
sally, and  we  shall  hear  less  about  dyspepsia. 

390.  Early  Breakfast— its  Effect  on  Health.— '-Breakfast  should  be  eaten 
before  leaving  the  house  in  the  morning  for  exercise  or  any  description  of 
labor.  Those  who  practice  this  will  be  able  to  i:)erform  more  work,  and  with 
greater  comfort  and  alacrity,  than  those  who  work  an  hour  or  two  before 
breakfast.  Besides  this,  the  average  duration  of  the  life  of  those  who  take 
breakfast  before  exercise  or  work  will  be  a  number  of  years  greater  than 
those  who  do  otherwise. 

"  If  early  breakfast  were  taken  in  regions  where  chill  and  fever  and  fever 
and  ague  prevail,  and  if  in  addition  a  brisk  fire  were  kindled  in  the  family 
room  for  the  hours  including  sunset  and  sunrise,  these  troublesome  maladies 
would  diminish  in  any  one  year,  not  ten-fold,  but  a  thousand-fold ;  because 
miasm  is  more  solid,  more  concentrated,  and  hence  luoro  malignant  about 
sunrise  and  sunset  than  at  any  other  hour  of  the  twenty-four." 

This,  and  much  more  said  upon  the  same  subject  by  Dr.  Hall,  agrees  fully 
Avith  our  long  experience  in  a  miasmatic  region  of  the  West.  The  most  in- 
dustrious people  who  come  from  New  England,  where  they  had  always 
been  accustomed  to  early  rising  and  working  before  breakfast,  were  the 
ones  most  liable  to  attacks  in  autumn  of  bilious  fever  and  ague.  Let  us 
therefore  urge  every  resident  in  such  a  region,  never  to  go  to  work,  nor 
go  much  out  of  doors  before  breakfasting,  and  let  no  expense  or  trouble 
about  the  work  deter  you  from  having  your  dwellings  purified  by  fire.  In 
some  parts  of  South  Carolina  men  have  lost  their  lives  from  a  single  night's 
exposure  to  miasm,  without  fire.  Ileuce,  whenever  persons  are  compelled 
to  spend  a  night  in  such  a  situation,  their  first  care  is  to  build  a  large  fire 
and,  without  sleeping,  keep  near  it,  even  in  the  smoke,  and  thus  they  escape 
the  danger  of  the  poisonous  at.mosphere. 


3G6 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 


[Chap.  IV. 


i^RCTION  XXIII.-THE  BREAD  QUESTIOX-VARIETIES  AND  QUALITY  OF 
BREAD,  AND  HOW  IT  IS  MADE-YEAST,  AND  HOW  TO  MAKE  IT  FOR 
FAMILY  USE. 

L^Cn  is  the  importance  of  the  subject  in  relation 
to  tlie  healthiness  of  fooJ,  that  bread  should  be  of 
the  very  best  quality,  we  have  devoted  a  section 
especially  to  its  consideration.  In  this  country  it  is 
the  general  custom  to  make  bread  in  families,  and  as  our 
domestics  are  not  scientific,  it  is  in  many  cases  absolutely 
necessary  that  they  should  not  be  left  to  the  temptation 
of  using  the  readiest  means  for  making  bread  acceptable, 
by  putting  in  the  convenient  saleratus  or  soda,  -which,  like 
charity,  in  that  particular,  covers  a  multitude  of  sins.  If  the 
dough  lias  been  put  together  over-night,  it  may  have  gone 
on  to  the  stage  of  acetous  fermentation,  and  a  little  sale- 
ratus (more  than  is  necessary  to  sweeten  it  is  often  put  in) 
will  conceal  the  fact,  and  make  all  appear  right.  It  will 
also  save  the  trouble  of  kneading  well.  Let  the  mistress,  then,  if  she  do 
not  actually  mix  the  bread,  overlook  the  process ;  and  it  would  be  a  good 
custom  if  all  the  ladies  in  a  family  would  take  their  turn  at  bread-making, 
and  thus  insure  its  good  qualities  by  efficient  kneading.  It  can  not  be 
kneaded  too  much.  But  of  that  hereafter,  and  in  all  that  pertains  to  the 
subject,  we  hope  to  give  some  useful  information  to  all  who  are  not  already 
i^ood  bread-makers.  Not  only  in  bread,  but  in  every  article  consumed 
upon  the  farmer's  table,  we  beg  of  him  and  the  mistress  of  the  family 
never  to  lose  sight  of  the  importance  of  quality.  The  proper  consideration 
of  this  question  will  save  many  a  doctor's  bill,  as  well  as  the  misery 
attendant  upon  sickness. 

There  is  nothing  that  the  good  housekeeper  so  much  desires  about  her 
cooking  as  to  have  good  bread,  and  as  all  have  not  had  the  advantages  of 
the  daughters  mentioned  in  the  following  extract  of  a  letter  to  the  author, 
we  shall  give  as  much  information  as  we  can  crowd  into  a  brief  space  upon 
this  subject. 

391.  Good  Wheaten  Bread,  and  How  to  Make  it. — Tlie  letter  alluded  to  is 
from  a  sensible,  practical  woman,  who  says: 

"  I  have  been  a  housekeeper  thirty  years,  and  I  have  reared  a  family  of 
six  daughters,  and  we  have  always  made  our  own  bread,  and  it  is  a  very  rare 
thing  for  us  to  make  poor  bread. 

"Now,  the  first  thing  I  strive  to  teach  my  girls  is  cooking,  and  making 
bread  is  one  of  the  first  items  of  cookery.  I  know  that  good  bread  can  be 
made  by  the  diflferent  kinds  of  yeast,  but  the  recipe  that  is  the  most  simple 
is  the  best. 


Seo.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  367 

"  Here  is  my  way  of  making  good  bread :  Take  one  pint  of  warm  water, 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  put  it  in  a  dish  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  stirring 
in  flour  until  it  is  a  thick  batter,  and  keep  it  warm,  quite  warm,  and  in  five 
hours  it  will  rise  or  become  fit  for  use.  If  it  does  not  rise  sufficiently,  dis- 
solve a  piece  of  common  soda  as  large  as  two  kernels  of  corn  and  stir  into 
the  batter. 

"  You  can  make  three  common-sized  loaves  of  bread  with  this  yeast, 
which  will  be  nice  and  tender.  The  soda  is  only  necessary  when  the  flour 
is  of  an  inferior  quality." 

The  following  directions  for  making  bread  we  give  in  the  language  of 
another  good  housekeeper.     She  says: 

"To  have  good,  wholesome  bread,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  pay  atten- 
tion to  the  making  of  it,  and  to  believe  that  making  bread,  like  learning  to 
read,  does  not  come  by  nature;  that  it  is  indispensable  to  learn  every  little 
fact  connected  with  the  fermenting  or  raising  of  the  dough  ;  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  understand  the  difi'ereneo  between  vinous  and  acetous  fermentation, 
and  when  an  alkali,  such  as  saleratus  or  bicarbonate  of  soda,  is  required. 

"Of  course,  good  flour  is  the  first  requisite.  The  finer  the  flour  the 
greater  the  labor  in  kneading  it ;  and  the  finest  flour  does  not  always  make 
the  sweetest  and  healthiest  bread,  yet  the  best  flour  is  the  cheapest ;  though 
I  must  confess  I  can  not  advise  about  using  inferior  flour,  for  I  have  never 
had  any. 

"  The  next  important  thing  is  the  yeast,  and  I  give  the  preference  to  tha 
made  of  potatoes.  I  have  tried  brewer's  yeast,  baker's  yeast,  yeast  cakes,  hop 
yeast ;  leaven,  which  is  a  bit  of  sour  dough,  and  needs  saleratus  to  make  the 
bread  sweet ;  in  fact,  all  the  various  kinds  of  yeast,  and  after  over  two  years 
of  constant  use,  I  am  content  with  potato  yeast. 

"  The  rule  of  making  it  is  this :  Take  ten  potatoes  of  nearly  equal  size — 
wash  and  boil  them  ;  when  cooked,  peel  and  mash  them  perfectly  smooth  ; 
pour  on  to  this  a  quart  of  boiling-hot  water  ;  stir  in  a  cofl'ee-cup  of  good,  pure 
sugar,  and  after  standing  a  few  minutes,  pour  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water 
wanting  a  gill ;  when  lukewarm,  add  a  pint  of  yeast  to  raise  it,  put  it  in  a 
tightly-covered  vessel  to  ferment,  and  set  it  away  in  a  moderately  warm 
place  until  sufficiently  risen,  which  may  be  known  by  the  potato  appearing 
upon  the  top  of  the  liquid,  and  light,  foamy  spots  bursting  up  through  it. 
The  temperature  of  the  place  where  this  is  set  to  rise  or  work  shoiild  be 
from  68  to  74  degrees ;  too  much  heat  is  as  bad  as  too  much  cold.  When 
this  is  risen,  put  it  into  a  stone  jug  and  cork  it ;  tie  in  the  cork  and  keep  it 
in  a  cool  place.  A  gill  and  a  half,  or  common-sized  teacupful,  is  sufficient 
to  raise  dough  for  two  large  loaves  of  bread.  The  source  of  the  sourness 
which  supervenes  in  bread,  under  careless  or  unskillful  hands,  was  formerly 
ascribed  to  each  of  all  the  constituents  of  flour;  to  its  gluten,  which  is  10 
parts ;  its  starch,  which  is  70  parts ;  and  its  sugar,  4  parts ;  the  other  16 
parts  are  water — but  ei-roneously,  for  it  is  merely  the  result  of  the  second 
fermentation,  which  always  succeeds  the  vinous  when  pushed  improperly 


368  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

too  far.  Tlicre  are  extremely  simple  and  effectual  methods  for  enabling  the 
Laker  to  adopt  measures  either  to  prevent  or  correct  the  evil  of  accscence, 
and  these  are  to  neutralize  the  acid  by  the  use  of  an  alkali,  such  as  soda,  or 
an  alkaline  earth,  such  as  magnesia  or  chalk. 

"  If  proper  care  be  taken  of  the  yeast,  there  is  no  danger  of  having  sour 
dough  ;  and  if  the  yeast  be  removed  to  a  lower  temperature  after  the  signs 
pointed  out,  the  acetic  fermentation  never  sets  in. 

"  To  make  bread  I  set  a  sponge  over-night.  To  a  half  pint  of  lukewarm 
water,  put  in  a  gill  and  a  half  of  yeast  and  a  pint  of  flour  (after  measuring, 
sift  the  flour),  and  stir  this  all  well  together,  strew  a  little  flour  over  the  top, 
and  cover  the  dish  and  put  it  in  the  same  temperature  that  the  yeast  was 
in.  In  the  morning,  warm  half  a  tea-cup  of  milk  (if  water  is  used,  add  half 
a  tablespoonful  of  butter),  add  two  tablcspoonfuls  of  lime-water  after  it  is 
warm,  and  stir  this  into  the  sponge ;  have  ready  a  pint  and  a  half  of  flour, 
and  knead  tliis  with  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  into  the  sponge.  Divide  this 
into  two  portions,  and  put  each  into  a  buttered  pan  to  rise,  and  when  the 
dough  rises  to  the  top  and  bursts  into  little  cracks,  it  is  ready  to  bake. 
These  loaves  will  bake  in  a  common  stove  or  range-oven,  heated  with  coal, 
in  thirty  or  thirt^'-five  minutes.  The  advantages  of  lime-water  are  these: 
Tlic  dough  requires  less  kneading,  the  loaves  bake  in  less  time,  and  the 
bread  keeps  soft  and  moist  longer,  and  is  less  liable  to  mold,  and  it  is  healthy 
bread.  Alter  the  bread  is  baked,  it  should  be  turned  upside  down  from  the 
pans  upon  a  folded  cloth,  and  left  there  until  cool.  Then  it  may  be  put  into 
a  covered  tin.  By  following  this  jilan,  I  never  lose  any  bread  from  mold.  In 
cool  Aveather,  the  pans  containing  the  dough  should  bo  placed  over  a  vessel 
containing  hot  water,  or  each  pan  over  a  bowl  or  pitcher  with  hot  water  in 
it,  and  covered  with  a  cloth.  These  loaves  are  generally  ready  to  bake  in 
two  or  two  and  a  half  hours. 

"To  make  biscuit,  I  warm  a  tablespoonful  of  butter  in  half  a  teacupful  of 
milk,  and  stir  it  hot  on  a  quart  of  ilour,  let  it  stand  and  cool,  and  when 
lukewarm  add  a  gill  of  yeast,  a  spoonful  of  lime-water,  and  a  little  salt,  and 
lukewarm  water  to  knead  the  whole  into  a  smooth  lump  of  dough ;  sprinkle 
a  little  flour  into  the  bottom  of  the  dish,  lay  in  the  dough,  cover  it,  and 
when  risen  (which  niay  be  known  by  the  dough's  cracking  and  its  spongy 
look  when  cut  with  a  knife\  divide  the  dough  into  equal  portions  and  j)Ut 
in  pan«,  and  let  then\  stand  twenty  minutes  before  putting  to  bake. 

'•  I  never  use  tin  or  metal  ware  of  any  kind  to  mix  bread  in.  I  prefer  a 
wooden  bowl  and, spoon,  because  they  can  always  be  kept  clean  and  sweet. 
A  still  better  thing  i^  a  yellow  nappy,  as  it  can  be  dipped  into  hot  water  be- 
fore setting  the  dough  in  it. 

'•  As  to  the  use  of  saleratus  and  soda,  it  is  only  tolerated  by  the  grossest 
igiiorance.  It  is  the  received  impression  that  an  alkali  makes  the  bread 
tender,  and  it  is  indiscriminately  used,  and  hence  so  much  yellow-looking 
bread.  These  alkalies  are  only  of  service  when  an  acid  is  to  be  neutralized, 
and  then  they  should  be  used  very  sparingly.    It  is  very  difficult  to  enlighten 


Sbo.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  369 

an  ignorant  cook,  whose  obstinacy  is  in  proportion  to  her  ignorance,  and 
■whose  threat  of  leaving  if  not  left  undisturbed  in  her  kitchen,  frightens  her 
titnid,  delicate  mistress  into  silence  and  absence.  How  few  mistresses  there 
are  who  are  able  to  contend  with  these  kitchen  autocrats,  or  are  competent 
to  prove  their  ability  to  execute  what  they  have  undertaken  to  teach. 

"If  an  old  housekeeper  reads  what  has  been  written,  she  will  cry  out: 
•  La,  what  a  fuss  about  bread-making,  which  any  ninny  can  do !'  And  if 
she  has  a  batch  of  good  bread  once  in  a  fortnight,  and  that  by  good  luck, 
as  she  would  call  it,  she  thinks  she  knows  all  about  it,  and  disdains  to  give 
attention  to  such  a  trifling  matter.  Yet,  if  you  ask  her  why  her  bread  was 
not  invariably  good,  she  can  not  explain  otherwise  than  that  the  leaven  was 
overworked,  the  yeast  not  good,  the  water  too  hot,  or  the  flour  was  bad. 
No  wonder  this  question  continues  to  agitate  the  world,  since  tlie  world  is 
daily  doomed  to  dough  and  burnt  crusts.  Good  bread  is  the  exception  and 
not  the  rule  in  more  than  half  the  families  of  the  world." 

For  this  reason  we  think  that  some  further  rules  for  bread-making,  which 
couie  from  those  who  always  have  good  bread,  will  be  acceptable.  The 
lirst  is  from  "Waldo,  Ohio.     The  writer  says : 

"I  soak  about  a  pint  of  dry  hops  two  or  three  hours,  or  until  the  water 
foams,  by  which  time  I  have  boiled  seven  medium-sized  potatoes,  which  I 
then  mash,  boiling  hot,  with  a  saucerful  of  flour,  leaving  the  skins  on ;  then 
add  a  quart  of  cold  water,  little  at  a  time,  mashing  and  mixing  thoroughly 
after  each  addition  of  water.  When  lukewarm,  I  stir  in  the  hop-yeast,  and 
let  it  stand  until  morning;  then  I  run  it  through  a  cullender,  with  two 
quarts  of  lukewarm  water,  which  I  add  part  at  a  time,  that  the  ferment 
may  be  rinsed  from  the  potato-skins.  Then  add  two  rounding  tablespoou- 
fuls  of  salt,  and  then  flour  until  it  can  only  be  stirred  witli  difficulty.  Then 
I  set  It  over  a  kettle  of  warm  water  in  winter,  or  in  a- cool  place  in  summer, 
until  it  is  very  light,  when  I  mix  it  and  knead  it  thoroughly  until  it  will 
not  adhere  to  the  tabic  or  bread-bowl.  "Wlien  very  light,  knead  into  loaves 
and  put  it  in  the  pans,  this  time  kneading  as  little  and  handling  as  lightly 
as  possible.  When  it  is  again  light,  I  put  it  in  a  hot  oven,  bake  an  hour, 
taking  care  by  watching  not  to  let  it  burn.  When  done,  rub  the  crust  with 
a  little  lard,  and  wrap  up  till  cold.  K  the  yeast  sours,  add  soda  to  correct 
acidity." 

Another  woman,  Lynda  Cdl,  of  Clevit,  Eaton  County,  Mich.,  gives  her 
me'hod,  as  ibilows : 

"  Pare  and  slice  four  common-sized  potatoes,  and  boil  them  in  one  quart 
of  water.  When  done,  pour  tlie  water  off  into  a  basin,  mash  the  ])Otatoe3 
and  put  them  in  the  water,  and  when  about  niilk-warm  add  one  teacupful 
of  good  hop-yeast;  stir  in  flour  enough  to  make  a  thick  batter,  and  let  it 
stand  about  two  hours  in  a  warm  place.  Then  put  flour  enough  in  your 
bread-bowl  to  make  three  loaves  of  bread  ;  add  three  pints  of  warm  water 
to  the  yeast,  and  stir  it  in  the  flour,  and  set  in  a  warm  t)lace  till  it  has 
sponged  nicely ;  then  mold,  and  bake  one  hour." 


370  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


Tlie  two  following  arc  from  tlic  Granite  State  Ilcaltli  Institute : 

'•  Indian  Snow-Cakk. — With  one  (juart  of  meal  mix  two  tablespoonfiils  of 
fine  dry  sugar  and  one  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Stir  into  this  (piickly  two 
quarts  of  light,  clean  snow.  When  it  is  well  mixed,  put  it  in  a  deep  cake- 
dish,  sprinkle  a  little  snow  over  the  top,  and  bake  half  an  hour  in  a  hot 
oven. 

"  Potato  Koll. — Boil  one  dozen  mealy  potatoes,  nicely  peeled,  covered 
closely  in  just  water  enough  to  cook  them.  As  soon  as  they  are  tender, 
drain  ofi'  the  water  if  any  remain,  and  leave  them  over  the  fire  a  few  min- 
utes uncovered.  This  is  the  best  manner  of  cooking  potatoes  for  the  table, 
also.  Mash  them  fine  with  one  cup  of  sweet  cream  or  new  milk  ;  nib  them 
through  a  cullender  into  a  quart  of  flour ;  then  add  half  a  tea-cup  of  fresh 
yeast,  and  sufficient  sweet  milk  to  make  a  stiff  dough  ;  keep  it  in  a  warm 
place  until  light;  mold  into  rolls,  and  let  it  stand  fifteen  minutes;  bake  in  a 
quick  oven  for  half  an  hour." 

We  give  another  practical  rule  for  potato  bread:  "Tiie  evening  be- 
fore you  Avish  to  bake,  take  six  or  eight  potatoes,  more  or  less,  jnedium 
size,  pare,  boil  in  water  till  done;  mash  very  fine,  then  put  back  into  the 
water  they  were  boiled  in,  and,  when  they  come  to  a  boil,  have  ready  a  pan  ; 
I  prefer  earthen,  as  that  keeps  warm  longer,  with,  say,  a  pint  of  flour;  ]Hnir 
on  the  scalding  potatoes  and  water,  beat  well,  cool  with  Avater,  if  thicker 
than  buckwheat-cake  batter ;  add,  when  a  little  more  than  milk-warm,  half 
a  pint  or  less  of  your  bottled  yeast,  stir  mx'II,  cover  close,  and  sot  in  a  warm 
place  till  morning,  when  the  mass  will  be  perfectly  light,  if  all  the  materials 
are  good  and  put  rightly  together.  Then  mold  out  into  small  loaves,  put  in 
pans,  cover,  and  set  aside  fill  they  rise  again ;  be  very  careful  not  to  let 
them  over-rise  this  time,  or  all  your  care  is  thrown  away  ;  have  your  oven 
of  a  moderate  heat,  and  M'hile  baking  watch  carefully  ;  the  loaves  ought  to 
bake  in  40  minutes  or  an  hour,  according  to  the  size.  When  done,  they 
should  be  a  light  brown  ;  cover  them  up  on  a  board  kept  on  purpose,  and  by 
evening  you  will  have  bread  that  is  ricii  and  wholesome." 

Another  direction,  from  an  old  housekeeper,  says:  "Take  two  handfuls 
of  hops,  three  pints  of  water,  six  potatoes;  boil  all  till  the  potatoes  are  soft; 
pare  them,  mash  through  a  cullender,  strain  the  liquid  ;  then  put  it  in  your 
preserving  kettle,  over  the  fire,  with  the  potatoes  added  ;  also,  one  cup  of 
sugar,  one  table-spoon  of  salt,  one  table-spoon  of  ginger ;  then  add  flour 
enough  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  paste;  let  it  boil  five  minutes,  stirring  it 
all  the  time.  Turn  out,  and  when  partially  cool,  add  half  a  pint  of  good 
yeast.  Let  this  stand  until  fermentation  takes  place.  In  tlie  winter  I  keep  the 
yeast  in  a  stone  pot  in  the  cellar,  but  in  summer  I  dry  it  by  mixing  it  with 
corn-meal,  and  spreading  it  on  a  table  and  exposing  it  to  the  air  (not  sun). 
Now  we  liave  good  yeast,  Ave  will  proceed  immediately  to  make  good  bread. 
Wash  and  pare  two  dozen  good-sized  potatoes;  boil  them,  with  a  large 
handful  of  salt,  till  reduced  to  a  fine  pulp;  strain  through  a  cullender,  add 
three  pints  of  sweet  milk,  and  when  sufliciently  cool  to  bear  your  hand  in  it, 


Sec.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  371 

stir  in  as  much  flour  as  Avill  make  it  into  a  thick  batter;  to  this  sponge  add 
a  coffee-cup  of  the  j-east.  I  always  make  my  sponge  at  night.  In  the 
morning  I  add  six  quarts  of  sweet  milk  and  three  gills  of  lime-water,  and 
knead  into  a  stiff  dough. 

"Some  housekeepers  use  alum,  as  it  makes  the  bread  fairer,  but  I  prefer 
lime-water,  as  that  coagulates  the  gluten;  and  it  requires  less  baking,  and 
retains  its  moisture  longer — and  I  think  it  much  healthier  than  alum,  and 
health  is  the  great  desideratum.  In  two  or  tliree  hours  after  jou  knead 
your  bread,  it  will  be  as  light  and  porous  as  a  honeycomb;  knead  it  down, 
and  when  it  has  again  risen,  mold,  and  put  it  into  pans.  Let  it  stand  till  it 
rises  again,  then  wash  the  loaves  over  with  cold  water ;  this  prevents  the 
formation  of  too  hard  a  crust;  bake  in  a  well-heated  oven.  "When  baked, 
■wash  again,  wrapping  it  up  closely  in  your  bread-cloth.  "Wrapping  the 
bread  up  in  the  steam  till  cold,  prevents  it  from  becoming  hard  and  dry.  If 
your  flour  is  good,  bread  made  in  this  way  will  be  equal  in  appearance  to 
the  best  bakers'  bread,  and  in  jwint  of  sweetness  and  econonn',  far  superior. 
The  quantities  I  have  named  make  twelve  good-sized  loaves,  and  my  family 
requires  such  a  baking  twice  a  week.  For  many  years  this  plan  lias  given 
me  good  bread,  and  I  liope  others  will  try  it." 

392.  How  to  make  Good  "Bakers'  Bread." — ^To  tliose  who  would  like  to 
know  how  to  have  such  bread  as  the  city  bakers  make,  we  recommend  the 
following  formula  of  one  that  Ave  know  makes  good  bread,  and  we  believe 
uses  first-rate  flour,  and  no  deleterious  mineral  substances: 

Bakeks'  Yeast. — The  following  is  the  formula  for  making  a  tub  of  yeast: 
Four  pailfuls  of  hot  water,  two  quarts  of  malt,  half  a  pound  of  hops,  six  pounds 
of  flour,  four  quarts  of  yeast.  The  hops  are  boiled  about  five  minutes,  and 
strained.  The  flour  is  made  into  a  paste,  with  liot  water,  before  mixing  in 
the  tub.  The  malt  and  yeast  are  added  when  the  water  in  the  tub  is  milk- 
warm,  and  stirred  briskly.  It  must  stand  from  14  to  18  hours  before  it  is  in 
order  to  use. 

Fermext. — The  following  is  the  preparation  for  mixing  a  barrel  of  flour : 
Boil  one  half  peck  of  potatoes,  which  are  to  be  mashed,  strained,  and  mixed 
thin  in  water,  with  four  pounds  of  flour  and  four  quarts  of  yeast,  and  left  to 
stand  eight  hours. 

Setting  the  Sponge.- — -A  pailful  of  this  ferment  is  poured  into  the  flour 
in  one  end  of  the  bread-trough,  and  mixed,  with  an  addition  of  some  hot 
water,  into  a  soft  dough,  and  left  to  stand  three  hours,  when  more  water  is 
added,  and  the  whole  mass  mixed  into  a  stiti'  bread-dough,  and  left  two 
hours  to  rise,  when  it  is  ready  to  make  out  into  loaves  for  the  oven. 

Salt  Used. — The  quantity  of  salt  used  in  a  barrel  of  flour  is  four  quarts, 
and  no  other  mineral  ingredient  is  ever  added  by  an  honest  baker.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  use  plenty  of  yeast,  but  not  an  excess,  and  that  the  dough 
is  not  left  to  rise  too  long.  A  great  deal  of  liard  manual  labor  is  required 
in  kneading  dough,  to  have  good  bread. 

393.  Brown  Bread,  or  "  Bostoa  Bread."— An  old  Yankee  housewife  gives 


372  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


us   tlic   followinjj  valuable   diicctions    for    nuikiiig   lioiiio-mudo    or   family 
bread,  i^oinetiines  called — 

"Wheat  and  Indian  Ekkad. — To  two  quarts  of  sifted  Indian  meal  add 
liot  water  enough  to  wet  tlie  same ;  wlien  siitKciently  cooled,  add  one  tea- 
spoonful  or  more  of  salt,  iialf  a  pint  of  yeast,  and  one  half  teacupful  of  uid- 
lasscs.  Then  add  wheat  flour  enough  to  make  it  info  loaves  (it  should  bo 
well  kneaded),  and  when  well  risen,  bake  or  steam  it  three  or  more  hours; 
if  this  should  get  sour  while  rising,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  a  little 
salcratus  dissolved  in  water. 

"Rye  and  Indian  Bread. — Take  equal  quantities  of  Indian  meal  and  rye 
flour;  scald  the  meal,  and  when  lukewarm  add  the  flour,  with  one  half 
pint  of  good  yeast  to  four  quarts  of  the  mixture,  an  even  tablespoonful 
of  salt,  and  half  a  cup  of  molasses,  kneading  the  mixture  well.  This  kind 
of  bread  should  be  softer  tlian  wheat  flour  bread  ;  all  the  water  added  after 
scalding  the  meal  should  be  lukewarm.  When  it  has  risen  sufl3eiently,  put 
it  to  bake  in  a  brick  oven  or  stove — the  former  should  be  hotter  than  for  flour- 
bread  ;  if  in  a  stove  oven,  it  should  be  steamed  two  hours,  then  baked  one 
hour  or  more;  when  done,  it  is  a  dark  brown.  The  best  article  for  baking 
this  kind  of  bread  in  is  brown  earthenware — say  pans  eight  or  ten  inches 
in  bight,  and  diameter  about  the  same— grease  or  butter  the  pans,  put  in  the 
mixture,  then  dip  your  hand  in  cold  water,  and  smooth  the  loaf;  after  this, 
slash  the  loaf  both  ways  with  a  knife,  quite  deoi>.  Some  let  it  rise  a  little 
more  before  they  put  it  to  bake.  Many  people  prefer  this  bread  made 
of  one  third  rye  flour,  instead  of  one  iialf.  When  it  is  difficult  to  get 
rye,  wheat  flour  will  answer  as  a  substitute.  It  adds  very  much  to 
the  richness  and  flavor  of  this  kind  of  bread  to  let  it  remain  in  the  oven 
over-night." 

Indian  or  Yankee  Bkown  Bread. — Another  old  bread-maker  gives  the 
following  information  about  Yankee  brown  bread  : 

"  Brown  bread,  kneaded  and  made  into  loaves  in  the  common  way  of 
mixing  white  bread,  dries  more  quickly  than  the  white.  I  obviate  this  dit- 
ficulty  thus :  Take  a  quantity  of  meal,  sutticient  for  as  much  bread  as  you 
wish  to  make  at  once,  put  it  in  the  mixing-pan  with  a  bowl  of  rising,  and 
add  sufticieiit  lukewarm  water  to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  usually  required 
in  making  johnny-cake,  mixing  in  the  same  manner  with  a  spoon,  but  do 
not  stir  too  long,  or  it  will  not  have  that  liveliness  so  desirable  in  good  meal. 
It  is  also  a  much  neater  method,  as  you  arc  not  obliged  to  immerse  your 
hands  in  the  dough. 

"  Grease  your  pans,  and  fill  not  quite  half  full,  and  set  it  as  usual  to  rise, 
which  it  will  not  be  long  in  doing  if  the  temperature  is  right.  Bake  one 
hour  in  a  slow  but  steady  oven.  It  injures  a  large  loaf  to  cut  while  warm, 
though  my  family  are  very  fond  of  it  in  this  state,  and  I  generally  bake  a 
loaf  in  a  small  pan  to  be  eaten  warm. 

"I  can  assure  you  that  bread  made  in  this  manner  will  keep  moist  fr 
several  days,  and  even  when  it  does  become  rather  dry,  owing  to  its  being 


Seo.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  373 

light  and  porous,  it  is  immediately  restored  by  simply  warming  the  slices 
slightly  in  the  oven  of  your  stove  before  eating." 

We  reproduce  liere,  from  a  useful  little  book  called  "How  to  Live," 
which  we  wrote  a  few  years  since,  for  those  who  will  try  the  economy  as 
well  as  palatableness  of  a  loaf  of  wheat  and  Indian  bread,  the  following 
good  receipt,  long  in  use  by  our  good  mother  and  grandmother : 

"  To  two  quarts  of  Indian  meal  add  boiling  water  enough  to  wet  the  same ; 
when  sufficiently  cooled,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  half  a  pint  of  yeast, 
one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  one  half  teacupful  of  molasses,  and  flour 
enough  to  form  it  into  a  loaf  (it  should  not  be  kneaded  hard);  when 
light,  bake  two  hours  in  a  well-heated  oven.  (It  should  be  baked  until 
brown.)" 

And  here  is  another  good  receipt  from  the  same  book  for  making  rye  and 
Indian  bread,  which  is  both  cheap  and  wholesome : 

"Stir  and  mi.v  most  thoroughly  two  quarts  of  Indian  corn  meal  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt  and  a  quart  of  boiling  water,  or  enough  to  wet  every 
grain  of  meal.  Wlien  the  mush  cools  to  milk-warm,  stir  in  one  quart  of  rye 
meal  and  a  teacupful  of  good  yeast,  which  you  will  first  mix  with  half  a  pint 
of  warm  water,  so  that  the  yeast  will  be  more  evenly  dift'used.  With  the 
rye  meal  add  water  enough  to  make  the  mass  a  stiff  dough,  but  not  as  hard 
or  tough  as  flour.  It  must  be  kneaded  witii  tlie  hands.  [Remeinher — rye 
meal  is  not  rye  jiour.  It  is  the  unbolted  product  of  the  whole  grain.]  Put 
the  dough  in  a  pan,  and  pat  it  smooth  with  a  wet  hand.  It  will  rise  enough 
to  bake  in  an  hour,  in  a  warm  place,  and  siiould  be  put  in  a  hot  oven,  and 
remain  three  hours;  or  if  during  the  night,  all  the  better.  If  white  flour 
was  not  fashionable,  or  if  people  did  not  think  that  brown  bread  has  a  look 
of  poverty,  we  should  have  the  brown  bread  upon  every  table,  for  it  is  not 
only  more  economical,  it  is  more  nuti-itious  and  more  healthy,  particularly 
for  children. 

"  "We  do  not  eat  oatmeal  in  this  country  to  any  extent,  and  yet  it  is  the 
most  nutritions  breadstuff  ever  used  by  man." 

394.  PoSatoes  Used  in  Bread-Makiug. — When  potatoes  bear  such  a  price  to 
wlieat  flour  tliat,  uiien  cooked,  they  arc  about  half  the  price  per  pound  of 
the,flour,  it  is  good  economy  to  add  of  potatoes  about  one  fourth  the  weight 
that  is  used  of  flour,  for  a  batch  of  bread.  Bread  so  made  is  pleasanter  to 
the  taste,  and  equally  nutritions.  T!u;  potatoes  should  be  lioiled  with  the 
skins  on,  and  then  peeled,  mashed,  and  s:irred  into  a  pulp  with  warm  water, 
and  rubbed  through  a  wire  sieve,  and  tiien  mixed  with  the  flour,  and  yeast 
added  as  for  otlier  bread.  Tiie  bakers  of  jSTew  York  understand  the  economy 
of  using  potatoes  in  their  bread,  whenever  they  are  sold  at  low  prices.  Tlie 
small  potatoes,  which  are  unsalable  for  other  puruoscs,  are  often  sold  whole- 
sale to  bakers,  and  added  1o  the  flour. 

Tlie  potatoes  make  the  broad  nioisfer  than  it  would  be  if  composed  en- 
tirely of  flour,  so  that  for  those  wlio  sell  their  loaves  by  weight,  the  more 
water  they  can  be  made  to  contain  the  greater  will  be  their  profits.     When 


374  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Cdap.  IV. 

about  one  third  of  the  weight  is  comjjosed  of  potatoes,  it  makes  iirst-rate 
bread.  Many  persons  prefer  tlie  potato-bread  because  it  is  moist,  and  never 
think  liow  much  water  they  are  buying  at  si.\penee  a  pound. 

There  is  another  use  of  potatoes  in  bread — they  make  it  appear  light,  not- 
withstanding its  specific  gravity.  Potatoes  take  ou  the  vinous  fermentation 
(juickcr  than  flour,  and  sometimes  that  passes  into  the  acetous  state,  which 
the  bakers  correct  witii  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  lime-water,  still  adding 
weight  without  any  addition  of  nourishment.  Lime-water  is  not  objection- 
able ;  it  is  only  so  tliat  we  sliould  be  induced  to  buy  it  at  sixpence  a  pound, 
because  the  baker  puts  it  in  his  sour  iluur  or  potato-bread,  to  make  us  think 
it  is  sweet. 

Prof.  Liebig  advises  the  use  of  one  pint  of  lime-water  to  every  five 
pounds  of  flour.  The  lime-water  should  be  prepared  by  dissolving  lime  in 
water  to  a  point  of  saturation,  and  letting  it  settle  and  then  bottling  for 
future  use.  "With  this  lime-watei',  use  pure  yeast,  and  you  will  have  light, 
healthy  bread.  "With  saleratus,  largely  used,  you  will  not  have  wholesome 
bread,  disguise  it  as  you  will.  In  using  lime-water,  add  it  first  to  the  flour, 
then  add  pure  water  and  yeast,  and  you  will  have  better  bread  than  you  cau 
obtain  from  any  preparation  of  carbonate  of  soda  or  cream  of  tartar. 

Wheat,  divested  of  all  its  bran,  docs  not  contain  enough  of  all  the  health- 
giving  ingredients,  particularly  of  phosphate  of  litne,  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  nature.     With  such  flour,  potatoes  are  beneficial. 

Bread  should  be  more  thoroughly  baked  thau  it  is  usually,  and  not  eatcu 
warm  from  the  oven. 

Dry  bread  should  never  be  thrown  away.  By  soaking  and  reconverting 
it  into  dough,  it  can  be  again  baked  into  excellent  bread.  It  is  of  such  ma- 
terials that  the  delicious  tea-rusks  are  made.  Dry  bread  also  makes  most 
delicious  puddings.  Bread  of  fine  flour  is  too  much  eatcu.  We  recommend 
farmers  to  have  tiieir  wheat  ground  more  coarsely,  and  only  take  out  a  por- 
tion of  the  bran.  They  may  also  add  corn  or  rye  meal,  with  advantage  to 
economy  and  health.  It  will  be  also  economical  in  the  country  to  add 
potatoes.  It  is  not  always  so  in  the  city.  And  it  is  not  quite  honest  either 
to  sell  them  at  the  price  of  superfine  flour  bread. 

For  potato  biscuit,  grate  one  half  dozen  potatoes;  add  one  quart  of  water; 
one  cupful  of  hop-yeast  at  night;  and  in  the  morning,  when  light,  add  three 
teaspoonfids  of  sugar,  and  fluur  to  form  a  dough.  Let  it  ri.se;  when  light 
put  in  tins;  let  it  rise  again,  and  bake  one  half  hour. 

3l»ij.  Sprouted  Wheal  Flour — its  Effect  o.j  Krfail. — Sprouted  wheat  flour 
makes  what  housewives  <':dl  runny  dough,  and  that  is  apt  to  make  clammy 
bread.  To  remedy  this,  it  has  been  recommended  to  add  half  a  gill  of 
whisky  to  flour  enough  to  make  four  moderate-sized  loaves.  But  many 
object  to  the  use  t>f  whisky  to  make  bread,  and  ask  if  somelhiiig  else  will 
not  answer  as  well.  We  think  it  will.  We  think  if  about  the  same  qua-i- 
tity  of  shortening  is  added  to  the  flour  that  is  commonly  nsed  in  making  the 
old-fashion  Yankee  light  biscuit,  that  the  bread  will  be  light,  fine-grained, 


Sec.  23.]  THE   BREAD   QUESTION.  375 

and  free  from  all  tlie  difficulties  usually  attributed  to  grown  wheat. 
Tlie  addition  of  a  little  butter  or  lard  to  any  flour  will  not  do  any  harm. 
Try  it. 

396.  Yeast— How  to  Make  it.— The  chemists  have  proved  that  yeast  is  a 
plant,  as  much  so  as  mold  or  any  other  fungus.  As  we  get  it  fresh  from  the 
brewer,  yeast  appears  to  be  a  yellowish  gray  or  fawn-colored,  frothy  liquid. 
It  soon  settles  down  and  appears  dead,  but  is  still  active.  The  taste  is  bit- 
ter, and  it  emits  a  rather  disagreeable  odor.  Its  effect  upon  all  moist  sub- 
stances is  to  cause  them  to  ferment,  by  a  rapid  increase  of  its  growth,  and  a 
generation  and  diffusion  through  the  mass  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  makes 
the  dough  puff  up  and  assume  the  condition  called  light. 

The  great  secret  of  bread-making  is  to  use  just  the  right  quantity  of  yeast 
to  produce  a  light  loaf  without  having  any  of  the  flavor  or  odor  of  the 
yeast  imparted  to  it,  as  it  will  if  too  much  is  used,  or  if  the  action  of  the 
yeast  is  not  arrested  at  exactly  the  right  time. 

We  give  in  j^o.  397  the  most  convenient  form  for  preserving  yeast  ready 
for  use.  If  liquid  yeast  is  preferred,  it  can  be  made  by  mixing  wheat  flour 
and  water  into  a  paste  and  letting  it  stand  two  or  three  days  in  a  mod- 
erately warm  place,  when  it  will  begin  to  emit  a  disagreeable  sour  odor, 
which  afterward  passes  off  or  changes  to  a  vinous  odor  at  the  end  of  six 
da^'s.  Then  if  you  have  the  opportunity  to  get  malt  from  a  brewery — and 
if  not,  you  can  make  it  by  sprouting  barley  or  Indian  corn,  which  must 
then  be  dried  and  crushed — you  will  make  an  infusion  of  malt  and  boil  it  in 
water  with  a  handful  of  hops,  and  cool  it  till  lukewarm,  and  add  it  to  the 
paste  previously  thinned  into  a  soft  batter  with  tepid  water.  This  mixture 
kept  in  a  warm  place  a  few  hours,  begins  to  show  activity.  Fermentation 
has  commenced,  and  will  work  the  mass  until  there  is  a  clear  liquid  on  the 
surface,  which  pour  off,  and  the  opaque  liquid  at  the  bottom  is  good  yeast, 
which  you  may  keep  as  long  as  you  like  in  winter,  and  in  summer  upon  ice, 
or  hermetically  sealed  in  bottles  till  wanted  for  use. 

A  good  yeast  can  be  made,  when  you  have  the  seed — that  is,  active  yeast 
— from  four  pounds  of  peeled  potatoes  boiled  in  four  quarts  of  water  and 
a  large  handful  of  hops  in  a  bag.  The  Y>otatoes  are  mashed  and  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  water  and  a  little  salt,  molasses,  and  flour  to  make  a  batter, 
to  which  a  couple  of  spoonfuls  of  good  yeast  are  added,  and  this  will  ferment 
the  whole  and  make  it  fit  for  use  as  leaven  for  bread ;  it  may  be  kept  a  long 
time  in  a  cool  place. 

Yeast  is  sometimes  preserved  by  dipping  clean  twigs  in  it  and  drying 
them  and  preserving  them  dry  till  needed,  when  they  are  soaked  and  the 
liquor  added  to  the  sponge. 

It  has  also  been  dried  by  spreading  it  with  a  brush  upon  a  board  and  re- 
peating it  as  fast  as  each  layer  is  dried  until  of  considerable  thickness,  when 
it  is  scaled  off,  broken  up  and  bottled,  and  sealed  air-tight ;  it  will  then 
keep  for  years. 

A  yeast-plant  Las  been  found  in  California  capable  of  reproduction  to  an 


376  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

indefinite  degree  wlien  placed  in  n.  bottle  with  a  little  Bweetened  water. 
These  plants  ai>pear  somewliat  like  small  grains  of  wliite-lnilled  corn  soaki'd 
ill  water,  or  like  the  lumps  of  wheat  flour  which  form  in  boiling,  if  not  siif- 
liciently  stirred.  A  spoonful  of  this  substance  put  into  a  quart  of  flour 
mixed  for  a  sponge  will  cause  it  to  ferment,  just  as  an  addition  of  ordinary 
yeast  would.  Tiie  difficulty  in  its  use  is,  that  it  is  rather  liable  to  become 
too  acid,  but  it  is  a  pretty  good  substitute  for  common  yeast  in  a  new  coun- 
try where  bakers  and  brewers  are  not  convenient. 

397.  Teast-fakcs,  or  Ready-made  least,— Take  three  ounces  of  good  fresh 
hops,  three  and  a  half  pounds  of  rye  flour,  seven  pounds  of  Indian  corn 
meal,  and  one  gallon  of  water ;  rub  the  hops  so  as  to  separate  them ;  put 
them  into  boiling  water  and  boil  half  an  hour ;  strain  the  liquor  through 
a  fine  sieve  into  an  earthen  vessel.  While  hot,  put  in  the  rye  flour,  and 
when  lukewarm  add  a  pint  of  yeast.  Next  day  put  in  the  Indian  meal, 
stirring  it  well,  and  the  mess  will  be  stiflT  dough.  Knead  it  thoroughly,  and 
roll  it  out  to  the  thickness  of  about  a  third  of  an  inch,  and  cut  up  in  cakes 
three  inches  square,  and  dry  them  on  a  clean  board  or  a  tin  in  the  sun. 
Turn  them  every  day,  let  them  receive  no  wet,  and  they  will  become  as  hard 
as  ship  biscuit.  Store  them  in  a  bag  or  \>o\,  perfectly  free  from  damp. 
When  you  bake,  take  two  cakes  for  three  loaves,  and  put  them  into  a  quart 
of  tepid  water  with  half  a  pint  of  flour  in  a  vessel  near  the  fire-place  over- 
night, where  they  will  dissolve  by  morning,  and  then  use  them  in  setting 
your  sponge  as  you  would  the  yeast  of  beer.  These  yeast-cakes  may  be 
kept  just  as  long  as  you  desire. 

Kye  flour  is  better  than  wheaten,  but  not  absolutely  essential.  Some  use 
potatoes,  but  a  lady  writes  us  that  she  finds  the  addition  of  the  potatoes  of 
no  benefit  and  no  injury,  and  for  years  has  used  Indian  meal  only — which, 
being  simpler,  makes  the  work  easier. 

To  naake  yeast  powder,  take  one  pound  of  saleratus  and  two  pounds  of 
cream  of  tartar,  mix  them  thoroughly  together  by  passing  them  two  or  three 
times  through  a  sieve.  To  each  quart  of  flour  add  two  heaping  teaspooiifuls 
of  this  yeast  or  baking  powder;  wet  with  sweet  milk  or  water,  as  usual, 
and  bake  at  once  in  a  quick  oven.  The  bread  should  be  in  small  loaves — 
biscuit  in  the  same  way. 

398.  Salcratus-Rising  for  Bread.—"  In  discussing  this  I  aim  at  the  health 
stand-point,  and  reject  whatever  impairs  the  nutritive  qualities  of  the  flour, 
injures  its  flavor,  or  discolors  it.  The  excellence  of  bread  and  its  lightness 
depend  upon  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid  gas  during  the  process  of 
fermentation,  which  is  the  action  of  yeast  upon  the  saccharine  matter  of  the 
flour.  Ferment  or  yeast  is  an  organized  matter,  and  its  essentially  opera- 
tive constituent  is  a  peculiar  azotized  matter,  which,  in  the  wine-vat,  is 
mixed  with  some  tartar  and  other  salts,  and  in  the  beer-tun  with  gum  and 
starch.  Azote  is  found  in  animal  bodies,  and  certain  vegetables  contain  art 
azotized  principle ;  indigo,  caperine,  gluten,  and  many  others  contain  an 
abundance  of  azote.     All  bread-making  which  dispenses  with  kneading  and 


Sbo.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION^.  377 

true  yeast  fermentation  may  be  distrusted.  The  compositions  of  what  may 
be  termed  bread  compounds,  even  if  palatable,  diifer  greatly  from  true, 
good  bread. 

"  It  is  not  of  what  kind  of  eatable  things  bread  can  be  made,  but  how  to 
best  make  good,  wholesome  bread  that  is  as  sweet  when  a  day  or  two  old  as 
when  first  made,  or  better  even  than  when  new,  that  has  no  taste  of  yeast, 
none  of  the  bitter  of  hops,  nor  the  disagreeable  flavor  of  alkali,  and  that  will 
keep  good  a  week,  if  necessary. 

"  The  preference  should  be  given  to  that  yeast  that  will  make  the  light- 
est, sweetest  bread,  without  aid  from  extraneous  substances,  that  is  least 
likely  to  run  into  the  acetous  fermentation  without  infusing  the  bitter  of  hops. 

"  The  idea  that  alkalies  make  the  bread  tender  is  an  error,  tiie  dough  be- 
fore their  introduction  having  run  into  the  mucilaginous  or  putrefactive  fer- 
mentation." 

But  as  many  do  and  will  continue  to  use  alkalies,  we  will  give  some  of 
the  most  approved  methods, 

"For  making  prepared  flour  that  can  be  used  at  leisure,  to  each  quart  of 
flour  add  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus  and  two  of  pure  cream  of  tartar,  and 
what  salt  is  required  ;  mi.x  them  thoroughly  together  while  dry,  and  set 
aside  for  irse.  Flour  prepared  in  this  way  will  last  three  months,  for  tlie 
reason,  the  flour  keeps  the  chemicals  separate  from  each  other;  it  can  then 
be  wet  up  in  the  usual  way  and  baked  at  once.  Use  this  prepared  flour  for 
bread,  biscnit,  or  any  kind  of  sweet  cake  or  pan-cakes,  but  do  not  mix  the 
pan-cakes  until  j-ou  want  to  use  thorn. 

"  The  best  method  for  making  bread  with  sour  milk  and  saleratus  is  to 
add  to  each  pound  or  quart  of  flour  one  heaping  teaspoonful  of  saleratus  and 
what  salt  is  required  ;  mix  them  well  together  ;  which  is  best  done  by  pass- 
ing it  all  through  a  sieve.  Then  add  as  much  sour  milk  as  will  make 
the  dough  the  usual  thickness.  Mold  it  in  small  loaves,  and  bake  at  once. 
If  the  bread  should  be  a  little  yellow,  put  in  less  saleratus  next  time.  For 
biscuit,  it  should  be  molded  quite  thin.  Very  little  shortening  is  required ; 
it  should  be  baked  in  a  hot  oven ;  and,  if  baked  quick,  the  steam  will  help 
to  raise  the  biscuit." 

It  is  contended  by  the  advocates  for  this  bread,  that  "  being  free  from  all 
yeasty  particles,  it  is  more  digestible  and  not  so  likely  to  create  flatulence  or 
turn  acid  on  weak  stomachs  as  fermented  biead  ;  and  when  of  tiic  finest 
quality,  it  is  beneficial  to  those  who  suffer  headache,  acidity,  flatulence, 
eructations,  a  sense  of  sinking  in  the  j)it  of  the  stomach,  distention,  or  pains 
after  meals,  and  to  all  who  are  subject  to  gout  or  gravel.  It  is  also  us'jfn! 
in  many  affections  of  the  skin. 

"These  remarks  apply  to  both  varieties  of  the  bread,  but  especially  to  the 
brown,  which  is  further  invaluable  to  all  who  are  liable  to  constipation 
from  torpidity  of  the  colon,  or  large  intestines — the  common  infirmity  of 
the  sedentary — and  of  tiiose  who  have  been  accustomed  to  oatmeal  diet  in 
their  youth. 


37S  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

"  But  the  advantages  of  llie  process  are  not  limited  to  matters  relating  to 
health.  It  is  valuable  because  bread  can  be  prepared  by  it  in  tlie  short 
space  of  half  an  hour,  thus  saving  much  time  and  labor.  It  is  valuable,  also, 
because  the  materials  are  not  perishable,  and  may  be  rendered  available  in 
places  and  at  times  when  yeast  and  other  ferment  is  not  within  reach — as  at 
sea,  for  exam2)le,  or  in  country  retirements  ;  and  it  is  still  more  valuable  as 
regards  economy.  The  cost  of  the  chemicals  is  counterbalanced  by  that  of 
the  yeast,  salt,  and  alum,  otherwise  employed ;  but  were  it  not  so,  they 
would  form  an  altogether  unimportant  item  in  the  price  of  bread  ;  while  by 
their  use  a  saving  is  effected  in  the  flour  of  not  less  than  13  per  cent.  In 
the  common  process  much  of  the  saccharine  part  of  the  flour  is  lost  by  being 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  spirit,  and  thus  waste  is  incurred  solely  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  carbonic  acid  to  raise  the  dough.  By  the  new  method 
waste  is  avoided,  and  the  gas  obtained  in  a  manner  equally  efiicacious. 
And  it  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  successful  application  of  chemical  phi- 
losophy to  the  common  arts  of  life,  for  fermentation  destroys  a  part  of  the 
flour  or  meal,  so  that  280  lbs.,  which  make  300  lbs.  of  bread  by  fermenta- 
tion, give  380  lbs.  by  the  new  process." 

399.  Soda  vsi  ¥cast,  and  Dread  without  Yeast. — Without  taking  any  part 
in  the  controversy  about  the  healthiness  or  unhcalthiness  of  soda  bread,  we 
will  give  extracts  from  the  opinions  of  its  advocates  as  follows  : 

"  Soda  is  a  caustic  alkali  in  its  uncoinbined  state.  It  is  the  base  of  com- 
mon salt.  In  this  form  it  is  daily  taken  into  our  stomachs  witli  food,  and 
also  administered  regularly  to  domestic  animals  by  the  careful  husbandman. 
Let  ns  remember  that  notwithstanding  the  chlorid  of  sodium  has  been  used 
from  time  immemorial  by  man,  and  always  eagerly  sought  after  by  wild 
animals,  it  has  also  met  opposers  among  ultra  hydropathists.  It  is  therefore 
not  so  astonishing  that  the  bicarbonate,  whicli  is  what  is  used  in  cookery 
and  of  recent  introduction,  shoidd  find  many  opposers. 

"Potash  is  an  alkali  extracted  from  wood  ashes  by  percolation,  and  for 
culinar}-  jjurposes  is  combined  with  two  equivalents  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
sold  under  the  name  of  saleratus.  The  chemical  natures  and  physiological 
effects  of  tlie  two  bicarbonates  are  so  nearly  identical  that  I  shall  not  keep 
up  the  distinction  in  treating  of  them,  though  from  the  fact  that  tlie  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  is  dryer  and  more  easil}'  reduced  to  powder,  it  is  i)referable. 

"  To  secure  the  desired  effect  of  bicarTjonate  of  soda,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
it  in  cotmcction  with  some  acid  which,  by  combining  with  the  alkali,  sets 
free  tlie  carbonic  acid,  in  form  of  gas,  at  the  time  of  baking.  Sour  milk, 
which  contains  lactic  acid,  is  best.  The  lactic  acid,  having  a  stronger  aflin- 
ity  for  the  soda  than  the  carbonic  acid  has,  combines  with  ir,  forming 
lactate  of  soda,  a  neutral  salt,  jtossessed  of  no  caustic  property  wliatever ; 
while  the  gas,  disengaged,  fills  the  bread  with  minute  cells  and  thus  renders 
it  light  and  palatable. 

"  In  the  absence  of  sour  milk,  tartaric  acid  or  cream  of  tartar  should  be 
used.     If  tartaric  acid  is  used,  tartrate  of  soda  results  ;  a  harmless  substance 


Sko.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  379 

even  iu  considerable  quantities,  and  by  no  means  unpleasant  to  take  in 
warm  days  in  the  form  of  an  effervescing  draught.  If  cream  of  tartar  is 
used,  the  product  is  tartrate  of  soda  and  potassa,  or  Kochelle  salts,  which, 
in  ounce  doses,  is  known  to  be  one  of  our  mildest  saline  purgatives. 

"A  hearty  eater  will  take  only  a  few  grains  of  any  of  these  salts  at  a 
meal,  and  these  readily  pass  oiF  through  the  excretions  of  the  body,  or  enter 
upon  their  phj-siological  offices  in  the  gastric  fluids — the  bile  or  blood. 

"  These  bicarbonatos,  used  without  an  acid,  render  bread  unpalatable ;  and 
this  of  itself  would  prevent  persons  from  using  them  to  a  hurtful  extent. 

"  Instead  of  being  a  curse  to  the  world,  the  introduction  of  the  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda  has  been  a  great  blessing  in  banishing  lard,  iu  a  great  measure, 
from  our  biscuit.  That  the  largj  quantity  of  grease  necessary  to  make  good 
short  biscuit  of  superfine  flour  renders  bread  in  a  high  degree  indigestible, 
will  be  universally  admitted.  Make  biscuit  according  to  the  following 
formula,  and  you  have  an  article  altogether  superior  iu  point  of  digestibility 
and  flavor  to  those  in  which  lard  is  used  as  the  only  shortening. 

'■'■Rule  1.  Flour,  two  pounds;  fine  Indian  meal,  a  teacupful;  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  a  heaping  teaspoonful.  Thoroughly  mix  these  dry,  and  make  up 
with  new  buttermilk,  or  if  the  milk  is  very  sour,  add  water  sufficiently  to 
make  it  about  like  new  buttermilk.  The  soda  must  be  neutralized,  and,  in 
using  milk,  judgment  on  this  point  must  be  exercised. 

"  Hide  2.  Flour  and  meal  as  above ;  rub  together  dry  a  teaspoonful  of 
soda  and  two  thirds  as  much  tartaric  acid.  Mix  this  dry  with  the  meal  and 
flour,  and  make  up  with  water. 

"  Eule  3.  Same  as  Ko.  2,  except  use  a  teasooonful  of  cream  of  tartar  in- 
stead of  the  tartaric  acid. 

"A  very  small  quantity  of  lard  or  butter  may  be  used  with  advantage  to 
the  taste,  but  it  is  not  essentiah  These  ingredients  added  to  corn  bread 
make  a  wonderful  improvement  on  the  old-fashioned  hoe-cake.  That  this 
bj'ead  is  healthier  than  yeast  bread  there  is  no  doubt. 

'■'A  healthy  stomach,  especially  in  winter,  when  the  system  is  in  a  vigor- 
ous condition,  may  take  yeast  in  considerable  quantity  and  digest  the  meal 
before  the  process  of  fermentation  lias  time  to  take  place.  But  not  so  with 
weak  stomachs,  or  healthy  ones  in  the  heat  of  summer,  because  yeast  is  the 
deposit  formed  in  fermenting  liquids,  and  has  the  property,  when  added  to 
solutions  of  starch  or  sugar,  even  in  exceedingly  small  quantities,  of  exci  - 
ing  the  vinous  fermentation  in  the  whole  mass,  and  may,  and  often  does,  do 
it,  in  the  stomach  as  well  as  in  bread." 

But  the  sweetest,  most  nutritious,  most  wholesome  bakers'  bread,  we 
believe,  that  ever  was  made,  is  that  first  brought  into  general  use  in  New 
York  in  1861,  by  the  establishment  of  a  large  manufactory  for  its  produc- 
tion, which  used  over  forty  barrels  a  day,  when  working  in  full  force.  Tliis 
bread  is  called  '•  unfermented,"  yet  it  is  as  light  as  any  good  home-made 
bread,  which  it  very  much  resembles. 

The  following  is  the  process  by  which  it  is  made  light  without  yeast : 


380  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV 

"The  best  superfiiMJ  flour,  witli  a  due  proportion  of  pure  wafer,  passes 
from  the  bin,  tiirougli  a  hvrj,'e  iron  pipe,  into  a  huge,  hollow  globe  of  ca^^t- 
iron,  lined  with  tin,  in  which  revols'es  an  iron  shaft  with  polished  steel  arms, 
wliicli  mix  and  knead  the  dough. 

"During  this  operation  pure  carbonic  acid  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  gas- 
ometer into  the  globe  by  a  powerful  force-pump,  and  is  incorporated  uni- 
fomily  into  the  whole  mass.  Every  ingredient  is  in  definite  proportion,  and 
the  most  perfect  accuracy  is  thus  insured.  By  the  pressure  of  the  gas  the 
dough  is  then  forced  through  a  valve  into  baking-tins,  and  in  an  hour  and 
a  lialf,  from  flour  in  the  bin,  it  is  beautifully  baked  bread.  Xo  hand  of  man 
touches  it  in  the  whole  process.  All  is  done  by  the  iron  hands  of  niachinei-y 
and  the  power  of  steam.  No  chemical  change  whatever  occurs  in  the  flour. 
All  its  elements — the  starch,  the  gluten,  and  sugar — are  retained  in  their 
original  proportions  and  purity,  and  the  result  is  the  best  and  sweetest  bread 
in  existence.  By  the  old  process  a  little  of  the  starch  is  always  converted  into 
dextrine — a  species  of  glue — giving  the  bread  a  dark  color,  and  sometimes 
sodden  texture.  To  remedy  this,  alum  is  generally  used,  and  the  bread  there- 
by further  vitiated.  Perfect  cleanliness  in  the  manufacture  of  bread  has 
not  been  possible  heretofore.     It  is  by  this  process. 

"  Bread  made  at  home  has  been  the  purest  that  could  be  had,  for  the  ves- 
sels were  carefully  looked  after,  and  the  air  was  generally  free  from  dust 
and  decomposing  particles,  but  none  could  tell  what  impurities  contaminated 
the  yeast,  which,  whether  it  came  from  baker  or  brewer,  was  necessarily 
more  or  less  mixed  with  foreign  substances.  Home-made  bread  was  the 
cleanest  we  could  have,  but  was  not  perfectly  pure ;  while  Avith  the  mo.-t 
watchful  supervision  and  most  careful  cleanliness,  bakers'  bread,  made  in 
the  ordinary  way,  can  not  possibly  be  entirely  clean." 

Another  advantage  unfermented  bread  has  over  all  other  bakers'  bread,  is 
its  remarkable  keeping  quality.  It  has  been  eaten  with  great  satisfaction 
when  twelve  days  old. 

"William  Lounsberry,  commissary  of  the  20th  Regiment,  New  York  State, 
which  had  been  served  with  this  bread  while  in  the  city  and  on  the  march 
to  Washington,  speaks  of  it  in  the  following  terms: 

"  The  bread  has  been  on  our  table  every  day  since  we  left,  and  is  con- 
sidered by  all  a  great  delicacy.  It  loses  none  of  its  flavor  by  its  age,  but, 
for  me,  it  really  seems  to  improve. 

"It. is  sweet,  light,  and  very  palatable.  I  consider  it,  in  many  respects, 
the  best  bread  I  ever  tasted,  in  addition  to  its  power  of  retaining  its  excel- 
lence so  long,  the  virtue  which  gives  it  its  inestimable  value.  I  wish  I  could 
be  the  means  of  informing  a  much  larger  number  than  1  am  able  of  its  in- 
estimable merits." 

We  have  spoken  of  this  method  of  making  bread,  not  because  it  will  help 
families  to  make  better  bread,  but  to  show  what  improvements  have  been 
devised  to  make  bread  upon  a  large  scale.  The  process  would  be  a  good 
one  for  the  army  and  navy,  and  in  all  large  towns.     It  is  proper  to  say, 


Sec.  23.]  THE  BREAD  QUESTION.  381 

howeviT,  that  the  bread  is  not  a  aniversal  favorite.  Habit  so  vitiates  the 
taste,  tliat  there  arc  people  who  love  sour  bread,  and  also  bread  tliat  smells 
and  tas:es  rank  of  yeast.  To  us  it  is  not  agreeable  nor  healthy.  This  "  iin- 
ferniented  bread"  is  patented  by  Elislia  Fitzgerald  and  James  Perry,  ^ffew 
York. 

400.  Other  Substitutes  for  Tcast— Ch€inica!s  in  Bread.— A  substitute  for 
cream  of  tartar  has  been  discovered  by  Prof.  E.  ISi".  Horsford,  which  he 
thinks  far  preferable  to  use  with  soda  in  bread.     lie  says  of  it : 

"  All  tliese  considerations  led  me  to  the  conviction  that,  if  it  were  possible 
to  prepare  phosphoric  acid  in  some  form  of  acid  phosphate  of  lime,  such 
that,  after  its  action  with  moist  carbonate  of  soda,  it  would  leave  phosphate 
of  soda  (a  constituent  of  the  blood)  and  phosphate  of  lime  (an  essential  con- 
stituent of  food),  and  confer  upon  it  the  necessary  qualities  of  a  dry,  pulver- 
ulent acid,  the  end  would  be  so  far  attained  as  to  justify  a  practical  experi- 
ment in  domestic  use. 

'•  I  succeeded  in  producing  an  article  in  condition  to  meet  tlie  wants  of 
the  problem.  I  then  introduced  it  into  my  family  for  use  in  all  forms,  as  a 
substitute  for  cream  of  tartar  for  culinary  purposes.  When  many  months 
of  daily  use  had  assured  me  that  my  theoretical  views  were  sustained  by 
practical  application,  I  gave  it  into  the  hands  of  friends,  whose  prolonged 
experience  fully  confirmed  my  own.  It  has  been  in  constant  use  in  my 
family  now  for  more  than  four  yeai-s ;  and  in  the  form  of  yeast  powder, 
during  tliis  time,  it  has  been  produced  and  consumed  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  a  very  large  extent,  settling,  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner,  all 
questions  as  to  its  serviceability  and  healthfulness. 

"  The  article  is  prepared  according  to  instructions  furnished  by  myself,  as 
the  result  of  long-continued  experiment,  and  it  will  be  produced  of  invari- 
able purity  and  strength  equal  to  that  of  cream  of  tartar." 

Of  the  same  purport,  and  having  a  direct  reference  to  this  case,  are  the 
views  of  Dr.  Samuel  Jackson,  professor  of  the  institute  of  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania : 

"  Your  substitute  for  cream  of  tartar  for  the  raising  of  bread  is  a  decided 
improvement.  The  tartaric  acid  is  not  a  constituent  of  the  grains  from 
wliich  flour  is  made;  it  is  not  a  nutritive  principle,  and  often  disagrees  with 
the  alimentary  organs.  Tlie  pliosphate  of  lime,  which  is  the  principal  in- 
gredient of  your  preparation,  is  an  essential  constituent  of  all  grains.  It  is 
further  an  important  nutritive  principle ;  and  recent  experiments  have 
proved  it  is  an  indispensable  element  in  the  formation,  not  of  bones  only, 
but  of  all  the  animal  tissues.  A  deficiency  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  in  food 
is  a  common  cause  of  ill-healtli,  of  defective  development,  and  retarded 
growth  in  children.  In  the  conversion  of  wheat  into  flour,  the  phospliate 
of  lime  is  rejected  with  the  bran;  and,  in  consequence,  this  necessary  ele- 
ment of  nutrition,  contrary  to  the  arrangement  of  nature,  is  not  obtained 
from  our  fine  wheat  bread.  Your  preparation,  wliile  it  makes  a  light,  sweet, 
and  palatable  bread,  restores  to  it  the  phpsphate  of  lime  which  has  been 


382  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

separated  from  the  flour,  and  tliiis  adapts  it  as  an  aliment  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  a  liealthy  state  of  the  organization." 

Other  chemists  and  piiysicians  of  acknowledged  high  character  and  stand- 
ing have  given  similar  opinions. 

If  raising  bread  by  yeast  is  properly  conducted,  it  is  quite  unobjection- 
able ;  but  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  fermentation  is  allowed  to  proceed  too  long, 
acetic  and  lactic  acids  are  formed,  and  some  of  the  complex  nitrogenous 
substances  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  the  plastic  bodies  of  the  flour, 
and  are  incorporated  in  tlie  bread. 

Yeast  bread  is  never  good  unless  the  fermentation  is  arrested  by  baking 
at  just  the  riglit  time.  Ordinarily,  this  right  time  is  a  ))eriod  of  short  dura- 
tion, and  probably  not  one  loaf  in  one  hundred  is  raised  and  baked  when  it 
should  be.  The  circnmstanccs  which  modify  the  time  in  which  the  fermenta- 
tion may  take  place  ai'C  so  various,  that  it  may  occur  in  thirty  minutes  or 
twelve  hours.  Tiie  sponge  requires  constant  watching,  and  this,  in  the  mul- 
titudinous duties  of  the  kitchen,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  secure.  Then 
saleratus  or  soda,  to  sweeten  the  sour  sponge,  is  the  resort  of  the  cook ;  and 
the  result  is  an  unpalatable  and  imwholesome  loaf,  unworthy  the  name  of 
bread,  and  is  really  unwholesome  food. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Country  Gentleman  recommends  the  following 
formula  for  unfermented  bread : 

"Take  of  flour  3  lbs.,  bicarbonate  of  soda  9  draelims,  hydrochloric  acid, 
specitie  gravity  I.IG,  11  drachms.  About  25  oz.  of  water  will  be  required 
to  form  the  dough.  First  mi.x  the  soda  and  flour  as  thoroughly  as  possible  ; 
which  is  best  done  by  sliaking  the  soda  in  fine  powder  from  a  sieve  over  the 
flour  with  one  hand,  while  tlie  flour  is  stirred  with  the  other,  and  then 
passing  the  mi.xturo  once  or  more  through  the  sieve.  Next  pour  the  aciel 
into  the  water  and  dift'usc  it  by  stirring  them  well  together,  avoiding  the  use 
of  any  metallic  utensil  that  the  soda  might  come  in  contact  with.  Then 
•mix  the  dough  and  water  so  prepared  as  speedily  as  possible.  Tiie  dough 
should  be  speedily  put  into  a  quick  oven.  This  manner  of  making  bread  is 
a  great  improvement,  and  will  prove  advantageous,  compared  with  tlie  fer- 
menting method,  and  the  quality  also  will  be  found  vastly  superior  to  the 
antique  '  leavened  bread,'  jnu-ticuhirly  for  dyspeptics,  as  it  has  this  advant- 
age, tliat  it  never  sours  on  tiie  stomach.  By  tliis  method  bread  can  be  made 
in  two  hours,  and  it  saves  both  time  and  labor.  The  ingredients  are  simple, 
and  cost  little.  Fermentation  always  destroys  more  or  less  of  the  flour,  be- 
sides otherwise  injuring  it  lor  the  purposes  of  assimilation. 

"  A  large  proportion  of  the  bread  used  in  some  families  is  scarcely  more 
than  an  active  form  of  j-east,  which  produces  in  tiie  stomach  a  new  fer- 
mentation and  a  host  of  disorders.  And  tlien  we  witness,  of  coui-se,  the 
blue  va])ors,  which  under  difl'erent  aspects  are  as  ruinous  to  the  welfare  and 
l>eace  of  a  family  as  are  those  of  a  distillery.  If  tlie  proportions  of  acid  and 
baking  soda  directed  to  be  used  are  thought  to  be  too  great,  they  may  be 
varied  at  discretion. 


Seo.  23.]  TEIE  BREAD  QUESTIOiT.  383 

"In  bread-making  the  only  purpose  served  by  fermentation  is  the  genera- 
tion of  cai-bonic  acid  lo  raise  the  dough,  and  to  effect  this  a  quantity  of  yeast 
is  mixed  with  the  flour.  But  the  same  purpose  is  gained  by  mixing  a 
quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda  with  the  floui',  with  a  corresponding^ropor- 
tiou  of  hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  bread  so  formed  is  more  nutri- 
tious and  economical." 

Common  salt  always  should  be  added,  not  only  because  it  is  palatable, 
but  because  it  has  a  chemical  effect  upon  the  flour,  so  that  that  of  inferior 
quality  assumes  an  appearance  above  the  reality.  This  is  proved  in  what  is 
called  "  saU-rising  Inxtd,"  ■which  always  looks  whiter  than  the  same  flour 
made  with  yeast.  Salt  also  has  the  eftect  to  make  flour  take  up  and  retain 
more  water  in  the  bread.  Alum  has  the  same  effect  as  salt  in  a  stronger 
degree,  and  its  use  by  bakers  is  dishonest,  because  it  is  much  more  delete- 
rious t'aan  salt  to  the  human  stomach. 

Sulphate  of  copper  is  another  deleterious  article  in  bread,  but  it  can  only 
be  used  in  small  quantities,  without  great  danger,  and  produces  the  same 
results  as  alum  in  a  still  greater  degree. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia,  nscd  at  the  rate  of  20  to  40  grs.  to  tlie  pound  of 
flour,  produces  effects  similar  to  the  alum  or  sulphate  of  copper,  and  good 
scientiiic  authority  has  j^ronounced  it  harmless,  or  at  least  preferable  to  soda. 
Other  authoritj'  says  its  inaptitude  to  become  entirely  soluble  makes  it 
highly  objectionable. 

Probably  the  safest  mineral  substance  that  can  be  used  in  bread  is  lime, 
as  recommended  by  Liebig  (394). 

To  prepare  this  lime-water,  mix  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  slaked  lime  in  a 
gallon  of  pure,  soft  water  or  filtered  rain-water,  and  cork  it  tight  in  bottles. 
The  water  will  dissolve  eloth  of  its  weight  of  the  lime,  and  the  balance  will 
settle  to  the  bottom,  leaving  the  water  transparent,  which  may  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  5  lbs.  to  19  lbs.  of  flour,  and  then  fresh  water  may  be  added  to 
the  lime  until  all  that  is  soluble  is  used  up.  The  quantity  of  lime  taken  into 
the  system  is  so  minute  that  it  is  believed  that  it  is  not  only  not  deleterious, 
but  positively  beneficial. 

401.  Profi  Youmans'  Opinion  of  Chemicals  in  Bread. — Speaking  of  the  use 
of  various  chemical  substances  for  yeast.  Prof.  Youmans  sa^'s  : 

"The  class  of  substances  thus  introduced  in  the  bread  are  not  nutritive 
but  mediciiial,  and  exert  a  disturbing  action  upon  the  healthy  organism. 
And  altiiough  their  occasional  and  cautious  employment  may  perhaps  be 
tolerated  on  the  ground  of  convenience,  yet  we  consider  their  habitual 
use  as  highly  injudicious  and  unwise.  This  is  the  best  that  can  be  said  of 
the  chemical  substances  used  to  raise  bread,  even  when  pure;  but  as  com- 
monly obtained,  they  are  apt  to  be  contaminated  with  impurities  more 
objectionable  still.  For  example,  the  commercial  muriatic  acid  which  is 
commonly  employed  along  with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  is  always  quite  impure, 
often  containing  chlorine,  chlorid  of  iron,  sulphurous  acid,  and  even  ar- 
senic, so  that  the  chemist  never  uses  it  without  a  tedious  process  of  purifica- 


JS-l  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


tion  for  liis  purposes,  wliieli  arc  of  far  less  importance  than  its  emijloyment 
in  diet.  Wliile  common  hydrochloric  acid  sells  for  three  cents  per  pound 
wholesale,  tiie  purified  article  is  sold  for  thirty-five.  Tartaric  acid  is  apt 
to  contain  lime,  and  is  frequently  adulterated  with  cream  of  tartar,  wliich  is 
sold  at  half  the  price,  and  greatly  reduces  its  efficacy  ;  wliile  cream  of  tartar 
is  variously  mixed  witli  alum,  chalk,  hisulphatc  of  potash,  tartrate  of  lime,  and 
even  sand.  Sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia  is  liable  by  exposure  to  the  air  to 
lose  a  portion  of  its  ammonia.  It  is  hence  seen  that  the  substances  we 
employ  are  not  only  liable  to  injure  by  ingredients  which  they  may  con- 
ceal, but  that  their  irregular  composition  must  often,  more  or  less,  defeat  the 
end  for  wliich  tliey  are  intended.  We  may  suggest  that  in  tlie  absence  of 
tests,  the  best  practical  defense  is  to  purcliase  these  materials  of  the  drug- 
gist rather  than  the  grocer.  If  soda  is  desired,  call  for  the  bicarbonate  of 
soda ;  it  contains  a  double  charge  of  carbonic  acid,  and  is  purest.  Soda- 
saleratus  is  only  tlie  crude,  impure  carbonate — soda  ash.  The  cream  of  tartar 
should  appear  M'hite  and  pure,  and  not  of  a  yellowish  tinge.  Carbonate  of 
potash  in  its  crude  state  appears  as  pearlash  ;  in  its  more  ]nirified  form  it  is 
saleratus.  Crude  soda  is  known  as  sal-soda  or  soda-saleratus ;  refined  and 
cleared  of  its  chief  impurities,  it  forms  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  of  soda. 
All  these  compounds  have  the  common  alkaline  or  burning  property,  wliich 
belongs  to  free  potash  and  soda,  which  is  lowered  or  weakened  by  the  car- 
bonic acid  united  with  them.  The  potash  compounds  are  the  strongest, 
those  of  soda  being  of  the  same  nature,  but  weaker.  Yet  the  system,  as  we 
have  just  seen,  recognizes  essential  differences  between  them;  one  ])erlains 
to  the  blood  and  the  other  to  the  flesh.  According  to  the  theory  of  tlieir 
general  use  for  raising  bread,  they  ought  to  be  neutralized  by  an  acid,  mu- 
riatic, tartaric,  acetic,  or  lactic,  thus  losing  their  peculiar  properties  and  be- 
coming salts.  These  changes  do  take  place  to  a  certain  extent,  and  the  sa- 
line compounds  formed  are  much  less  powerful  and  noxious  than  the  un- 
neutralized  alkalies ;  their  effects  are  moderately  laxative.  Yet,  in  tlie 
common  use  of  these  substances,  as  we  have  stated,  the  alkali  is  not  all  e.x- 
tinguished ;  much  of  it  enters  the  system  in  its  active  form.  Pure,  strong 
potash  is  a  powerful  corrosive  ]>oison,  disorganizing  the  stomach  and  dis- 
solving its  way  through  its  coats  quicker,  perhaps,  than  any  other  jjoisonous 
agent.  When  the  alkalies  are  taken  in  small  quantities,  as  when  there 
is  an  excess  in  bread,  they  disturb  healthy  digestion  in  the  stomach  by  neu- 
tralizing its  necessary  acids.  They  are  sometimes  found  agreeable  as  pal- 
liatives when  there  is  undue  acidity  of  the  stomach  ;  and,  on  the  other 
bund,  they  may  be  of  service  in  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  fatty  snb- 
tances.  It  is  alleged  that  their  continued  use  tends  to  reduce  the  propor- 
tion of  fibrin  in  the  blood.  Cases  are  stated  where  families  have  been  poi- 
soned by  the  excessive  employment  of  saleratus.'" 

402.  Baking  Bread— Heat  of  the  Oven— Quality  of  Flouro- The  heat  of  the 
oven,  besides  being  cquallj'  diffused,  should  continue  regulaf.  The  heat  is 
right  when  flour  sprinkled  on  the  oven-bottom  turns  brown  gradually,  and 


Sec.  23.]  THE  BREAD   QUESTION  385 

too  hot  if  the  flour  chars  black  directly ;  for  tlien  it  ■will  produce  a  thick 
crnst,  often  burnt,  while  the  interior  of  the  loaf  is  underdone.  The  crumb 
is  cooked  at  the  boiling-point — 212  degrees — and  might  be  done  in  a  steam- 
clianiber  as  Avell  as  an  oven,  but  for  the  crust,  which  we  all  love  so  well  that 
we  are  not  willing  to  dispense  with  it  for  any  more  economical  mode  of 
cooking  t!ian  the  oven. 

The  heat  of  the  oven  swells  a  well-raised  lump  of  dough  to  about  double 
the  size  b}'  the  expansion  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  by  steam  arising  from 
the  moisture  in  the  loaf,  and  by  the  vaporizing  of  alcohol,  distilled  out  in 
the  process  of  baking,  to  an  amount  equal  to  about  one  quarter  of  one  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  bread.  A  well-raised  loaf  of  bread  is  more  than  half 
cavities.  The  loss  of  Aveight  in  baking  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the 
flour  and  size  of  the  loaf.  A  one-pound  loaf  will  generally  require  1  lb.  6  oz. 
of  dough.  A  three-pound  loaf  requires  3  lbs.  12  oz  of  dough.  A  six-pound 
loaf  requires  7  lbs.  of  dough.  This  shows  that  it  is  the  most  economical 
to  bake  large  loaves. 

If  you  wish  to  prevent  baking  a  hard  crust,  you  can  do  so  by  rubbing  the 
loaf,  after  it  is  shaped  for  the  oven,  with  a  little  lard,  just  enough  to  varnish 
the  surface.  The  crust,  however,  if  not  burnt,  is  always  eaten  with  satis- 
faciion,  its  agreeable  bitter  taste  being  preferred  by  many  persons. 

The  crust,  which  is  dry  and  crisp  upon  new  bread,  grows  soft  and  moisi 
after  a  day  or  two.  Some  housewives  always  wrap  their  loaves  in  wet  cloths 
when  taken  from  the  oven,  to  prevent  the  crust  from  continuing  to  get  dryer. 
There  is  no  need  of  this,  because  the  moisture  of  the  crumb  soon  softens  the 
crust,  and  frequently  leaves  the  crumb  too  dry.  When  this  is  the  case,  re- 
turn the  stale  loaf  to  the  oven  in  company  with  a  dish  of  hot  water. 

The  average  quantity  of  water  in  well-baked  wheaten  loaves  is  about 
forty-five  per  cent.  Tlie  best  flour  contains  six  to  ten  per  cent,  of  water. 
The  reason  that  spring  wheat  flour  makes  moister  bread  than  winter  wheat, 
is  because  it  contains  more  gluten,  and  that  being  once  thoroughly  wet  in 
mixing  the  dough,  is  retentive  of  the  water,  even  after  it  has  lost  its  tough, 
adhesive  qualities,  in  passing  from  dough  into  well-baked  bread  crumb.  A 
portion  of  the  starch  of  the  dough  also  retains  water  by  being  converted  by 
the  baking  process  into  gum.  The  loaf  will  retain  much  more  moisture, 
and.  consequently  be  better  bread,  if  it  crusts  over  immediately  upon  its 
being  placed  in  the  oven,  as  it  is  then  in  a  measure  impervious  to  water,  and 
shuts  in  all  that  the  interior  of  the  loaf  contains. 

403.  The  Effect  of  Kneading. — Good  bread  can  not  be  made  by  merely 
mixing  flour  and  water  and  yeast.  The  mass  must  be  kneaded  so  as  to 
be  sure  to  bring  every  grain  of  flour  in  contact  with  its  equivalent  grain 
of  water,  and  so  as  to  diff"use  the  yeast  uniformly  throughout  the  mass, 
or  else  the  resulting  gas  will  be  liberated  in  excess  in  one  spot  and  not  at  all 
in  another.  This  is  seen  in  badly-kneaded  loaves  in  the  large  holes  they 
contain,  and  in  a  crust  that  easily  detaches  from  the  crumb,  as  though  it  bad 
been  lifted  up  by  internal  force.     The  air-cells  in  a  well-kneaded  loaf  are 


386  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

fine  and  unifonn  tlirongliout  the  mass,  and  all  will  be  formed  at  about  the 
same  time.  If  the  flour  and  yeast  are  decidedly  good,  and  the  kneading 
decidedly  bad,  the  bread  will  not  give  satisfaction.  On  the  otiier  hand, 
good  kneading,  good  molding,  and  good  baking,  will  make  a  second  or 
third-rate  quality  of  flour  pass  almost  c(nial  to  the  best. 

404.  Preparations  of  Wheat  and  Otlifr  Substances  for  Bread.— There  are 
many  things  Avhich  may  be  used  to  mix  M-ith  white  wheat  flour,  or  as  sub- 
stitutes for  it.  A  baker  in  Paris  has  tried  a  successful  experiment  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  bread  by  mixing  rice  flour  with  that  of  wheat.  lie  puts  in  one 
part  of  rice  to  five  of  wheat  flour,  and  the  economy  eflfected  reaches  the  very 
considerable  figure  of  one  sou  in  the  two-pound  loaf.  The  government  has 
had  the  bread  examined  by  competent  persons,  and  has  authorized  the  sale 
of  it  at  a  less  rate  tlian  fixed  by  the  police.  The  demand  is  such  that  the 
baker  can  not  supply  it.  Neither  the  nutriment  nor  the  taste  of  the  bi"ead 
would  appear  to  be  aflfected  by  the  presence  of  the  new  ingredient. 

The  greatest  advantage  of  mixing  rice  flour  with  wheat  flour  is  to  enable 
the  loaf  to  retain  more  water,  and  make  a  moister  bread. 

Bread  made  of  wheat  meal,  as  is  proved  by  tlie  chemical  experiments  of 
Prof.  Johnston,  aflords  much  more  nutriment  than  that  made  from  superfine 
flour.  Tliese  experiments  show  us  that  1,000  lbs.  of  wheat  meal,  or  the 
wheat  ground  coarsely,  and  the  hulls  or  bran  portion  sifted  out  by  using  a 
common  meal-sieve,  contain  the  elements  of — Muscular  matter,  156  lbs. ; 
fat,  28  lbs. ;  bone  materia],  170-354  lbs. 

"Wiiereas  in  fine  flour  are  found  only  of — Muscular  matter,  130  lbs.;  fat, 
20  lbs. ;  bone  material,  CO-210  lbs.  Leaving  a  balance  iu  favor  of  the 
former  of  144  lbs.  in  1,000  lbs.  of  the  real  elements  of  food  convertible  by 
assimilation  into  mn&cular  flesh,  fat,  and  bone. 

Now,  as  bread  ranks  among  the  chief,  if  not  as  the  chief  substance  de- 
signed for  the  nutrition  and  support  of  the  human  frame,  the  above  facts 
ought  to  have  weight,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  as  an  argument  against 
the  exclusive  use  of  superfine  flour. 

Unbolted  wheat  meal  for  bread  is  in  high  favor  with  many,  and  we  think 
every  family  should  use  it  a  portion  of  the  time.  In  mixing  the  dough  of 
this  meal,  do  not  make  it  quite  as  stifl'  as  you  would  white  flour,  and  you 
must  be  careful  that  it  docs  not  sour  in  rising,  as  it  will  do  so  sooner  tiian 
bolted  flour.  It  also  requires  a  hotter  oven  and  longer  baking,  and  the  crust 
is  more  apt  to  burn. 

Rye  flour  mixed  with  wheat  flour  enables  the  loaf  to  hold  more  water. 
The  objection  to  it  is  its  darker  color  and  rye  taste. 

Indian  corn  meal  is  also  mixed  with  wheat  flour,  for  the  same  purpose  a.s 
rye  flour,  and  if  pure  white  corn  is  used,  it  does  not  aflfect  the  color  of  the 
loaf,  and  makes  very  sweet  bread. 

Of  mixing  potatoes  we  have  fully  treated  (394),  and  recommend  farmers 
to  grow  some  of  the  very  white  fleshed,  dry  sorts,  for  this  purpose. 

A  French  process  uses  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  wheat  nuxking  white  bread. 


Sec.  23.]  THE   BREAD   QUESTION-.  387 

The  wheat  is  ground  into  fine  wheat  flour,  sevcntj-four  per  cent. ;  brown 
meal,  sixteen  per  cent. ;  bran,  ten  j^er  cent.  The  meal  is  then  mixed  quite 
thin  Miih  water  and  the  necessary  yeast  added,  and  this  is  used  to  mix  the 
white  flour  into  a  dough,  whicli  is  baked  as  usual  when  light.  The  bread 
is  declared  to  be  greatly  improved,  being  less  likely  to  sour,  and  is  light, 
sweet,  and  nutritious, 

405.  Corn  Breadi — Although  Indian  corn  is  a  more  universal  crop  than 
wheat,  corn  bread  is  by  no  means  in  universal  use.  The  reason  is  in  some 
measure  to  be  accounted  for  in  the  inborn  love  of  fermented  bread  which 
the  meal  of  this  grain  will  not  make.  The  use  of  "  leavened  bread"  has 
been  thought  by  some  to  come  in  part  from  the  early  notion  that  it  created 
a  distinction  between  Christians  and  Jews.  The  former  always  use  leavened 
bread — at  least  the  Protestants  do,  in  their  sacraments — and  the  Jews  have 
their  holy  "  feasts  of  unleavened  broad ;"  so  that  eating  unleavened  bread 
as  a  constant  practice  has  been  said  to  be  an  unchristian  act.  It  was  also 
the  daily  food  of  the  heathen,  and  in  early  times,  when  the  first  settlers  of 
the  country  were  very  poor,  corn  bread  was  the  only  kind ;  and  the  use 
of  it  now  may  call  up  reminiscences  of  painful  poverty.  It  is  also  the  only 
bread  of  slaves,  and  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  badge  of  servitude.  At 
any  rate,  the  poorest  classes  of  the  -Northern  States  make  the  least  use  of 
corn  bread.  Yet  it  is  the  very  thiog  tliat  they  should  eat,  because  it  is 
nutritious,  healthful,  and  economical.  In  Northern  cities,  corn  meal  fur- 
nishes scarcely  one  per  cent,  of  tlie  bread  food,  and  not  one  per  cent,  of  that 
is  made  into  bread.  In  tlie  farming  regions  of  the  northeastern  States  pure 
corn  bread  is  only  seen  occasionally  upon  the  farmer's  table,  though  bread 
made  of  a  mixture  of  about  two  parts  of  corn  meal  and  one  of  rye  meal, 
familiarly  known  as  "  ry'n'-injun,"  is  still  extensively  used.     (See  393.) 

A  much  better  mixture  is  one  part  rye  meal,  two  parts  corn  meal,  and 
four  parts  fine  wheat  flour.  The  rye  and  corn  are  mixed  with  yeast,  quite 
soft,  and  set  to  rise,  and  after  getting  veiy  spongy,  the  wheat  flour  is  worked 
in,  and  the  mass  allowed  to  get  light  before  it  is  put  to  bake. 

At  the  South,  corn  bread  is  almost  the  only  sort  ever  seen  upon  the  tables 
of  many  families  who  rank  upon  a  par  with  the  mass  of  Northern  farmers. 
All  eat  it  there  and  are  content,  both  master  and  slave,  and  those  who  are 
hired,  or  sit  at  the  table  as  guests.  If  a  farmer  at  the  North  should  attempt 
to  feed  his  laborers  exclusively  upon  corn  bread,  there  would  probably  be  a 
revolt,  particularly  if  a  majority  of  them  were  Irish,  whose  only  bread  in 
their  own  country  was  potatoes. 

Such  laborers  have  yet  to  learn  that  corn  bread  gives  more  working  force 
than  bread  of  fine  Avheaten  flour.  The  latter  gives  the  most  brain  food,  and 
is  best  for  growing  children ;  but  Indian  corn,  either  iu  tire  form  of  bread,  or 
many  of  the  other  forms  in  which  it  comes  to  the  tables  of  those  who  know 
how  to  cook  it,  furnishes  the  laborer  with  a  greater  proportion  of  power 
than  any  other  grain,  and  its  value  should  be  better  known,  and  it  then 
would  be  more  used  as  an  article  of  food. 


388 


DOfESTIC  ECON^OMT. 


[Chap.  IV. 


Perhajis  the  reason  why  the  use  of  corn  bread  is  going  out  of  fashion  in 
this  region,  ■wliich  is  in  the  very  center  of  the  great  corn  belt,  niaj'  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  so  many  households  are  now  served  by  cooks  who  were  not 
born  in  a  corn-growing  country,  and  who  seem  incapable  of  learning  that 
corn  meal  is  not  fit  to  eat  in  a  semi-raw  state.  If  they  make  it  into  niujh, 
they  only  scald  it.  If  they  mix  it  into  bread,  they  insist  upon  its  being  done 
as  soon  as  it  is  heated  through.  Learn,  then,  that  corn  meal  can  not  be 
cooked  too  much — it  seldom  is  enough.  The  best  corn  bread  we  ever  ate 
was  from  meal  well  kneaded  with  nothing  but  water  and  a  little  salt,  and 
then  made  into  lumps  about  tlie  size  and  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  man's  foot, 
and  raked  in  the  embers  just  like  potatoes  to  roast,  and  there  allowed  to 
remain  and  cook  all  night.  The  next  best  corn  bread  is  the  old-style  johnny- 
cake,  mixed  in  the  same  wa}',  and  patted  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick  upon  a  board,  and  roasted  before  an  exceedingly  hot  fire. 

The  next  best  are  the  "  corn-dodgers"  of  the  Southwest,  mixed  like  the 
first^  and  baked  in  an  iron  bake-pan,  standing  on  hot  coals,  with  hot  coals 
on  the  lid.  These  dodgers  are  usually  of  two  to  four  pounds  weight,  and 
when  brought  hot  to  the  table  are  certainly  good  bread.  They  are  much 
eaten  cold,  but  we  can  not  recommend  tliem  in  that  condition,  onl}-  as  being 
infinitely  better  than  the  half-baked  corn  bread  common  at  the  Nortli. 

All  the  improvements  of  corn  bread  ever  attempted  by  adding  other 
ingredients  have  failed,  to  our  taste,  to  produce  an  article  ^qual  to  a  well- 
baked  ash-cake  or  corn-dodger. 

Eemember  the  three  grand  secrets  about  making  good  corn  bread :  never 
to  grind  your  meal  very  fine,  always  to  have  it  fresh  ground,  and  never  fear 
baking  it  too  much.  All  corn  bread  should  be  cooked  a  long  time.  The 
negroes  often  bury  the  dough  in  the  hot  embers  all  night. 

One  of  the  most  common  objections  to  tl>e  use  of  corn  bread  is  its  sup- 
posed indigestibility.  On  account  of  this  character,  which  it  has  obtained, 
as  we  think,  unjustly,  it  is  avoided  by  many  people  who  are  of  a  dyspeptic 
habit.  We  think  there  is  a  mistake  in  ascribing  this  c'laracfer  to  corn  bread 
indiscriminately.  If  Indian  corn  meal  is  not  thoroughly  cooked,  it  is  indi- 
gestible— more  so,  perhaps,  tlian  any  other  grain.  But  such  bread  as  that 
above  described  as  ash-cakes  or  corn-dodgers,  we  do  not  believe  indigestible. 
We  have  often  eaten  corn-cakes,  made  purposely  for  a  severe  affliction  of 
indigestion,  and  found  them  better  than  any  other  kind  of  bread.  These 
were  made  of  meal  and  water  and  salt  only,  and  patted  out  into  the  size 
and  thickness  of  Boston  crackers,  and  most  thoroughly  baked  in  a  quick 
oven.    See  Section  XXIY. 


Sec.  24.] 


SUBSTITUTES   FOK   BREAD. 


389 


SECTION  XXIV.-SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BREAD,  IN  GREEN  AND  DRIED 
CORN,  POP-CORN,  HOMINY,  AND  PREPARATIONS  OF  WHEAT 

OW  truly  has  brea<J  heen  denominated  "  the  staff 
of  life!"     For  it  there  is  no  substitute;  though 
some  of  the  excellent  preparations  of  food  treated 
of  in  this  section  may  be  considered  substitutes, 
but   they   are   only   partially  so ;   yet  they   are 
worthy  of   our   especial    attention,   because,   as 
articles  of  food,  all  over  America,  they  hold  a  high 
rank;  and  a  notice  of  them  seems  fitting  in  connec- 
tion   with   the    bread   question.     Each   one   of   the 
articles  named  in  this  section  furnishes  wholesome 
and  economical  food,  and  some  of  them  should  be 
better  known  in  every  farmer's  family. 

406.  Oreeu  C«rn,  or  Roasting  Ears. — Boasting  the 
ears,  is  the  primitive  way  of  using  Indian  corn.  It 
is  the  first  use  that  the  earl}-^  settlers  of  America  made  of  it,  because  that  was 
the  uiode  in  which  they  found  the  Indians  preparing  it.  The  quality  of  the 
corn  grown  for  eating  while  in  its  milky  state,  has  been  much  improved 
since  Captain  Smith  took  his  first  meal  with  Pocahontas,  on  the  banks 
of  James  River,  in  1607.  Certainly  there  can  be  no  richer  vegetable 
food  than  the  best  quality  of  sugar  corn,  such  as  every  farmer  should 
ii;row,  when  simply  boiled,  or  when  made  up  in  that  Indian  dish  called  snc- 
co-tash.  And  if  any  farmer  doubts  the  value  of  this  green  corn,  as  winter 
food,  when  carefully  preserved  by  drying,  or  in  sealed  cans,  we  think  he 
would  be  convinced,  if  he  could  dine  at  our  table  for  a  month  in  midwinter, 
where  he  would  find  it  was  one  of  the  regular  dishes.  We  have  just  made 
a  hearty  meal  of  this  and  another  preparation  of  corn,  dii'cctly  to  be  noticed. 
It  is  almost  a  substitute  for  bread  and  meat.  It  is  useless  to  advise  any 
native  American  farmer's  family  to  eat  green  corn,  but  it  is  not  useless  nor 
improper  to  urge  nine  tenths  of  them  to  use  a  better  variet3^  And  we  do 
most  earnestly  ask  every  family  to  preserve  enough  by  drying  to  give  the 
family  a  dish  of  it  two  or  three  times  a  week,  cooked  by  boiling  in  plain 
soft  water  two  or  three  hours,  and  until  nearly  all  the  water  is  absorbed  or 
evaporated,  and  then  season  with  salt  and  butter.  If  a  little  saleratus  is 
added  at  fi.rst,  it  will  become  tender  with  less  boiling.  Some  like  it  dished 
up  with  milk  or  cream.  It  is  also  excellent  stewed  with  beans  (succotash), 
seasoned  with  a  piece  of  meat,  and  it  is  very  good  in  soups. 

407.  Dow  to  Dry  and  f  ook  Sweet  Corn. — "When  the  corn  is  in  good  condition 
for  eating,  the  grains  being  fully  grown,  boil  a  quantity  of  ears  just  enough 
to  cook  the  starch,  and  let  them  cool  and  dry  a  few  hours,  and  then  shell  or 


390  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


cut  off  tlie  grains  and  spread  tlicni  in  the  sun  till  dried.  The  best  way  to 
dry  the  corn  is  to  nail  a  j)iece  of  cloth  of  very  open  texture  on  a  frame ;  say 
two  feet  wide  and  live  feet  long,  will  he  a  convenient  size  to  handle.  If  the 
corn  is  spread  thinly  upon  this  cloth  it  will  dry  quickly  without  souring.  It 
should  "be  covered  with  a  piece  of  musquito  netting  to  keep  off  the  flics. 
Another  person  gives  the  following  directions  for  drying  sweet  corn. 

"  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  fit  for  the  table,  husk  and  spread  the  ears  in  an 
open  oven  or  some  quick  drying-place.  "When  the  kernels  loosen,  shell  the 
corn  as  soon  as  you  can,  and  spread  it  upon  a  cloth  to  dry  in  the  sun,  or  on 
paper  in  a  warm  oven  ;  stir  it  often  that  it  may  dry  quickly  and  not  over- 
heat. Dried  in  this  way,  the  kernels  remain  whole,  are  sweeter,  and  retain 
more  of  the  natural  flavor  by  drying  faster.  When  all  dried,  expose  it  to 
the  wind  by  turning  it  slowly  from  dish  to  dish ;  the  wind  blows  ofi'  all  that 
troublesome  white  chaff." 

Another  plan  has  been  highly  recommended  and  a  machine  invented  to 
facilitate  the  operation  ;  this  is  to  bore  out  the  pith  of  the  cob  and  then  com- 
pletely dry  the  corn  on  the  cob  and  keep  it  there  till  wanted  for  the  table, 
when  it  may  be  shelled  first  or  boiled  as  it  grew. 

Directions  for  cooking  dried  sweet  corn  are  very  sin)ple.  Wash  and  put 
it  in  warm  water  to  soak  several  hours;  then  in  the  same  water  boil  it  for 
a  half  hour.  Just  before  taking  it  up,  add  some  sweet  milk  or  cream,  pep- 
per and  salt  to  tlie  taste,  and  a  little  sugar  if  it  is  not  as  sweet  as  would  be 
agreeable.  Sometimes  a  bit  of  soda  as  large  as  a  pea  in  a  half  pint  of  corn, 
while  soaking,  makes  it  more  tender,  and  corrects  any  stale  taste  which  it 
has  acquired  by  long  keeping. 

This  is  a  good  dish  with  meat,  dressed  with  gravy,  or  it  maybe  eaten  wilh 
sauce  as  a  dessert  dish.  It  is  good  enough,  eaten  any  way,  to  be,  and  it 
should  be,  upon  every  American  farmer's  table,  s 

408.  Hulled  Coru,  or  Lye  Uominy,  is  another  primitive  form  of  preparing 
an  excellent  substitute  for  bread.  In  the  form  of  "  tortillas,"  it  is  the  almost 
universal  bread  of  Central  America.  We  look  upon  hulled  corn  as  one  of 
the  luxuries  of  American  farm  life,  yet  not  one  in  ten  of  farmers' families 
ever  enjoy  it.  It  is  particularly  acceptable  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when 
old  vegetables  are  on  the  decline,  and  new  ones  have  not  yet  con)e  into  use. 
When  the  farmer  burns  wood,  a  white  lye  may  be  mado  in  a  few  minntes, 
or  cobs  may  be  burned  and  ashes  used  to  make  a  lye,  into  wh'ch  put  the  corn 
to  be  hulled,  which  should  be  large,  white-flint  corn,  and  let  it  remain  until 
the  hull  will  slip  easily,  and  then  rinse  it  thoroughly  in  cold  water,  rubbing 
it  with  the  hands  or  stirring  it  with  a  stick  till  all  the  hulls  are  washed  off. 
Feed  the  hulls  and  chits  which  come  out  to  the  )>igs  or  hens,  and  boil  fho 
corn  for  j-oursclf  until  it  swells  to  three  times  its  original  size,  and  is  as  soft 
as  bread.  Yon  may  prepare  and  boil  a  gallon  at  once  for  six  persons,  and 
what  is  not  eaten  at  first  may  be  warmed  over  just  as  you  would  potatoes. 
Those  who  have  no  wood  ashes  or  cobs  to  make  weak  lye  of,  may  hull  coi-n 
by  using  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus  to  a  quart  of  corn,  in  water  enough  to 


Sec.  2-4.]  SUBSTITUTES  FOK   BREAD.  391 

cover  it.  In  either  case  the  lye  must  be  made  hot  after  tlie  corn  is  put  in 
to  loosen  the  hull ;  and  if  the  lye  is  not  carefully  washed  from  the  corn,  it 
will  taste  unpleasantly.        t 

409.  Saiop;  or  Dry  Uominy. — This  is  another  and  most  valuable  prepara- 
tion of  corn,  and  an  excellent,  wholesome,  economical  substitute  for  bread. 
It  is  an  article  that  no  family,  desirous  of  practicing  economy,  can  do  without. 
It  is  a  very  cheaj),  healthy,  nutritious  food.  It  usually  costs  only  half  the 
price  per  pound  of  flour,  and  contains  no  moisture,  while  the  best  of  flour 
holds  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  of  water  in  a  barrel.  In  point  of  econ- 
omy as  human  food,  one  bushel  of  hominy  is  equal  to  ten  of  potatoes,  for 
which  it  is  an  excellent  substitute,  and  is  almost  as  universally  liked  as  po- 
tatoes, and  at  the  South  it  is  more  freelj'  eaten  ;  while  at  the  North  it  is 
seldom  seen,  except  by  a  few  persons  in  cities.  By  hominy,  we  do  not  mean 
a  sort  of  coarse  meal,  but  grains  of  white  corn  from  which  the  hull  and 
chit  or  eye  have  been  removed  by  moistening  and  ponnding  in  a  wooden 
mortar,  or  patent  hulling  machine,  leaving  the  grains  almost  whole,  and 
composed  of  little  else  Dut  starch. 

410.  How  to  Cook  IIODlinyi — The  process  is  very  simple  to  those  who  know 
how.  As  but  few  do,  we  give  the  formula  of  practice  in  our  own  family  : 
Wash  slightly  in  cold  water,  and  soak  twelve  hours  in  tepid,  soft  water ; 
then  boil  slowly  from  three  to  six  hours  in  the  same  water,  with  plenty  more 
added  from  time  to  time,  taking  care  to  prevent  burning.  Do  not  salt 
while  cooking,  as  salt  or  hard  water  will  harden  the  corn ;  so  it  will  peas  or 
beans,  green  or  dry,  and  rice  also.  When  done,  add  butter  and  salt ;  or  a 
better  way  is  to  let  each  one  season  to  suit  the  taste.  It  may  be  eaten  with 
meat  in  lieu  of  vegetables,  or  with  sugar  or  syrup.  It  is  good,  hot  or  cold  ; 
it  is  good  frequently  warmed  over,  for  it  is  like  the  old-fashioned  pot  of — 

"  Beau  porridge  hot,  or  bean  porridge  cold, 
Dean  porridge  best  at  nine  days  old. ' ' 

So  is  liominy ;  it  is  good  always,  and  very  wholesome,  and  like  tomatoes, 
only  requires  to  be  eaten  once  or  twice  to  fix  the  taste  in  its  favor. 

In  New  York  this  article  is  called  samp,  and  the  name  hominy  is  given  to 
corn  cracked  in  a  mill,  and  winnowed,  and  sifted,  and  numbered  according 
to  its  fineness.     We  add  a  few  of  the  M'ays  in  which  hominy  may  be  used. 

HoMTNY  Breakfast-Cakes. — Mash  the  cold  hominy  with  a  rolling-pin, 
and  add  a  little  flour-and-milk  batter,  so  as  to  make  the  whole  thick  enough 
to  form  into  little  cakes  in  the  hand,  or  it  may  be  put  upon  the  griddle  with 
a  spoon.  •  Bake  brown,  eat  hot,  and  you  will  declare  you  never  ate  anything 
better  of  the  batter-cake  kind. 

IIoMiNY  Pudding. — Prepare  as  for  breakfast-cakes ;  add  one  egg  to  oiu  h 
pint,  some  whole  cinnamon,  sugar  to  suit  the  taste,  and  a  few  raisins,  and 
bake  like  rice-pudding.  A  little  butter  or  chopped  suet  may  be  added. 
Serve  hot  or  cold,  with  or  without  sauce. 

Hominy  Salad. — To  a  pint  of  cold  hominy  add  a  small  onion,  a  quarter 
of  a  boiled  chicken,  or  about  the  same  quantity  of  lobster,  chopped  fine,  to 


392  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

which  some  add  a  small  pickle.  To  be  dressed  with  sweet  oil,  mustard, 
popper,  and  vinegar.  It  is  a  very  good  substitute  for  green  salads  at  seasons 
when  the  latter  can  not  be  obtained. 

Hominy  and  Milk,  hot  or  cold,  is  as  much  better  than  iiiush-and-milk  as 
that  is  better  than  rye-meal  porridge. 

Hominy  and  Beans. — Mix  equal  parts  of  cold  baked  beans  and  hominy 
together,  and  heat  up,  and  you  will  have  an  excellent  dish. 

Soft  Hominy  Bread. — One  spoonful  of  boiled  hominy,  cooled ;  a  small 
lump  of  butter,  one  egg,  half  a  jiint  of  wheat  flour — mixed  with  milk  to  the 
consistency  of  cream.     Bake  a  half  hour  in  a  hot  oven. 

Hominy  "Waffles. — Two  spoonfuls  of  hominy,  a  small  lump  of  butter, 
two  eggs,  one  quart  of  wheat  flour.  Thin  with  milk  to  the  consistency  of 
very  thick  cream.     Bake  in  waffle-irons. 

411.  How  Hominy  is  niadCt — The  primitive  way  of  making  hominy  Ava3 
beating  the  corn  in  a  mortar,  in  a  considerable  mass  together,  so  as  to  rub 
off  the  hulls  by  attrition  of  the  grains,  without  breaking  them.  Nearly 
forty  years  ago,  in  floating  down  the  Ohio  Iliver  of  a  still  evening,  we  'first 
heard  the  music  of  the  hominy  mortars,  which  filled  the  air,  as  tlie  voices  of 
the  negroes  kept  time  to  the  strokes  of  the  pestles,  preparing  a  favorite  food 
for  their  masters  as  well  as  themselves.  But  of  late  years  the  ground  hom- 
iny, or  cracked  corn,  has  in  a  great  measure  driven  the  old  hominy  mortar 
out  of  use.  Negro  hominy  is  cooked  by  soaking  and  boiling  until  it 
becomes  gelatinous,  and  then,  when  cold,  if  cut  in  slices  and  fried  in  a 
little  fat,  is  often  eaten  in  preference  to  any  other  bread.  Hominy  is  also 
made  by  mechanical  means,  one  of  which  is  a  shaft  armed  with  files, 
revolving  in  a  case  with  the  corn,  which  makes  a  very  nice  article. 

At  the  South,  negroes  prefer  hominy  or  corn  meal  to  wheat  flour,  pound 
for  pound.  Corn  is  ground  very  coarse,  and  frequently  eaten,  hulls  and  all, 
in  preference  to  sifting.  Faw  would  be  willing  to  live  upon  that  alone.  It 
would  not  be  good  economy  to  do  so.  It  would  be  good  economv  for  us  all 
to  use  more  Indian  corn  meal,  and  it  would  not  only  be  economical,  but 
healthy,  to  eat  more  hominy. 

"We  will  add  liere  several  good  receipts  for  cooking  corn  meal,  as  substi- 
tutes for  whcaten  bread  : 

412.  Virginia  Corn  Bread. — Dissolve  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  in  three 
and  a  half  pints  of  boiling  milk;  in  this  scald  one  quart  of  Indian  meal; 
when  cool,  add  a  half  pint  of  wheat  flour,  a  little  sugar,  a  teas[>oonful  of 
salt,  and  two  eggs  well  beaten  ;  mix  well  together,  and  bake  in  two  cake- 
tins  well  greased  or  buttered. 

413.  The  St.  €liarles  Hotel  Indian  Bread.— Beat  two  eggs  very  light,  mix 
them  with  one  pint  of  sour  milk  (or  butter  with  sweet  milk  will  do),  then 
add  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  or  saleratus,  then  stir  in  slowly  one  pint  of  Indian 
meal  and  one  tablespoonful  of  melted  butter;  beat  these  w-ell  together- 
bake  in  a  common  cakcpau,  in  a  quick  oven.  The  bread  can  be  made  very 
good  without  eggs. 


Sec.  24.]  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BREAD.  393 

414.  Musb,  or  llasty  Puddiug. — Stir  into  a  half  pint  of  cold  water  enough 
Indian  meal  to  make  a  thick  batter;  put  this  into  three  or  four  quarts  of 
boiling  water  over  the  fire ;  after  this  has  boiled  ten  minutes,  stir  in  a 
dessert-spoonful  of  salt,  and  sifted  meal  until  it  is  quite  thick ;  let  it  boil 
from  one  to  two  liours,  stirring  it  often  to  prevent  its  burning. 

415.  Fried  Mushi — Mush  to  be  fried  should  boil  a  little  stiifer,  with  a  half 
pint  of  flour,  say,  to  two  quarts  of  mush  ;  put  the  mush  in  an  earthen  dish 
dipped  in  cold  water ;  let  it  stand  until  jierfectly  cold  ;  then  cut  it  in  slices 
half  an  inch  thick,  and  fry  them  brown  on  both  sides  in  a  little  butter  or 
pork  fat — lard  will  do  with  a  little  salt. 

410.  Indiau  CakeSi — To  a  pint  of  mush  add  milk  or  warm  water  to  make  a 
batter,  and  flour  enough  to  make  the  cuke  hold  together ;  two  or  three  eggs, 
two  spoonfuls  of  molasses  or  sugar,  a  little  nutmeg  or  lemon,  to  suit  the 
taste ;  bake  on  a  griddle  or  in  an  oven. 

417.  Baked  Indiau  Pudding. — Into  one  quart  of  boiling  milk  scald  ten 
tablespoonfuls  of  Indian  meal ;  when  cold,  add  a  teacupful  of  molasses,  a 
piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg,  a  teaspooriful  of  salt,  also  of  ginger  and 
cinnamon  ;  bake  in  a  jjudding-dish  from  one  to  two  hours,  in  a  cook-stove, 
or  longer  if  in  a  brick  oven.  When  done  it  has  the  appearance  of  brown 
bread. 

418.  Pop-Corn— Its  Uses  as  Food— It  makes  Delicious  Puddings.— We  can 
not  close  this  section  upon  substitutes  for  bread  without  bringing  to  the  notice 
of  farmers  a  new  preparation  of  Indian  corn,  original  with  the  author,  but 
highly  approved  by  a  very  large  number  of  persons  to  whom  the  new  dis- 
covery has  been  made  known.  It  is  as  much  a  pleasure  as  it  is  a  duty  to 
tell  farmers  how  they  can  grow  and  prepare  upon  their  own  farms  a  substi- 
tute for  rice,  farina,  tapioca,  sago,  etc.,  for  culinary  purposes — something,  in 
short,  that  shall  be  as  good  as  either  of  the  above  substances  for  the  use  of 
the  good  housewife,  to  make  a  pudding — a  pudding  that  is  not  a  mere 
adjunct  of  a  dinner,  but  a  real  substantial  addition  to  it;  as  hearty  as  one 
of  corn  meal ;  more  wholesome  than  that,  more  toothsome,  and  equally  cheap  ; 
60  that  it  is  within  the  reach  of  all,  both  rich  and  poor;  and  as  I  think  it  a 
valuable  discovery  in  the  preparation  of  food,  I  am  anxious  that  everybody 
sliould  enjoy  the  benefit  of  my  discovery. 

"  Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention."  It  was  so  in  this  case.  It  was 
discovered  that  a  pudding  could  be  got  up  in  an  impromptu  manner,  upon 
an  emergency,  in  a  farm-house,  when  tlic  ingredients  in  most  common  use 
were  exhausted. 

For  years  popped  corn  had  been  an  almost  daily  dish,  all  the  family  and 
all  visitors  liking  it  very  much ;  but  we  had  never  thought  of  reducing  it  to 
meal,  and  applying  it  to  culinary  purposes,  until  one  winter  daj%  when  a 
pudding  was  wanted,  and  it  was  not  convenient  to  obtain  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary substances  used  for  that  purpose.  To  the  cook's  suggestion  that  corn 
meal  might  be  borrowed,  the  mistress  of  the  house  replied  :  "  No,  no — my 
father  would  rather  go  hungry  than  live  by  borrowing.     Besides,  I  don't 


394  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

think  there  is  time  to  make  a  corn-meal  pudding ;  it  requires  four  good 
liotirs  to  cook  it  sufficiently,  otiierwise  it  always  has  a  raw  taste;  for  corn 
meal  is  never  good  unless  cooked  a  great  deal.  I  think  you  will  have  to 
give  up  the  pudding,  but  I  will  ask  my  father." 

So  slie  did,  and  lie  said :  "  Let  us  liave  a  pop-corn  pudding." 

"  Oh,  it  will,  I  fear,  be  a  waste  of  time  and  material,  and  prove  a  great 
failure." 

"  No  matter ;  there  is  as  much  to  be  learned  by  failure  as  success.  Let 
us  try." 

So  we  did.  A  pint  of  ]>op-corn  was  put  through  the  operation,  and  it 
made  sixteen  pints  of  popped  corn,  which  was  first  crushed  witii  a  rolling- 
pin  on  the  kitchen-table,  and  then  ground  in  the  cofl'ce-mili  into  a  coai-se 
meal,  which  measured  eight  pints.  It  is  easiest  crushed  by  putting  it  in  a 
bng.  We  have  since  procured  a  large-sized  coffee-mill,  that  grinds  the  corn 
without  first  mashing  it.  The  difficulty  was,  that  it  was  so  light  it  would 
not  feed  regularly  into  the  grinding-plates  of  tlie  mill.  "Wc  grow  the  corn 
for  popping;  it  is  a  small,  white,  flint  grain,  upon  small  cobs,  and  quite 
prolific  in  its  yield.  It  is  popped  in  a  small  popper  made  of  woven  wire, 
and  takes  perhaps  half  an  hour  to  pop  and  grind  a  pint. 

i\d.  llow  to  make  a  Pop-Corn  Pudding. — Mix  five  pints  of  the  pop-corn 
meal  with  full  four  pints  of  sweet  milk,  and  set  it  where  it  will  warm 
slightly,  and  soak  an  hour  or  two.  Then  let  it  cool,  and  add  two  eggs, 
sugar,  raisins,  spice,  as  you  would  to  a  rice-pudding.  Let  it  be  set  on  a  hot 
stove  and  boiled  a  few  minutes,  stirring  it  several  times  to  get  the  meal  well 
mixed  with  the  milk,  because  it  inclines,  from  its  great  lightness,  to  float, 
and  if  baked  without  stirring  there  will  be  a  brown  crust  on  top  and  custard 
at  the  bottom.  It  should  be  baked  about  an  hour,  and  served  hot,  and  will 
be  eaten  with  great  satisfaction — satisfaction  that  a  new  ingredient  for  a 
delicious,  rich,  wholesome  pudding  has  been  discovered — one  always  at  hand, 
easily  prepared,  and  one  that  has  never  failed  to  gratify  the  taste  of  all  who 
have  tried  it. 

The  cost  of  such  a  pudding  to  a  farmer  is  the  cost  of  the  sugar,  raisins, 
and  spice — the  milk  and  corn  I  count  at  nothing.  "What  should  I  count  the 
cost  of  five  eighths  of  a  Y>mt  of  corn  and  four  pints  of  milk,  which,  if  not 
oaten  upon  the  table,  would  go  to  the  pigs  ?  The  eggs  would  sell  possibly 
tor  four  cents,  and  the  things  bought  cost  as  much  more,  in  a  pudding  that 
fed  eight  liearty  people.  Let  us  then  eat  pudding — good,  rich  pudding — as 
much  as  we  can  at  a  meal,  at  a  cost  of  one  cent  each.  It  is  cheap ;  try  it, 
and  you  will  say  it  is  good. 

420.  Pop-Corn  Griddle  Cakesi^ — Anolhor  use  for  this  pop-corn  meal  is  for 
griddle  cakes.  To  my  taste,  they  are  quite  equal  to  rice  cakes,  cooked  in 
any  M-ay  that  rice  is,  and  are  much  heartier.  In  fact,  there  is  no  stronger 
food  for  a  laboring  man  tlian  any  of  the  preparations  of  corn  in  the  way  I 
liavc  indicated.     At  the  same  time,  its  digestibility  is  unquestioned. 

4:21.  The  Philosophy  of  Popping  Corni — The  philosophy  of  the  advantage 


Seo.  24.]  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BREAD.  395 

of  thus  preparing  corn  is  worthy  of  our  attention.  Of  all  the  cereals,  Indian 
corn  requires  the  greatest  action  of  fire  to  fit  it  for  food.  It  is  full  of  essen- 
tial oil,  and  that  needs  to  be  cooked,  and  it  can  only  be  done  by  a  very  high 
heat  or  a  long-continued  moderate  one.  If  long  continued,  the  other  con- 
stituents of  the  corn  are  sometimes  injured,  and  so  are  the  ingredients  added 
to  the  meal.  If  not  well  cooked,  any  article  of  food  prepared  from  corn, 
however  palatable,  is  not  so  digestible  as  wheaten  bread.  Now,  in  pop- 
ping corn,  it  is  subjected  to  a  very  high  heat,  which  thoroughly  cooks  the 
oil,  and  fits  the  corn  at  once  for  food — a  food  that  almost  everybody  loves, 
and  so  will  everybody  love  the  various  preparations  of  food  from  meal  made 
of  popped  corn,  for  it  may  be  eaten  without  fear  by  the  dyspeptic,  and  it 
will  be  eaten  with  satisfaction  to  appease  hunger. 

As  we  know  that  corn  and  corn  meal,  properly  kiln-dried,  will  keep  a  long 
time,  we  may  safely  argue  that  meal  prepared  by  a  still  more  perfect  system 
of  fire-drying,  will  keep  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  or  just  as  long  as  we 
wish.  If  ground  and  packed  in  barrels,  the  pop-corn  meal  will  keep  better 
than  corn  meal  or  flour,  or  even  whole  grain. 

422.  Hulled  Wheat,  Wheaten  Groats,  and  Boiled  Whe&U—IluUed  wheat  is 
another  excellent  substitute  for  bread.  It  can  be  hulled  by  lye,  or  by  any 
of  the  mechanical  means  used  for  hulling  corn  or  rice,  one  of  which  is  to 
ran  it  through  millstones,  set  just  far  enough  apart  to  rub  otf  the  husks. 
It  is  cooked  by  simply  boiling,  and  is  eaten  in  the  various  ways  that  we  have 
mentioned  for  hominy. 

Wheati'?i  Groats,  or  "grits,"  as  they  are  usually  called,  are  coarsely- 
ground  wheat — as  coarse  as  it  can  well  be  ground.  This  is  also  a  substitute 
for  bread.  It  is  cooked  by  boiling  in  plain  water,  as  hominy  or  hulled  corn 
and  wheat  should  always  be,  until  all  the  water  is  absorbed.  It  is  eaten  both 
hot  and  cold,  or  warmed  over,  and  it  does  not  require  as  much  cooking  as  any 
preparation  of  Indfan  corn,  and  it  is  both  palatable  and  healthful. 

Every  family,  whether  rich  or  poor,  or  in  town  or  country,  should  make 
it  a  religious  duty  to  use  more  corn  meal,  oatmeal,  Graham  flour,  hominy, 
and  cracked  wheat  for  bread,  in  preference  to  fine  wheat  flour,  both  for 
health  and  economy.  Look  at  the  relative  retail  prices  per  pound  of  these 
articles,  and  see  which  will  give  the  most  nutriment  for  the  least  money; 
not  which  will  afi'ord  you  the  most  fashionable  bread. 

Boiled  wheat  is  another  simple  form  of  preparing  an  excellent  substitute 
for  bread,  particularly  at  liarvest-time,  while  the  grains  are  not  as  hard  as 
afterwards.  It  should  be  carefully  selected,  and  cleaned,  and  washed,  and 
then  soaked  several  hours,  and  boiled  in  the  same  water  until  some  of  the 
i;rains  crack  open.  It  may  be  eaten  with  meat,  or  as  a  dessert,  with  syrup, 
sauce,  or  milk. 


500 


DOMESTIC  ECOXOMY. 


[Chap.  IV. 


SECTION  XXV.-EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES. 

NDER    this   head,   which    really   means   selecting 
choice  extracts  from  hooks  that  vre  read,  we  intend 
to  gather  up  a  great  numher  of  useful  thing?,  and 
concentrate  them  here  for  easy  reference  in  a  some- 
what miscellaneous  order. 

We  will  open  the  section  with  a  most  valuable  line 
of  advice,  selected  from  a  letter  of  an  excellent  house- 
wife to  her  daughter,  when  about  undertaking  the 
responsibilities  of  housekeeping.     She  says : 

423.  "Always  Buy  Good  Articles,  notwitlistanding 
the  first  cost  is  more,  in  preference  to  cheap  or  low- 
priced  sorts,  which  are  generally  the  most  uneconomi- 
cal ;  and  sometimes  low-priced  articles  of  food  prove 
detrimental  to  health.  Make  it  a  point  to  read  every- 
thing that  comes  in  your  way  about  domestic  economy. 
You  can  not  learn  too  much.  Keep  a  little  memorandum-book,  with  alplia- 
bet  pages,  and  make  it  a  rule  to  store  up  cxcerpta  from  all  30U  read,  for 
future  use.  It  will  prove  to  you  a  lasting  source  of  useful  knowledge. 
Frequently  you  need  only  make  a  reference  in  your  memorandum  where  to 
look  for  what  you  want.  No  head  is  large  enough  fur  a  storehouse  of  all 
that  a  good  housewife  will  at  some  time  want  to  know." 

424.  Economy  of  Farm-house  Lights. — This  is  a  very  important  question  for 
the  consideration  of  farmers'  wives,  who  may  find  that  it  will  not  always  be 
good  economy  to  burn  their  own  tallow.  Certainly  not,  if  it  can  be  ex- 
changed for  a  light-producing  substance  which  will  save  the  hard,  unplea- 
sunt  labor  of  candle-making,  and  at  the  same  time  afford  a  much  better  and 
a  pleasanter  light.  Unfortunately,  we  have  no  standard  of  comparative 
cost  of  tallow — the  almost  universal  source  of  farm-house  light — with  fluid 
substances.  E.  N.  Kenf,  of  the  United  States  Assay  Office,  fells  us,  in  the 
following  table,  which  is  the  most  economical  as  regards  cost  of  oleaginous 
substances  for  light. 
42.x  Cost  of  Oils  for  Light  Compared ; 

Mni^^rioia  T-~„TT„i  Retail  Ptioe  of  Oil  Cost  of  r.n  Kqual 

'*'-^'""'''-  LampUsoa.  per  Gallon.  Amouul  of  Light. 

Kerosene  oil Kerosene $1  00 84  10 

Caiiiphenc Cainphone C3 4  85 

Sylvic  oil Rosin  oil 50 C  05 

H-ipc-soed  oil Mechanical 1  50 9  00 

Whule  oil Solar 1  00 12  00 

Lard  oil Solar 1  25 17  00 

Sperm  oil Solar 2  25 2G  00 

Burning  fluid Large  wick 87 29  00 

42(5.  Cost  of  Oil  and  Caudles  Compared. — Dr.  Ure  gives  the  comparative  cost 
of   an  equal  amount  of  light   per  hour  from  the  following  substances : 


Sec.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  397 

"  Carcel  lamp,  with  sperm  oil,  Ijd. ;  wax  candles,  6d. ;  spermaceti  candles, 
5id. ;  stearic  acid  candles,  4id. ;  molded  tallow  candles,  2id." 

427.  Economy  of  Kerosene  Oil. — From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that 
kerosene  oil  is  the  least  expensive  of  all  fluid  liglit-producing  substances; 
and  as  it  is  now  refined,  and  burnt  in  improved  lamps,  we  believe  it  to  be 
a  very  agreeable  substitute  for  tallow  candles,  but  whether  cheaper  or  not 
can  only  be  determined  by  actual  experiments  in  different  households,  com- 
paring the  cost  per  gallon  with  the  value  per  pound  of  tallow,  and  the  light 
produced  or  the  light  required.  As  a  general  thing,  farm-house  lights  are 
very  inferior,  and  many  a  bright  pair  of  eyes  has  been  dimmed  in  conse- 
quence. It  is  on  this  account  that  this  question  of  light  should  be  more 
discussed  and  experimented  upon.  Do  not  continue  to  use  candles,  or  any 
particular  form  of  lamp  or  kind  of  oil,  because  you  have  long  been  in  that 
practice,  if  there  really  is  something  better. 

428.  How  to  Improve  Caudles. — If  you  do  use  home-made  candles,  pray 
purify  the  tallow,  and  do  not  mix  lard  with  it,  though  you  may  add  a  little 
alum,  and  never  use  your  candles  any  sooner  than  you  would  soap — until 
they  are  at  least  six  months  old.  Pack  them  in  bran,  and  set  them  away  in 
a  cool,  dry  place,  and  see  how  much  they  improve  by  age. 

It  is  well  to  mix  beef  and  mutton  tallow,  but  the  proportion  of  the  latter 
should  be  small,  because  it  sometimes  gives  ofl"  a  disagreeable  odor.  All 
good  tallow  is  white,  firm,  and  brittle,  and  dipped  candles  can  only  be  made 
of  it  in  mild  weather.  Be  careful  to  use  notliing  but  fine,  white,  clean  cot- 
ton yarn  for  wicking. 

429.  Lard— How  to  Make  and  Keep  it  Sweet. — The  lard  of  a  hog  of  a])out 
a  year  old,  fattened  upon  corn,  and  carefully  rendered  and  packed  in  stone 
pots  or  sound  oaken  firkins,  and  kept  covered  close,  will  keep  in  a  cool  cel- 
lar just  as  long  as  any  farmer's  wife  wants  to  keep  it.  Lard  must  be  thor- 
oughly cooked  in  rendering,  to  keep  sweet. 

A  cooling-room  attached  to  the  ice-house  is  an  excellent  place  to  keep 
lard  in  summer.  But  remember  that  lard  will  never  keep  well  in  any  place 
if  it  has  been  insufiiciently  cooked. 

430.  Rice  and  Sago  should  both  have  a  clear,  fresh,  white  appearance 
when  you  purchase.  Kice  with  the  largest  whole  grains  is  the  best.  Kice 
is  remarkable  for  being  the  richest  in  starch,  and  most  deficient  in  oil,  of  all 
the  cultivated  grains.     Old  rice  is  apt  to  be  infected  with  weevil. 

The  small,  white  sago,  called  pearl  sago,  is  the  best.  The  large,  brown 
kind  has  an  earthy  taste.  These  articles,  and  ground  rice,  tapioca,  etc., 
should  be  kept  in  boxes  or  jars  closely  covered. 

431.  Spices,  Cocoa,  and  Chocolate. — Spices  should  never  be  purchased  by 
a  farmer's  family  in  a  ground  state.  They  are  frequently  adulterated,  and 
always  lose  strength  as  soon  as  opened. 

JVutmegs  sometimes  are  kept  in  store  until  stale.  Fresh  ones  can  be  se- 
lected by  pricking  with  a  pin  at  the  stem  end,  when,  if  good,  a  drop  of  oil 
will  ooze  out. 


39S  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  FV. 


Cocoa  sliells  arc  apt  to  be  musty  from  long  keeping.  Never  purchase  a 
large  quantity  until  you  have  tried  a  sample  and  proved  it  fresh  and  swee'. 
Cracked  cocoa  is  generally  the  best.  Some  that  is  carefully  put  up  in 
papers  keeps  well.  Chocolate  is  often  adulterated  so  that  it  makes  a  nau- 
seous beverage.  Do  not  buy  but  a  single  cake  until  you  prove  it  good. 
Both  these  articles  are  made  from  the  cocoa  beans,  which  grow  upon  small 
trees,  cultivated  for  the  purpose  in  Central  America  and  other  tropical  lati- 
tudes. The  beans  are  bitter  and  astringent,  and  are  roasted  like  coffee  to 
prepare  them  for  use.  They  contain  much  more  oil  or  fatty  matter  than 
coffee  berries.  It  is  rated  iu  an  analysis  by  Lampadius  over  53  per  cent,  of 
the  substance.  The  substance  containing  the  aroma  of  the  bean  is  given  at 
16.70  per  cent.  The  shells  are  the  dried  fleshy  pulp  that  surrounds  the 
beans  in  the  pods. 

The  cracked  cocoa  is  the  broken  roasted  beans.  Chocolate  is  made  of  the 
beans,  ground  with  hot  rollers,  and  made  into  a  paste  with  sugar,  and  sea- 
soned with  vanilla  and  spices,  and  if  not  adulterated,  makes  a  wholesome 
beverage,  but  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  lind  chocolate  that  is  pure. 

432.  Coffee,  as  it  comes  to  us,  is  the  half  of  a  dried  bean  which  was  inclosed 
in  a  pulpy  berrj^  that  grew  somewhat  like  a  cherry  upon  a  tree  naturally  ten 
to  thirty  feet  high,  but  kept  pruned  low  in  coffee  plantations,  which  are  to 
be  found  in  most  tropical  countries.  The  best  variety  of  coffee  comes  from 
Mocha,  in  Arabia.  The  berry  is  small  and  round,  and  the  odor  and  flavor 
xerj  agreeable ;  it  bears  a  high  price.  And  next  to  it  is  the  Java  coffee,  a 
large,  pale  yellow  berry.  The  Brazilian,  commonly  called  Rio  coffee,  is  the 
sort  in  most  common  use.  The  berry  is  of  medium  size,  greenish  color,  and 
appears  rusted  with  specks  of  gray.  It  is  not  a  fine  flavored  coffee,  having 
a  good  deal  of  acridness,  but  it  is  in  favor  with  farmers  generally,  because 
"  it  goes  farther  than  mild  coffee."  All  coffee  improves  by  age  if  kept  dry. 
It  should  be  roasted  very  evenly,  of  a  light  brown  color,  and  used  very  soon 
afterward,  as  it  loses  value  every  day  after  it  is  roasted,  and  after  it  is 
ground  it  will  become  almost  worthless  by  a  few  days'  exposure  to  the  air. 
Koasted  coflee  should  always  be  carefully  kept  in  a  closed  canister,  separate 
from  all  food,  as  it  rapidly  absorbs  odors.  Roasting  coffee  in  a  room  will 
always  disinfect  it  of  bad  effluvia.  It  also  imparts  its  own  odor  to  other 
things,  such  as  tea,  butter,  and  bread. 

In  roasting  coffee,  first  dry  it  gently  in  an  open  pan  until  it  changes 
color,  and  then  cover  the  pan  and  scorch  it  rapidly  without  charring  a  grain. 
The  term,  "burning  coflee,"  implies  a  great  error  in  its  preparation,  or  ig- 
norance of  its  character.  Roasting  renders  the  grains  of  coffee  brittle,  and 
makes  the  matter  that  it  is  desirable  to  extract  more  soluble  in  hot  water, 
and  produces  as  great  a  cl>omical  change  as  fire  does  upon  corn  meal  or  any 
other  article  of  food. 

The  peculiar  aroma  of  coffee  as  it  comes  to  the  tal>le,  which  gives  it  the 
flavor  and  stimulating  eft'cct  ascribed  to  it,  is  never  found  in  coffee  grains 
before  they  are  roasted.     But  if  it  is  burnt,  this  flavor  is  destroyed,  and 


Seo.  2o.]    excerpt  a  of  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  399 

in  its  place  we  have  a  bitter,  acrid,  tannic  acid  taste,  wliicli  produces  py- 
rosis in  the  stomachs  of  those  who  use  it  largely. 

Never  allow  pepper  and  coft'ee  to  come  in  contact.  The  two  should  not  be 
kept  in  the  same  pantry. 

The  best  water  for  a  decoction  of  coifee  is  that  with  a  slight  alkaline  tinc- 
ture, and  it  has  been  recommended  to  add  40  grs.  of  dry  soda  to  a  pound 
of  coifee.  It  is  certainly  true  that  some  of  the  springs  of  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains, which  are  so  alkaline  as  not  to  be  drinkable,  make  good  coffee.  So  do 
wells  that  will  not  make  good  tea. 

Never  buy  ground  coffee.  Besides  the  fact  that  it  loses  strength,  it  is 
almost  universally  adulterated.  Peas  are  largely  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
beans,  corn,  dried  carrots,  turnips,  chiccory,  and  several  other  substances  are 
also  employed. 

433.  Tea — its  Value  as  Food* — That  tea  has  a  value  as  food,  we  can  not 
doubt.  Long  before  its  use  among  European  nations,  the  Chinese  had  set- 
tled this  question  to  their  satisfaction.  If  it  is  not  of  itself  food,  it  seems  to 
help  us  to  assimilate  other  things.  It  certainly  is  a  favorite  beverage  with 
all  who  are  accustomed  to  its  use,  and  so  far  as  health  is  concerned,  we  be- 
lieve it  is  certainly  harmless,  if  pure,  as  the  best  black  teas  generally  are. 
The  green  teas,  either  from  the  nature  of  the  article,  or  from  something- 
added  in  curing,  have  a  much  greater  effect  upon  the  nervous  system  tliau 
the  black  teas.  Pekoe  and  Oolong  are  the  names  of  two  of  the  best  varieties 
of  black  tea.     Gunpowder  and  Imperial  are  the  two  best  green  teas. 

434.  How  to  Make  Black  Tea. — Black  tea  must  be  boiled  some  minutes 
— thirty  is  better  than  less — in  a  close  vessel,  to  get  the  fragrant  aroma  and 
all  the  vegetable  extract  that  adds  value  to  the  delicious  beverage  we  get 
from  a  well-made  cup  of  good  black  tea. 

Never  use  hard  water  for  tea  Filtered  rain-water  makes  good  tea. 
Never  steep  it  in  lukewarm  water,  and  never  let  it  come  to  the  table  at  that 
temperature.  The  true  aroma  of  tea  is  never  obtained  except  when  it  is 
boiling  hot.  Tea  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  air.  Keep  all  ground 
Biiices,  and  also  ground  coffee,  carefully  excluded  from  the  air. 

435.  Sugar  and  Molassesi — For  most  purposes  refined  sugars  are  the 
most  economical.  In  buying  raw  sugar,  select  none  but  the  cleanest  sorts, 
such  as  the  best  New  Orleans,  or  Santa  Cruz,  of  a  light  straw  color,  coarsely 
crystallized.  White  Havana  sugar  is  not  as  clean  as  white  Brazil  sugar. 
Select  bright,  light-colored  molasses.  Never  buy  the  thick,  dark-colored, 
srgar-house  syrup.  Its  thickness  does  not  indicate  sweetness.  For  the 
table,  the  real  "  golden  syrup"  of  the  sugar-refiners  is  not  only  the  best,  but 
most  economical.  We  make  an  excellent  table  syrup  every  year  of  maple- 
sugar  dissolved  in  boiling  water. 

436.  Knowledge  for  the  Kitchen. — Here  are  a  few  simple  rules  for  the  kitchen 
that  may  be  usefully  remembered  : 

Oranges  and  lemons  keep  best  wrapped  close  in  soft  paper,  and  laid  in  a 
drawer  with  linen. 


400  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

Bread  and  cakes  slionld  be  kept  in  a  tiu  box  or  stone  jar. 

Salt  codliiih  sliould  bo  kept  in  a  dry  place,  where  the  odor  of  it  will  not 
afiect  the  house.  Tiie  best  kind  is  that  which  is  called  dun,  from  its  peculiar 
color.  Fish  skin,  for  clearing  cotiee,  should  be  washed,  dried,  cut  small,  and 
kept  in  a  box  or  pajier  bag. 

Soft  soap  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  in  the  cellar,  and  should  not  be 
used  till  three  months  old. 

Bar  soap  should  be  cut  into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size,  and  left  where  it 
will  become  dry.  It  is  well  to  keep  it  several  weeks  before  using,  as  it 
spends  fast  when  it  is  new. 

Cranberries  will  keep  all  winter  in  a  firkin  of  water  in  the  cellar. 

Potatoes  should  be  put  into  the  cellar  as  soon  as  the}'  are  dug.  Lying 
exposed  in  the  sun  turns  them  green  and  makes  them  watery.  Some  good 
housekeepers  have  sods  laid  over  barrels  cf  potatoes  not  iu  immediate  use. 
To  prevent  them  from  sprouting  in  the  spring,  turn  them  out  on  the  cellar 
bottom. 

To  thaw  frozen  potatoes,  put  them  in  hot  water.  To  thaw  frozen  apples, 
put  them  in  cold  water.     Neither  will  keep  well  after  being  frozen. 

437.  Slorius  Butter  and  Cheese. — The  most  economical,  and,  to  our  taste, 
the  best  table  butter  is  that  which  is  packed  in  September  and  October  for 
the  next  winter's  use.  If  well  made,  in  a  soft-water  region,  there  is  no 
difficulty  about  keeping  butter  sweet  in  a  temperate  climate,  if  j)roperly 
made.  Never  keej)  butter  and  cheese  together,  except  it  is  in  a  very  cool 
room,  and  then  not  in  close  contact. 

If  cheese  is  rich  and  good,  it  always  feels  soft  imder  the  pressure  of 
the  fingers.  Even  if  kept  until  quite  old,  it  does  not  become  iiorny.  Be 
careful  not  to  select  a  horny  cheese.  That  which  is  very  strong  is  neither 
good  nor  healthy.  To  keep  one  that  is  cut,  tie  it  up  in  a  bag  that  will  not 
admit  flies,  and  hang  it  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  K  mold  appears  on  it,  wipe 
it  off  with  a  dry  cloth. 

438.  Keeping  Sweet  Potatoes. — One  who  is  a  successful  grower  of  sw«;t 
potatoes  in  quite  a  northern  latitude— ne;ir  42  degrees — gives  the  following 
as  his  method  of  keeping  them  over  winter.     He  says: 

"  I  use  dry  sand  to  put  them  up  in ;  it  does  not  matter  how  the  sand  was 
dried — in  a  kiln,  a  log  heap,  or  in  the  sun — if  it  is  dry,  that  is  all  that  is 
required.  I  prefer  drying  it  in  a  log  heap,  as  it  costs  at  least  four  times  less, 
and  is  just  as  good.  And  a  family  that  has  a  little  room  with  a  stove  in  it, 
may  keep  a  box  or  two,  with  eight  or  ten  bushels  in  them,  without  any  in- 
convenience of  consequence.  The  boxes  must  be  raised  a  few  inches  from 
the  floor,  and  they  must  not  be  less  than  four  inches  from  the  wall.  Fill  the 
boxes  with  potatoes,  and  then  put  in  diy  sand  until  they  are  covered. 

"  I  have  known  ihem  kept  well  in  buckwheat  chafl".  In  order  to  keep 
potatoes  with  success,  there  must  be  a  thermometer  kept  in  the  room.  The 
mercury  must  not  sink  below  40  degrees;  if  it  does,  the  potatoes  will  chill 
and  rot ;  and  it  must  not  rise  above  60  degrees,  or  they  will  grow."    (See  565.) 


Sec.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE   FOR   HOUSEWIVES.  401 

4:39.  Preserving  Eggs. — The  following  receipt  is  of  such  easy  application 
that  all  housewives  should  try  it,  and  satisfy  themselves  whether  it  is  all  that 
its  author  claims  for  it: 

"  Dissolve  some  gum  shellac  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  alcohol  to  make  a 
thin  varnish,  give  each  egg  a  coat,  and  after  they  become  thoroughly  dry, 
pack  them  in  bran  or  sawdust,  with  their  points  downward,  in  such  a  man- 
nei'  that  they  can  not  shift  about.  After  you  have  kept  them  as  long  as  you 
desire,  wash  the  varnish  carefully  off,  and  they  will  be  in  the  same  state  as 
they  were  before  packing,  ready  either  for  eating  or  hatching." 

440.  Beans — How  to  Cook  them. — "Few  people  know  the  luxury  of  baked 
beans,  simply  because  few  cooks  properly  prepare  them.  Besns  generally 
are  not  cooked  half  long  enough.  Tiiis  is  a  sure  method :  Two  quarts  of 
middling-sized  white  beans,  two  pounds  of  salt  pork,  and  one  spoonful  of 
molasses.  Pick  the  beans  over  carefully,  wash  them,  and  add  a  gallon  of 
boiling-hot  soft  water;  let  them  soak  in  it  nil  night;  in  the  morning,  put 
them  in  fresh  water,  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  and  boil  gently,  till 
the  skin  is  very  tender  and  about  to  break.  Take  them  up  dry,  put  them 
in  your  dish,  so  as  to  have  the  beans  fill  the  dish  nearly  to  the  upper  edge; 
turn  in  boiling  water  till  the  top  is  just  covered;  bake  with  a  steady  fire 
four  or  five  hours.  Watch  them  and  add  more  water  from  time  to  time,  as 
it  dries  away.     Tliis  is  an  old-time  New  England  Saturday-evening  dish." 

441.  Tomatoes— Various  Methods  of  Preserving  and  Using  them. — There  is 
no  way  to  preserve  tomatoes  for  M'inter  use  so  good  as  drying  them.  It  is 
easily  done  thus:  Scald,  and  peel,  and  stew  to  a  gelatinous  mass,  and  spread 
upon  earthen  plates,  and  dry  in  the  sunshine  or  in  a  slow  oven.  It  will  then 
resemble  dried  stewed  pumpkin,  or  the  pulp  of  peaches  dried  in  the  same  way. 
When  wanted  for  use  in  winter,  a  portion  of  this  dried  tomato  is  soaked  first 
in  cold  water,  and  that  is  gradually  warmed  till  the  whole  becomes  a  ho- 
mogeneous mass,  more  or  less  thick,  according  to  the  quantity  of  water  used. 
It  may  be  eaten  as  a  sauce  with  meats,  or,  by  adding  sugar,  as  a  sweet- 
meat, or  in  place  of  currant  jelly  with  venison  and  mutton,  or  as  a  substi- 
tute for  cranberries  with  roast  turkey.  It  is  an  excellent  and  a  cheap 
sauce. 

Tomato  Chowder. — ^To  one  bushel  of  green  tomatoes  add  one  dozen  green 
peppers,  12  common-sized  onions,  one  quart  of  grated  horseradish,  one  cuj) 
of  ground  mustard,  one  ounce  of  cinnamon,  one  ounce  of  cloves,  whole.  The 
tomatoes,  onions,  and  peppers  chop  fine.  Put  the  tomatoes  and  onions  in  a 
vessel  over-night,  sprinld*  a  little  salt  over  them,  and  in  the  morning  drain 
oif  the  water,  put  all  together  and  boil  them  in  clear  water  until  tender,  then 
drain  the  water  from  them,  mix  with  the  above-named  spices,  pack  in  ajar, 
and  pour  scalded  vinegar  over  them. 

Another  way  is  to  take  green  tomatoes,  cut  a  small  piece  off  the  stem  end, 
and  also  from  the  other  side  ;  then  lay  them  in  a  pan.  Sprinkle  with  salt, 
pour  boiliuij  water  on  them,  and  let  them  stand  ten  minutes.  Pour  the 
water  off  and  serve  them  in  the  same  manner  again  ;  then  pour  boiling  wa- 


402  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

ter  on  them  without  salt,  and  let  them  stand  a  few  minutes.  Chop  them  up 
fine,  putting  in  some  cabbage,  horseradish,  and  peppers ;  and  wiien  all 
chopped,  put  on  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar,  and  they  are  ready  to  pickle  in 
crocks.     This  makes  an  excellent  relish  with  meat. 

Tomato  Catchup. — Scald  ripe  tomatoes  just  sufficiently  to  allow  you  to 
take  off  the  skins  ;  let  them  stand  for  a  day,  covered  with  salt;  strain  thcin, 
to  thoroughly  remove  the  seeds ;  then  to  every  two  quarts  add  three  ounces 
of  cloves,  two  of  black  pepper,  two  nutmegs,  and  a  very  little  Cayenne  pop- 
per and  salt ;  boil  the  liquor  for  an  hour;  let  it  cool  and  settle  ;  add  a  pint 
of  the  best  cider  vinegar :  bottle,  cork,  and  seal  tight,  and  keep  it  always  in 
a  cool  place. 

Another  "Wat. — Take  a  bushel  of  tomatoes  and  boil  them  till  soft; 
squeeze  them  through  a  fine  wire  sieve,  and  add  half  a  gallon  of  vinegar, 
one  pint  and  a  half  of  salt,  two  ounces  of  cloves,  quarter  of  a  pound  of  all- 
spice, two  ounces  of  Cayenne  pepper,  five  heads  of  garlic,  skinned  and  sep- 
arated ;  mix  together  and  boil  about  three  hours,  or  until  reduced  to  about 
one  half ;  then  bottle,  without  straining. 

Tomato  Sauce. — One  peck  of  tomatoes,  one  ounce  of  cloves,  one  ounce 
of  cinnamon,  one  quart  of  vinegar,  four  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  salt,  and  the  same  of  ground  black  pepper.  Peel  the  tomatoes, 
and  boil  until  very  tender.  Drain  them  from  the  juice.  Now  boil  tlie 
sugar,  spices,  etc.,  in  the  liquid  until  it  is  thick  as  syrup  ;  return  the  fruit 
into  this  syrup,  and  stew  until  the  mass  is  a  jam,  and  it  keeps  well  any 
length  of  time.     This  may  be  used  to  flavor  the  following  sauce  : 

442.  Picnic  Sance. — Beat  the  yelks  of  four  eggs  perfectly  ;  mix  with  the 
eggs  a  tumbler  of  jelly,  four  large  tablespoonfuls  of  brown  sugar,  four  large 
tablespoonfuls  of  mustard  stirred  into  a  batter  with  vinegar;  to  these  ingre- 
dients add  a  teacupful  of  butter  and  two  tumblers  of  best  vinegar.  Stir  all 
together  carefully  ;  set  the  vessel  in  which  you  have  mixed  the  sauce  in  a  pot 
of  boiling  water  and  cook  until  it  tliickens  and  the  egg  is  done ;  stir  in  a 
little  salt  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  Cayenne  pepper  and  as  much  tomato 
sauce  as  will  give  it  a  pleasant  flavor. 

443.  mushrooms,  and  their  Uses  and  Production!— It  has  been  pul)lished 
that  some  of  the  great  jtroduccrs  of  mushrooms  near  Paris,  who  grow  them 
in  artiflcial  caves,  can  produce  at  the  rate  of  eighty  quarts  a  day  upon  an 
acre  of  surface,  which  would  give  an  annual  crop  of  29,200  quarts.  Allow- 
ing the  actual  crop  only  one  fourth  of  this  quantity,  it  would  be  a  very  val- 
uable one,  as  the  average  market  price  in  New  York  is  25  cents  a  quart. 
Say  7,300  quarts  for  the  product  of  an  acre,  at  25  cents,  this  would  be 
$1,825  a  year.  The  construction  of  artiflcial  caves,  however,  is  so  ex- 
pensive, that  mushrooms  are  not  likely  to  be  much  cultivated  by  farmers  for 
family  use,  though  many  of  them  will  continue  to  collect  such  as  are  pro- 
duced spontaneously  about  the  homestead ;  and  to  enable  them  to  do  so 
without  danger  of  getting  iiokl  of  other  plants  of  the  agaric  family  that  are 
poisonous,  we  give  the  following  rules  to  distinguish  the  edible  mushrooms 


Sec.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  403 

from  toadstools.     "Without  giving  the  botanical  characters,  we  notice  some 
of  the  marks  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished: 

First.  The  mushroom  has  no  bad  smell.  The  skin  on  the  top  of  the 
mushroom  will  readily  peel  off.  The  gills  or  plates  on  the  under  side  of  the 
mushroom  are  of  a  white  and  pinkish  or  rosy  hue,  and  though  turning 
brownisli  by  age,  yet  never  of  that  lurid  brown  of  the  toadstool.  "When 
sprinkled  with  salt  and  allowed  to  stand  a  few  hours,  the  mushroom  gives 
out  juice,  but  the  toadstool  becomes  dry  and  leathery.  If  all  these  charac- 
ters are  united  in  the  specimen  it  may  be  safely  eaten,  otherwise  it  should 
be  rejected,  as  it  would  be  better  to  throw  away  acres  of  good  mushrooms 
than  to  eat  one  of  the  poisonous  toadstools. 

Secondly.  Mushrooms  which  grow  in  marsliy,  shady  places,  and  in  thick 
forests  where  the  sun  has  no  access,  are  in  general  to  be  regarded  as  pos- 
sessing dangerous  qualities  ;  their  substance  is  softer,  moister,  and  more 
porous  than  that  of  mushrooms  used  for  the  table.  Tliey  have  likewise  & 
more  disagreeable  and  dirty-looking  appearance.  Tliose  which  have  a 
dusky  hue,  and  change  color  when  cut,  or  show  a  gaudy  or  many  very  dis- 
tinct colors,  particularly  if  tliey  have  been  originally  covered  by  skin  or  ex- 
hale a  strong  and  uin>leasant  odor,  ought  not  to  be  eaten.  Those  which 
have  short  bulbous  stalks,  or  fragments  of  skin  adhering  to  the  surface,  or 
which  grow  rapidly  and  corrupt  quickly,  should  also  be  rejected.  It  has 
been  generally  supposed  that  poisonous  mushrooms  lose  their  deleterious 
qualities,  but  this  is  a  rule  to  which  there  are  many  exceptions,  and  which 
ought  therefore  to  be  very  cautiously  admitted. 

If  you  wish  to  grow  mush,rooms,  procure  some  of  the  spawn  from  a  gar- 
dener, and  make  a  bed  of  light  loamy  soil,  mixed  with  manure  from  horses 
fed  upon  grain  ;  it  will  produce  these  plants  when  the  temperature  is  right, 
which  is  about  50  or  55  degrees  Fahrenheit,  in  dry,  calm,  summer  weather. 
A  cave  cellar,  or  natural  cave,  or  recess  in  the  rocks,  is  a  good  place  to  make 
a  mushroom  bed. 

444.  Drying  Rhubarb.— Ehubarb,  when  well  prepared,  will  keep  good  for 
an  indefinite  period.  The  stalks  should  be  broken  off  while  they  are  crisp 
and  tender,  and  cut  into  pieces  about  an  inch  in  length.  These  pieces  should 
then  be  strung  on  a  thin  twine,  and  hung  up  to  dry.  Rhubarb  shrinks  in 
drying  more  than  any  other  plant,  and  when  dry  strongly  resembles  pieces 
of  soft  wood.  When  wanted  for  use,  it  should  be  soaked  in  water  all 
night,  and  the  next  day  stewed  over  a  slow  fire.  None  of  its  properties 
appear  to  be  lost  in  drying,  and  it  is  equally  as  good  in  winter  as  any  other 
dried  fruit. 

Another  plan  is  to  cook  it  first ;  for  this  get  the  Linnaeus  rhubarb.  It  is 
larger,  more  tender,  and  better  flavored  than  any  other,  requires  less  sugar 
by  one  fourth,  and  has  no  skin  to  be  taken  off.  Do  not  attempt  to  peel  it, 
but  cut  in  pieces  as  long  as  tlie  thickness  of  the  stalk,  and  put  them  with 
your  sugar  in  an  earthen  dish  without  water;  cover  it  to  retain  the  flavor, 
and  place  it  in  an  oven  and  cook  till  quite  tender,  without  stirring  or  break- 


404  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

ing  the  pieces.  If  too  much  cooked,  it  assumes  a  disgusting  string}'  appear- 
ance, and  loses  all  fruity  character.  Tlie  rosy  color  of  the  stalks  will  give 
your  dish  an  attractive  aj^peariuicc,  and  the  dyspeptic  will  find  in  it  a  power- 
ful aid  to  digestion. 

This,  if  thinly  spread  upon  plates,  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  a  slow  oven, 
just  as  the  pulp  of  peaches  or  stewed  pumpkin  is  sometimes  prepared,  will 
keep  as  well  as  pumpkin,  if  packed  away  in  thick  paper  bags  or  boxes,  and 
kept  in  a  dry  place. 

Rhuliarb  has  within  a  brief  period,  quite  within  our  memorj',  become 
generally  diffused,  and  is  now  looked  upon  as  a  famil)-  necessity  rather  than 
a  luxury.  There  are  several  varieties:  Gaboon's  seedling  is  the  largest,  but 
is  rather  coarse  and  not  so  high  flavored  as  some  otliers,  of  which  we  may 
have  more  to  say  under  the  head  of  the  garden.  We  will  only  speak  here 
of  one  or  two  methods  of  preserving  tlie  good  qualities  of  the  stalk  by  dry- 
ing. For  drying  whole,  the  Victoria  is  one  of  the  best  varieties.  Other 
sorts  contain  too  much  woody  fiber. 

445.  Facts  about  Pork  aud  Bacon— How  to  Cure  and  Keep  Hams.— The  best 
and  most  solid  pork  is  made  by  lapid  feeding  of  pigs  in  autuinn,  wliich  have 
been  kept  growing,  but  not  fat,  ail  summer.  Hogs  that  are  kept  fat  through 
the  summer  are  most  apt  to  afford  soft  pork,  wliicli  shrinks  in  the  pot. 

One  writer  says  tliat — "  Pigs  should  be  wintered  ui)on  two  ears  of  corn 
a  day,  fed  very  regularly,  one  at  night  and  one  in  the  morning,  keeping 
them  in  a  warm,  close  pen,  without  water,  and  they  will  hibernate  in  good 
condition  upon  this  small  amount  of  feed.  If  watered  or  fed  with  liquid 
food,  and  kept  in  the  cold,  much  of  the  food  is  expended  in  keeping  up 
animal  heat.  The  pigs  should  be  in  good  condition  when  put  iqi,  and  must 
be  well  bedded  to  enable  them  to  keep  warm." 

446.  Dry-Salting  Bacon. — Hams,  or  any  part  of  the  pig  designed  for  bacon, 
we  think,  should  never  be  put  in  pickle ;  they  are  decidedly  better  salted 
dry. 

Our  practice  has  been  to  weigh  both. pork  and  salt,  giving  six  pounds  of 
fine  salt  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  pork.  First  sprinkle  about  one  fourth 
of  an  ounce  of  saltpeter,  finely  pulveiizcd,  upon  a  ham  or  shoulder, 
and  then  rub  it  well  over  with  salt,  and  pile  up  the  pieces  in  some  dry 
room,  just  as  you  would  pile  up  a  lot  of  stove- wood.  It  should  be  over- 
hauled once,  and  the  spare  salt  rubbed  on  fresh-looking  spots,  and  the  pile 
reconstructed  so  as  to  allow  the  air  to  come  to  all  parts.  It  will  completely 
salt  in  as  many  days  as  a  ham  weighs  pounds. 

For  pickled  pork,  it  is  advantageous  to  salt  it  in  bulk,  before  packing  in 
barrels.  Nothing  will  drain  off  from  meat  thus  salted,  but  just  what  should 
drain  away.  When  your  pork  is  ready  to  go  into  the  barrel,  pack  it  as  tight 
as  you  can  force  it  in,  and  then  fill  tlie  barrel  with  brine ;  not  salted  water, 
but  brine,  which  is  water  saturated  with  salt.  Pork  thus  cured  will  keep 
longer  than  we  can  calculate. 

447.  English  and  Irish  Mode  of  Curing  Bacon.— The  Irish  Farmer's  Gazette 


Seo.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES,  405 

gives  the  following  directions :  "  Singe  off  tlie  hair,  and  scrape  thoroughly 
clean ;  when  cut  up,  rub  the  flesh  side  well  with  common  salt,  and  pack  the 
pieces  on  top  of  each  other  on  a  tray  with  a  gutter  round  it  to  catch  the 
brine;  once  every  four  or  five  days  the  salt  should  be  changed,  and  the 
flitches  moved,  placing  those  on  top  at  the  bottom;  five  or  six  weeks  of  this 
treatment  will  eufiice  to  cure  the  bacon,  when  it  may  be  hung  up  to  dry, 
first  rubbing  over  with  coarse  bran,  or  any  kind  of  sawdust  except  deal; 
if  smoking  be  preferred,  hang  in  a  chinmey;  if  not,  in  a  dry,  airy  part 
of  the  kitchen,  not  too  near  llie  fire.  We  are  not  acquainted  with  the 
Limerick  mercantile  process ;  tlie  Wicklow  is  similar  to  that  given  above, 
and  practiced  by  farmers  there" 

An  English  recipe  says:  "For  four  lianis,  take  two  ounces  of  saltpeter, 
two  quarts  of  molasses,  one  quarter  of  a  pound  of  pepper,  half  an  ounce  of 
cochineal,  and  about  three  pints  of  fine  salt.  If  the  hams  have  been  in  salt 
pickle,  the  salt  will  not  be  needed.  Pound  the  saltpeter  and  cocliineal,  then 
put  all  these  ingredients  together,  and  rub  the  hams  thorouglilj'  with  the 
pickle,  turning  them  every  day." 

448.  A  Good  Pickle  for  Hams. — It  depends  partly  njx)n  how  hogs  are  fed, 
but  more  upon  the  manner  of  curing  tiian  anything  else  as  to  the  quality  of 
hams.  They  can  be  made  almost  as  delieat'j  as  tender  chicken.  For  curing 
iiams  in  pickle  wc  have  tried  and  approve  the  following  compound  of 
ariiclcs;  To  100  lbs.  of  hams  use  8  or  9  lbs.  of  rock-salt,  2  oz.  of  saltpeter, 
2  lbs.  of  white  sugar,  1  quart  of  best  syrup,  4  oz.  of  saleratus,  and  1  oz.  of 
allspice. 

These  materials  are  boiled  and  scummed,  in  ten  or  twelve  gallons  of  water, 
and  the  hams  j^acked  in  a  barrel,  and  the  brine  put  on  cool,  adding  water 
if  necessary  to  cover  the  hams.  None  but  a  new  oak  barrel  should  be  used. 
Scald  the  barrel  and  cool  it  before  putting  in  tiie  hams.  Let  them  lie  three 
weeks,  and  then  take  them  out  and  air  them  twenty-four  hours ;  put  them 
back  again  three  weeks,  and  then  take  them  out  and  dry  them  tlioroughly 
before  smoking,  wliicli  is  done  in  an  airy  smoke-house,  with  cobs  and  maple 
or  liickory  chips.  It  is  then  a  most  delicious  article  of  food.  In  smoking, 
be  careful  to  keep  your  hams  cool;  never  allow  fire  enough  to  heat  the 
meat 

449.  Preserving  Hams  lor  Family  Tse.— To  keep  hams  through  the  summer, 
hang  them  in  a  dry,  cool  room,  and  draw  a  loose  cotton  bag  over  them,  and 
tie  it  tightly  around  the  string  tliat  iiolds  the  meat.  Tliis  must  be  done 
before  flies  come  in  the  spring,  and  it  will  keep  them  away.  We  have  kept 
liaras  prepared  in  this  way  till  over  three  years  old,  and  they  were  as  much 
better  than  new  ones,  as  ripe  old  cheese  is  better  than  one  a  day  old.  Tlie 
Lest  hauis  that  we  have  in  this  couutry  are  from  hogs  fed  upon  beech-nuts; 
but  hams  of  hogs  fatted  upon  corn  are  much  better  than  those  from  what 
are  generally  known  as  mast-fed  hogs. 

450.  How  to  Cook  a  Ham. — Never  put  a  ham  into  a  kettle  of  cold  water, 
and  be  equally  careful  never  to  put  one  into  boiling  water.     First  let  the 


406  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Cuap.  IV. 

water  become  lukewarm;  then  put  in  the  ham.  Let  it  simmer  or  boil 
lightly  for  four  or  five  hours — five  is  better  than  four — then  take  it  out  ftinl 
shave  off  the  riud.  Rub  granulated  sugar  into  the  whole  surface  of  the 
ham,  so  long  as  it  can  be  made  to  receive  it.  Place  the  ham  in  a  baking- 
dish,  with  a  bottle  of  champagne  or  prime  cider.  Baste  occasionally  with 
the  juice,  and  let  it  bake  an  hour  in  a  gentle  lieat.  A  slice  from  a  nicely- 
cured  ham,  thus  cooked,  is  enough  to  tempt  a  Jew. 

451.  Sausa^e-Makingt — All  the  lean  scraps  of  pork  that  accumulate  in  cut- 
ting up  the  pigs,  whether  for  bacon  or  pickled  pork,  will  be  most  economi- 
cally used  if  made  into  sausage  meat.  But  do  not  attempt  this  work  unless 
you  have  a  good  sausage-meat  cutter ;  and  if  you  wish  to  stufl'  the  meat  into 
cases,  you  should  have  a  combined  cutter  and  stuflTer,  so  as  to  do  the  work  at 
one  operation.  Cut  the  pork  into  small  pieces,  and  divide  it  in  parcels  of 
about  a  quart,  upon  a  clean  table,  to  which  the  cutter  should  be  fiistened. 
Mix  your  seasoning  of  salt,  sage,  thyme,  cloves,  pepper,  and  a  little  sugar, 
if  you  like  it,  with  your  meat,  and  tiien  put  it  through  the  cutting-machine, 
thus  nicely  blending  the  seasoning  with  the  meat,  which  passes  directly  into 
the  cases,  and  finishes  the  job  with  great  expedition. 

452.  The  Value  of  Pork  in  Bacon. — If  bacon  sides  should  range  at  13  cents 
per  pound,  shoulders  at  10  cents,  and  hams  at  15  cents ;  and  prime  ]»ickled 
pork  at  $18  per  barrel,  mixed  pork  at  $16,  and  rumps  at  $14  per  barrel,  we 
would  advise  all  small  farmers,  who  have  a  limited  force  to  feal,  and  a 
limited  pui"se  to  empty,  to  buy  the  rumps ;  they  are  about  eight  inches  of 
the  small  end  of  the  backbone,  with  the  tail  cut  off,  and  consisting  of  a  due 
proportion  of  fat,  lean,  and  bone,  and  are  the  cheapest  meat  diet  that  can 
possibly  be  purchased  by  planters  for  their  people. 

453.  How  to  Cure  and  Cook  Corucd  Beef.— For  a  pickle,  to  every  100  lbs. 
of  beef,  take  five  lbs.  of  salt,  a  quarter  of  an  oimce  of  saltpeter,  and  one  pound 
of  sugar ;  dissolve  in  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  meat.  Do  not  get  your 
meat  too  salt,  for  it  makes  it  tough  and  tasteless.  Do  not  allow  it  to  remain 
over  two  weeks  in  the  first  brine,  for  it  takes  up  all  the  blood  that  was  in  the 
meat,  and  consequently  ought  to  be  drained  off,  as  tlie  meat  will  be  much 
more  likely  to  be  injured  tiian  it  will  when  separated  and  replaced  with 
fresh-made  brine :  but  more  especially  in  warm  weather.  In  tliis  way  it  will 
keep  with  just  sufficient  salt  to  season  it.  In  the  second  place,  tiie  cooking 
is  of  just  as  much  importance  as  the  corning ;  it  should  be  boiled  at  least 
four  hours,  or  until  it  can  be  cut  and  eaten  as  readily  as  a  piece  of  soft 
bread.  Not  one  half  of  the  domestics  cook  their  meat  long  enough.  Try  it 
once  and  you  will  see  the  difference.  Meat  prepared  in  this  way  can  be 
eaten  with  a  relish,  and  is  easily  digested,  giving  nourishment  and  strength 
to  the  body.  But  fried  meats,  or  meats  half  cooked,  can  not  be  properly 
masticated  or  prepared  for  the  action  of  the  stomach,  and  are  among  the 
most  indigestible  articles  of  nourishment.  Some  persons  arc  always  in  too 
much  of  a  hurry  or  too  lazy  to  chew  their  food,  thereby  favoring  their  teeth 
and  throwing  the  responsibility  upon  the  stomach.     Frequent  abuses  of  this 


Sec.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  407 


important  organ  develop  disease,  and  the  individual  is  said  to  have  dyspep- 
sia with  all  its  attendant  evils.  Therefore,  spare  not  the  cooking;  you 
will  have  the  less  chewing,  and  greater  advantage  of  the  food. 

454.  Italian  Mode  of  Cooking  Scrap,  or  Coarse  Portions  of  Beef.— A  very 
economical  and  most  savory  and  delicious  dish  can  be  made  with  two  or 
tliree  pounds  of  chuck  steak,  or  cheap  parts  of  beef,  which  infinitely  surpasses 
the  tasteless,  insipid,  common  eating-house  stuflF,  called  "  beef  a  la  mode." 
Cut  the  steak  into  pieces  of  less  than  two  inches  square  ;  season  with  black 
pepper  and  salt,  put  them  into  a  saucepan  with  a  full  half  pint  of  cold 
water  on  the  fire,  and  as  soon  as  it  boils  up,  remove  it  from  the  fire  and  set 
it  where  it  would  simmer  for  two  hours  and  a  half,  until  perfectly  tender. 
While  simmering,  tie  up  in  muslin  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  composed  of 
knotted  marjoram,  winter  savory,  and  a  little  thyme,  and  take  it  out  just 
before  the  dish  is  served.  Of  course,  the  stew  must  occasionally  be  shaken, 
as  all  others  are;  remember,  however,  the  fat  must  not  be  skimmed  off;  the 
more  fat  there  is,  the  better  the  stew.  The  dish  is  of  Italian  origin,  and  is 
eaten  by  Italians  with  plain  boiled  macaroni  and  Parmesan  cheese,  or  with 
a  salad,  and  with  either  is  a  dainty  dish. 

455.  Pressed  Beef.— This  is  another  excellent  way  of  using  up  the  cheap 
parts  of  fresh  beef,  or  even  that  which  is  corned  by  the  receipt  given  in  No. 
453.  Boil  any  ragged  scrap  pieces,  with  not  too  much  fat,  until  the  bones 
will  freely  separate  from  the  meat,  which  pick  off  and  pack  in  any  strong 
dish,  and  add  such  seasoning  as  you  wish  of  salt,  pepper,  spice ;  some  add 
a  trifle  of  molasses  or  sugar,  and  press  the  whole  into  a  cake,  just  as  those  do 
who  make  "  head-cheese"  from  that  portion  of  pork  that  is  better  prepared 
in  this  way  tiian  any  other. 

456.  Csrful  Little  Tilings  for  Dousekeepers.— "The  truest  economy  begins 
in  little  things."  And  so  we  give  a  dozen  of  them  in  a  bunch  to  conclude 
our  "  e.xcerpta  of  knowledge  for  the  kitchen." 

Mahogaxt  Stain. — Take  four  ounces  of  red  sanders,  one  pound  of  fustic, 
and  an  ounce  of  logwood,  and  boll  them  in  half  a  gallon  of  water  for  one 
hour;  then  apply  it  wami  with  a  brush  or  sponge;  when  dry,  apply  var- 
nish.    With  this  you  can  renovate  old  furniture. 

A  Cheap  Refeigeeator. — "Two  tin  pails,  soldered  one  into  the  other,  the 
space  between  them  filled  with  charcoal,  in  small  pieces  (not  necessarily 
dust),  with  the  cover  arranged  in  the  same  way,  will  keep  a  small  quantity 
of  ice  a  very  long  time.  Three  inveited  tea-cups,  or  something  made  for 
the  purpose,  should  support  the  ice  to  keep  it  out  of  the  water.  Next  to 
putting  the  ice  in  a  tin  pail  and  wrapping  it  in  a  blanket,  this  is  the 
simplest  ice-keeper  we  know  of,  and  it  is  entirely  philosophical  and  ef- 
fective." 

To  this  we  add  the  recommendation  of  putting  this  tin  pail,  with  the  ice 
in  it,  with  a  hole  as  big  as  a  pin  at  the  bottom  and  dripping-pan  nnder  it, 
in  a  chest  or  close-shutting  closet,  the  air  of  which  will  be  cooled,  with  the 
provision  placed  in  it. 


408  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

This,  of  course,  is  only  a  substitute  for  a  good  refrigerator,  but  will  be 
found  much  better  than  none,  and  can  be  made  for  almost  nothing,  by  any 
man  with  Yankee  gumption. 

To  Make  Tough  Meat  or  Fowl  Tender. — One  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
sharp  vinegar  put  into  tlie  water  when  set  to  cook  will  do  this,  and  in  no 
way  impair  the  flavor  of  the  stew  or  soup.  Veal  to  roast  is  much  improved 
by  being  rubbed  all  over  with  vinegar  and  allowed  to  remain  two  or  three 
hours  before  cooking.  Fifteen  miimtcs  to  the  pound  is  the  received  rule  for 
roasting  and  boiling  meats,  and  ten  for  fish. 

How  TO  Use  Salt.— Beef  or  mutton  should  not  have  a  bit  of  salt  put 
upon  either  when  first  set  to  roast ;  just  before  serving,  baste  the  meat,  sprin- 
kle fine  salt  slightly  over  it,  dredge  flour  on,  and  let  it  brown  up.  Poultry 
must  be  covered  with  sweet  lard  and  salt — a  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  two  of  lard 
— before  roasting. 

To  Prevent  Metals  from  Ivusting. — Melt  together  three  parts  of  lard 
and  one  of  rosin  powder.  A  very  thin  coating  applied  with  a  brush  will 
preserve  Russia-iron  stoves  and  grates  from  rusting  during  summer,  even  in 
damp  situations.  For  this  purpose,  a  portion  of  black  lead  may  be  mixed 
with  the  lard.  The  efi"ect  is  equally  good  on  brass,  copper,  steel,  etc. 
The  same  compound  forms  an  excellent  water-proof  paste  for  leather. 
Boots,  when  treated  with  it,  will  thereafter  take  the  iisual  polish  when 
blackened,  and  the  soles  may  be  saturated  with  it  without  soiling  the  floor, 
as  it  does  not  rub  oif. 

Seeds  and  many  other  things  are  best  kept  in  wooden  boxes,.  By  a  new 
patent  contrivance,  boards  are  cut  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  of  suit- 
able length  and  width  to  bend  into  forms  for  the  sides  of  a  round  box,  the 
largest  holding  about  a  peck,  and  eight  others,  smaller  and  smaller,  to  form 
a  nest.  The  ends  are  fastened  together  Avith  some  kind  of  glue,  and  the  bot- 
toms are  fastened  in  by  a  rim  of  tin  bent  over  the  corner;  and  the  lids  are 
made  in  the  same  way,  so  that  the  ends  may  be  of  stufl"  but  little  thicker 
than  the  sides.  The  tin  corners  are  great  protectors  against  mice,  as  that  is 
the  only  part  of  a  circular  box  likely  to  be  gnawed  into,  and  this  makes 
them  quite  safe  for  seeds  and  better  as  m'cII  as  cheaper  than  tin  boxes,  and 
a  decided  improvement  upon  the  old-style  circular  wooden  boxes  whicli  have 
bottoms  made  of  a  half-inch  board,  so  as  to  nail  it  in.  "We  should  think  that 
half  bushel  and  smaller  measures,  made  up  on  the  same  plan,  with  iron  in- 
stead of  tin  corners,  would  be  first-rate. 

Unpleasant  Odoes  arising  from  boiling  ham,  cabbages,  etc.,  arc  com- 
pletely corrected  by  throwing  whole  red  peppers  into  the  pot,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  flavor  of  the  food  is  improved.  Pieces  of  charcoal  will  pro- 
duce the  same  eflfect. 

A  Good  "Way  of  Koasting  Apples. — Select  the  largest  apples;  scoop 
out  the  core  without  cutting  quite  through  ;  fill  the  hollow  with  butter  and 
fine,  soft  sugar ;  let  them  roast  in  a  slow  oven,  and  serve  up  with  the  syrup. 

Hodge-Podge. — Cut  two  pounds  of  mutton  into  small  pieces,  and  put  them 


Sko.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  409 

in  a  stewpan  with  three  quarts  of  water  and  a  tablespoonful  of  salt.  Set  it 
on  the  fire  and  let  it  come  to  a  boil ;  then  set  it  where  it  will  simmer  an 
hour;  keep  it  well  skimmed;  then  add  one  carrot,  two  turnips,  two  large 
onions  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  half  a  dozen  lettuce-heads,  and  let  the 
whole  cook  quite  tender.  Skim  ofl"  all  the  fat,  and  serve  either  with  tiie 
meat  in  the  soup  or  separately.  A  pint  of  green  peas  boiled  in  the  soup  will 
be  found  to  be  a  great  addition. 

Haie-Beushes  are  best  cleaned  by  washing  them  in  sal  soda  or  saleratns 
water,  which  removes  all  the  oily  coating. 

Sage  and  all  other  herbs  for  family  use  should  be  cut  when  the  plant  is 
budding  for  blossom,  and  dried  in  the  shade,  and  tiien  stored  in  thick  paper 
bags,  and  there  is  no  better  place  for  them  than  hanging  from  the  garret 
rafters. 

To  Cleajj  Knives. — ^Take  a  potato,  cut  in  halves,  and  dip  the  cut  part  in 
brick-dust  and  rub  the  knives,  the  potato  affording  just  enough  moisture. 

Foe  Cleaning  Tainted  Baeeels. — Put  one  peck  of  charcoal  and  one  tea- 
cup of  saleratus  into  each  barrel,  fill  them  up  with  boiling  water,  cover  tight, 
and  let  tliem  stand  until  cold. 

■157.  Vermin-Remedies — Moths,  Bi^s,  Ants. — Moths  are  driven  away,  it  is 
generally  believed,  or  rather  the  miller  that  lays  the  eggs  is,  by  any  strong 
odor;  so  that  furs  or  woolens,  packed  in  a  chest  of  camphor-wood,  or  of 
cedar,  or  sassafras,  or  with  the  shavings  of  those  woods,  or  with  gura-cam- 
plior,  or  tobacco,  snuflT,  or  pepper,  are  preserved  from  the  ravages  of  these 
pests.  After  moths  commence  eating,  they  pay  no  regard  to  the  presence  of 
camphor,  cedar,  or  tobacco ;  in  fact,  I  think  they  enjoy  the  latter,  if  any- 
thing else  than  humanity  can.  Tiie  superiority  of  pepper  to  camphor,  as  a 
preventive  of  moths  eating  furs,  consists  in  the  fact  that,  while  the  eggs  will 
hatch  among  camphor,  there  is  something  in  the  aroma  of  pepper  which 
destroys  their  vitality.  Woolens  may  be  safely  stored  in  a  close  linen  bag 
if  often  looked  after.  And  probably  looking  after  is  the  best  of  all  the 
preventives,  for  moths  never  work  where  they  are  frequently  disturbed. 
But  if  articles  are  ]iacked  in  linen  bags,  they  should  be  taken  out  and  aired 
once  a  month  during  summer. 

Before  packing  away  fers,  they  should  be  well  beaten,  to  dislodge  the 
moths  that,  despite  t!ie  most  scrupulous  care,  may  be  deposited  in  them. 
But  the  dreaded  and  inconvenient  taking  up  and  beating  carpets  will  not 
always  insure  success;  but  one  who  has  tried  it,  says:  "I  conquered 
them  wholly  in  this  Avay — I  took  a  coarse  crash  towel  and  wrung  it  out  of 
clean  water,  and  spread  it  smoothlj'  on  the  carpet,  then  ironed  it  dry  with  a 
good  hot  iron,  repeating  the  operation  on  all  suspected  places,  and  those 
least  used.  It  does  not  injure  the  pile  or  color  of  the  carpet  in  the  least,  as 
it  is  not  necessary  to  press  hard,  heat  and  steam  being  the  agents ;  and  they 
do  the  work  effectually  on  worms  and  eggs.  Then  the  camphor  will  doubt- 
less prevent  future  depredations  of  the  miller,  by  placing  a  few  little  crumbs 
under  the  edges  of  the  carpets  without  moving  them." 


no  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

Patcliouli  is  recommended  as  a  preventive  of  moths.  Sachets  de  patch- 
ouli are  iiiiide  of  cotton-wool,  among  ■which  a  few  grains  of  the  powdered 
patchouli  leaves  are  mixed,  and  folded  in  paper.  Placed  among  clothe?, 
tiiey  are  said  to  drive  away  moths.  In  Ilindostan,  patchouli  is  used  bj  tiie 
women  for  scenting  their  hair,  and  it  is  also  mixed  with  tobacco  for  the 
hookah.  In  this  country  the  patchouli  leaves,  it  is  said,  will  retain  their 
scent  if  dried  in  the  dark  by  being  jdaced  singly  in  a  drawer,  and  turned 
daily  for  a  fortnight.  The  Arabs  dry  the  leaves  and  stuff  pillows  and  mat- 
tresses with  them,  believing  that  tiiey  prevent  contagion  and  prolong  life;  a 
belief  which  attaches  among  the  ignorant  to  sage  and  other  odoriferous 
plants.  As  a  scent,  patchouli  is  used  by  perfumers  chiefly  for  mixing  with 
otiier  aromatics. 

Benzoin  is  used  in  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  at  Paris,  to 
keep  the  moths  out  of  the  skins  of  the  animals. 

Tallow  packed  with  clothes  is  also  a  moth  preventive.  But  after  all,  fre- 
quent shakings  are  the  best  preventives  of  all  injuries  by  moths  or  mold. 

Bugs  nui}'  be  killed  with  alum.  Make  a  solution  of  alum,  as  strong  as 
water  will  dissolve,  and  apply  that  hot  to  places  infested  with  bugs  of  any 
sort,  in  bedsteads,  closets,  or  trees  and  plants,  taking  care  not  to  apply  it  so 
as  to  kill  tender  plants,  and  the  bugs  will  take  a  strong  dislike  to  (he 
locality.  You  may  brush  it  in  cracks  and  crevices  of  floors,  ceilings,  or 
walls  of  a  room,  or  in  the  holes  and  nesting-places  of  these  small  vermin  in 
trees. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  excellent  for  bugs  and  ants.  For  bedsteads  it  may 
be  mixed  with  soap.  For  ants,  with  lard  and  sugar,  through  which  draw 
woolen  yarn,  and  fi.x  it  in  cracks  infested  with  ants. 

45S.  Rat  Rrmedirs. — Chlorid  of  lime  has  frequently  proved  a  sure  thing 
to  drive  rats  away  from  any  place  infested  by  them.  An  ounce  of  it,  scat- 
tered in  the  place  where  they  come  to  feed,  or  wrapped  in  a  bit  of  muslin 
and  put  in  their  holes,  where  it  acquires  dampness,  produces  a  g;is  that  is 
not  ofleusivc  to  man,  but  is  to  the  rats.  If  chlorid  of  lime  is  moistened 
with  muriatic  acid,  and  placed  in  a  drain,  vault,  or  cellar,  and  closed  from 
the  air  a  little  while,  the  rats  will  depart,  because  it  will  be  death  to  remain. 
This  is  also  a  good  disinfectant,  and  will  for  a  time  remove  the  eflluvia  of  a 
dead  rat.  One  application  of  dry  chlorid  of  lime  to  rat  lilies  has  driven 
them  away  for  a  year.     If  they  return,  a  renewal  of  it  will  start  them  .again. 

Cats  arc  the  best  rat-traps  that  we  have  found  after  many  years'  ex- 
perience, and  next  to  cats,  the  chafl'-trai).  This  is  best  made  by  partly  filling 
a  large,  smooth  kettle  with  water,  and  then  covering  with  a  few  inches  of 
chafl".  The  first  rat  that  gets  in  makes  a  great  outcry,  which  brings  others 
to  share  his  fate. 

The  best  food  with  which  to  mix  poison  for  killing  rats  is  pumpkin  seeds. 
Wet  them,  and  sprinkle  on  a  little  arsenic,  which  will  adhere  to  the  seeds. 
Tliey  will  be  eaten  by  rats  and  mice,  while  cats,  fowls,  etc.,  not  being  fond 
of  such  food,  will  not  meddle  with  them.     AVherever  poison  is  put  for  these 


Sko.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  411 

troublesome  pests  of  the  farm,  water  should  be  near  by,  so  that  tliey  may 
eat,  drink,  and  die  outside  of  their  holes  and  hiding-places.  Musk-rats, 
which  are  often  troublesome  pests  upon  some  farms  bordering  creeks  or 
ponds,  may  be  poisoned  \vi(h  arsenic  upon  pieces  of  parsnej)  or  sweet  apple. 
Gunpowder,  flashed  in  rat-holes,  is  said  to  be  good  to  drive  them  away  from 
the  premises. 

459.  Disinfectants  and  the  Value  of  Disinfecting.— Nothing  conduces  more  to 
promote  the  health  of  a  family  than  pure  atmosphere.  It  can  be  kept  so 
only  in  dwellings  properly  constructed  for  ventilation.  From  sitting-room, 
dining-room,  and  bed-rooms  we  have  air  flues  that  have  a  strong  draught 
out  of  the  top  of  the  house,  and  the  kitchen  is  largely  furnished  with  venti- 
lation. In  all  unventilated  rooms  of  the  house,  and  in  sick  chambers,  odors 
at  times  accumulate  so  as  to  need  disinfecting,  while  cellars,  sinks,  out- 
houses, and  stables  often  need  it.  Coffee  roasted  in  a  room,  solution  of  cop- 
peras sprinkled  about,  or  cloths  wet  in  it  and  hung  up;  chlorid  of  lime 
moistened,  each  acts  quickly  as  a  disinfectant.  The  odor  of  a  dead  rat  can 
bo  allayed  at  once  by  moistening  an  ounce  of  chlorid  of  lime  with  a  tea- 
spoouful  of  muriatic  acid.  But  no  one  should  breathe  much  of  the  gas  it 
engenders. 

There  is  a  considerable  difierencc  between  a  deodorizer  and  a  disinfectant. 
The  former  either  merely  removes  or  disguises  a  foul  odor;  the  latter  changes 
the  character  of  the  matter  which  creates  the  etHuvia,  and  prevents  it  from 
sending  forth  disease.  Fresh  slaked  lime  and  charcoal  dust  are  very  good 
deodorizers,  but  their  disinfecting  powers  are  not  equal  to  some  of  the  salts 
of  manganese,  which,  when  they  combine  with  pestilential  fluids  in  siuks 
and  drains,  give  out  at  the  same  time  a  considerable  quantity  of  pure  oxygen 
to  refresh  the  atmosphere.  The  manganate  of  soda,  or  potash,  has  recently 
been  tried  in  London  with  much  success  in  deodorizing  and  disinfecting  the 
water  of  the  river  Thames,  and  its  use  in  our  cities  during  dry  weather  may 
be  of  great  benefit.  It  is  applied  by  dissolving  it  in  warm  water,  and  pour- 
ing it  into  the  sink  or  drain  to  be  disinfected. 

M.  Herpin,  of  Paris,  in  the  Journal  de  Phai'maeie,  recommends  dried 
and  pulverized  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed  with  rather  more  than  one  fifth  of  its 
weight  of  powdered  charcoal,  as  a  cheap  and  most  effective  disinfecting 
mixture.  It  entirely  removes  the  noxious  emanations  from  decomposing 
organic  matters,  fixing  the  ammonia,  and  forming  a  valuable  manure. 

Prof.  Nash,  of  Amherst  College,  gives  the  following  formula  for  making 
what  may  be  termed  home-made  chlorid  of  lime : 

"Take  one  barrel  of  lime  and  one  bushel  of  salt,  dissolved  in  as  little 
wa'er  as  will  dissolve  the  whole ;  slake  the  lime  with  the  water,  putting  on 
more  water  than  will  dry-slake  it,  so  much  that  it  will  form  a  veiy  thick 
jia^te;  this  will  not  take  all  the  water;  jiut  on,  therefore,  a  little  of  the 
remainder  daily  until  the  lime  has  taken  the  whole.  The  result  will  be  a 
sort  of  impure  chlorid  of  lime,  but  a  very  powerful  deodorizer,  equally 
good  for  all  out-door  purposes  with  the  article  bought  at  the  apothecary's. 


*12  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

and  costing  not  one  twentieth  part  as  much.  This  should  be  kept  under  a 
slied  or  some  out-building.  It  should  be  kept  moist,  and  it  may  be  apj)lied 
whenever  offensive  odors  are  generated,  with  the  assurance  that  it  will  be 
effective  to  purify  the  air,  and  will  add  to  the  value  of  the  manure  much 
more  than  it  costs.  It  Avould  be  well  for  every  farmer  to  prepare  a  quan- 
tity of  this,  and  have  it  always  on  hand." 

IIow  much  more  sensible  it  M-ould  be  for  the  city  authorities  to  use  this 
mixture,  which  concentrates  effluvia,  instead  of  quicklime,  which  dissipates 
it  through  tlie  air  and  into  everybody's  lungs! 

To  prove  how  quickly  the  air  of  a  sitting-room  becomes  impui-e,  place  in 
it  a  pitcher  of  iced  water,  and  in  a  few  hours  it  will  have  absorbed  from  the 
room  nearly  all  the  respired  and  perspired  gases  of  the  room,  the  air  of 
vvhich  will  have  become  purer,  but  the  water  utterly  filthy.  This  depends 
on  the  fact  that  the  water  has  the  faculty  of  condensing,  and  thereliy  absorb- 
ing all  the  gases,  which  it  does  without  increasing  its  own  bulk.  Tlie  colder 
the  water  is,  the  greater  its  capacity  to  contain  these  gases.  At  ordinary 
temperatures  a  pint  of  water  will  absorb  a  pint  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
several  pints  of  ammonia.  This  capacity  is  nearly  doubled  by  reducing  the 
temperature  to  that  of  ice.  Hence  water  kept  in  the  room  awhile  is  always 
unfit  for  use,  and  should  be  often  renewed,  whether  it  has  become  warm  or 
not.  And  for  the  same  reason,  the  water  in  a  pump-stoek  should  all  be 
pumped  out  in  the  morning  before  any  is  used.  That  wliich  has  stood  in 
the  pitcher  during  the  night  is  not  fit  for  coffee  water  in  the  morning.  Im- 
pure water  is  injurious  to  health  as  well  as  impure  air,  and  every  person 
should  provide  tlie  means  of  ol)taining  it  fresh  and  pure  for  all  domestic  uses. 

460.  Soap-Makiug  and  Washing. — Wood  ashes  made  from  any  hard  wood 
will  make  soap.  Pine  ashes  are  nearly  worthless.  Beech,  mai)le,  birch,  and 
hickory  are  among  the  best  sorts  for  leaching.  Put  sticks  and  straw  in  the 
bottom  of  the  leach-tub,  packed  close,  and  four  quarts  of  lime  to  a  barrel  of 
ashes,  which  wet  and  pound  down  as  you  put  in,  and  then  put  on  water 
slowly  two  days  before  you  let  the  lye 'run,  and  it  will  come  strong,  but 
should  be  boiled  still  stronger  before  you  put  in  grease.  Pones,  rinds, 
gristle,  and  hard  scraps  must  go  into  very  strong  lye,  and  will  then  soon  bo 
eaten  up,  all  but  the  earthy  part  of  bones,  which  ekira  out  and  save  for  tlie 
grapevines  and  pear-trees.  Make  the  soap  strong  of  grease  as  well  as  lye, 
and  do  not  use  it  till  very  old,  and  it  Avill  be  very  good.  It  siiould  be  of  a 
salvy  consistence. 

To  make  soap  with  potash  :  Use  the  best  quality  of  "first  sorts"  of  pot- 
ash, in  the  proportion  of  six  pounds  of  potash  to  seven  pounds  of  grease,  for 
a  barrel  of  40  gallons.  Break  up  tlio  ])otash  into  small  lumps  and  dissolve 
24  lbs.  in  two  pailfuls  of  hot  water.  It  dissolves  rather  slowly  when  the 
potash  is  good.  When  dissolved,  put  the  solution  into  the  kettle,  and  add 
tlie  grease  quite  warm,  and  stir  the  mixture  together;  allow  it  to  stand  all 
night,  if  convenient.  In  the  morning  apply  a  moderate  heat  until  the  mix- 
ture appears  ropy;  then  fill  up  with  cold  water.     Cost,  say  G  lbs.  of  potash, 


Seo.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  413 

36  cents ;  7  lbs.  grease,  28  cents — 64  cents  for  a  barrel  of  soap.  Another  re- 
ceipt says : 

"  One  hundred  pounds  of  good  soap  for  $1  30 :  Take  six  pounds  of  potash, 
75  cents ;  four  pounds  of  lard,  50  cents ;  quarter  of  a  pound  of  rosin,  5 
cents.  Beat  up  the  rosin,  mix  all  together  well,  and  set  aside  for  five  days ; 
then  put  the  whole  into  a  twelve-gallon  cask  of  warm  water,  and  stir  twice  a 
day  for  ten  days,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  you  will  have  about  one 
hundred  pounds  of  excellent  soap." 

Tlie  following  is  considered  a  valuable  aid  to  the  washerwoman,  by  one 
who  has  tried  it.     She  says  : 

"Take  one  pound  of  sal  soda  and  half  a  pound  of  unslaked  lime;  put 
them  in  a  gallon  of  water  and  boil  twenty  minutes;  let  it  stand  till  cool, 
then  drain  off  and  put  it  in  a  stone  jug  or  jar.  Soak  your  dirty  clothes 
all  night,  or  until  they  are  well  wet  through,  then  wring  them  out  and  rub 
on  plenty  of  soap,  and  to  one  boiler  of  clothes  well  covered  with  water  add 
one  teaspoonful  of  the  washing  fluid.  Boil  half  an  hour  briskly,  then  wash 
them  thoroughly  through  one  suds,  and  rinse  well  with  water,  and  your 
clothes  will  look  better  than  the  old  way  of  washing  twice  before  boiling. 
This  is  an  invaluable  recipe,  and  I  do  want  every  poor  tired  woman  to 
try  it." 

Another  one  says :  "  Take  two  pounds  of  soda  ash,  two  pounds  of  hard  soap, 
and  ten  quarts  of  water ;  cut  the  soap  fine  ;  add  all  together,  put  into  a  kettle, 
and  bring  to  a  boil,  then  take  it  off  the  fire  and  stir  until  nearly  cool.  Put 
your  clothes  to  soak  the  evening  before  you  wash.  In  the  morning,  wring 
out,  boil  them  in  water,  to  which  is  added  nearly  a  pint  of  the  compound 
to  every  pailful.  "Wash  out  in  the  same  water  and  rinse,  and  your  washing 
is  done." 

4G1.  Washing  Machiues  liave  been  contrived,  ])atented,  made,  and  sold  and 
discarded  almost  as  numerously  as  "patent  ciiurns."  We  have  tried  a  good 
many.  Tlie  cliurns  have  all  been  given  up  for  the  old  dasiier,  and  notwith- 
sfanding  washing  was  "  made  easy,"  the  old  wash-board  still  liolds  its  place, 
though  some  wasliing  machiues  are  worthy  of  commendation  as  assistants  in 
the  laundry.  None  will  do  all  the  work.  Perhaps  our  lad}'  readers  will  say 
tliat  wo  ought  to  tell  them  which  to  buy.  We  can  not  do  it.  Tlie  latest 
e:;puiiencc  of  our  family  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  Doty's  New  York  machine, 
'•  iinpi-oved,"  which  acts  upon  the  plan  of  a  cloth-dresser's  fulling-mill,  and 
i.-!  very  easily  Avorked.  Tiie  "  Meti'opolitan  washing  machine"  is  the  pound- 
iiig  barrel  improved  by  springs  that  make  it  work  easy.  It  is  useful  for 
heavy  work.  Clothes  Wkixgees  are  worthy  of  the  highest  commendation. 
Tliey  are  the  most  important  of  all  household  labor-saving  machines.  They 
are  made  of  different  forms,  but  the  principle  in  eacli  is  the  same,  being  con- 
struc'.ed  to  attach  to  the  edge  of  a  wash-tub,  and  contain  two  elastic  rollers 
which  are  turned  by  a  crank  with  one  hand,  while  with  the  otiicr  the  washer 
picks  up  one  end  of  a  garment  and  holds  it  to  the  rollers,  through  whicli  it 
passes  rapidly  and  falls  into  a  clothes-basket  a  great  deal  dryer  than  any 


414  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Cdap.  IV. 

woman  could  wring  it  with  all  lier  strength  and  tcu-fold  more  time.  Tliese 
machines  cost  from  $5  to  $10,  according  to  size,  and  are  very  simple  in  con- 
struction, very  effective,  and  look  as  though  they  would  be  very  durable, 
and  are  certainly  very  great  labor-saving  machines,  and  one  should  be  in 
every  family',  and  we  are  doing  a  public  duty  in  making  them  as  exten- 
sively known  as  any  other  fact  for  farmers.  With  a  Metropolitan  washing 
machine  and  a  clothes-wringer,  or,  rather,  a  clothes-squeezer,  which  has 
been  several  years  in  use  in  the  author's  iamily,  washing-day  is  no  longer 
one  that  is  dreaded.     With  these,  washing  is  made  easy. 

462.  Soft  Water. — No  woman  can  wash  witli  any  satisfaction  unless  she 
has  soft  water.  It  is  for  this  tiiat  we  have  treated  so  fully  upon  cisterns— 
333,  331,  335.  Hard  well  water  can  be  goftened  with  lye,  potash,  or  soda. 
We  have  seen  a  statement  that  a  well  of  hard  water  was  permanently  cured 
by  putting  four  feet  of  coarse  gravel  in  the  bottom,  where  the  water  oozed 
in  through  the  blue  clay.  AVe  recommend  that  a  space  at  least  a  foot 
wide  behind  the  wall  should  also  be  filled  with  gravel  as  high  as  the  water 
comes  in. 

As  Ironing  follows  washing,  we  say:  If  your  flat-irons  arc  rough,  rub 
them  well  with  fine  salt,  and  it  will  make  them  smooth ;  so  will  rubbing 
them  with  a  waxed  rag.     Be  sure  to  use  them  hot. 

463.  Beds  and  Bedding.— There  is  no  article  of  household  furniture  of  so 
mueli  importance  as  the  bed.  It  is  the  place  where  exhausted  nature  enjoys 
recuperation,  and  all  that  art  can  do  to  make  it  comfortable  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  should  be  done,  particularly  in  the  farmer's  home,  where  the 
nature  of  the  labor  is  so  exhausting.  We  are  so  much  opposed  to  feather 
beds,  tliat  we  have  not  had  one  in  the  house  for  many  years,  and  we  never 
sleep  more  comfortably  than  we  do  at  home  upon  hard  mattresses.  We 
think  that  feather  beds  ought  to  be  done  away  with,  especially  in  warm 
weather.  For  spring,  summer,  and  fiill,  husk  beds  ought  to  be  in  use  in 
every  family,  and  would  be  if  better  known.  There  is  no  better  time  for  pro- 
curing husks  than  M'hen  the  corn  is  being  harvested,  and  the  husks  will  be 
much  nicer  and  cleaner  when  corn  is  cut  and  shocked,  and  not  become  so 
dry  and  weather-beaten.  A  good  husk  bod  will  last  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years.  Every  farmer's  daughter  can  supply  herself  with  such  beds  against 
time  of  need  at  a  trifling  expense. 

No  one  who  has  not  tried  them  knows  the  value  of  husk  beds,  which  is 
such  tliat  some  persons  think  that  straw  and  mattresses  would  be  entirely 
done  away  with  if  husk  beds  were  once  tried  ;  that  they  are  not  only  more 
pliable  than  mattresses,  but  are  more  durable,  and  the  first  cost  is  but  little. 
To  have  iiusks  nice  they  may  be  split  after  the  manner  of  splitting  straw  for 
braiding.  The  finer  they  are  tlie  softer  will  be  the  bed,  although  they  will 
not  be  likely  to  last  as  long  as  when  they  are  put  in  whole.  Three  barrels 
full,  well  stowed  in,  will  fill  a  good-sized  tick,  that  is,  after  they  have  been 
split.  The  bed  will  alwa^-s  be  light,  the  husks  do  not  become  matted  down 
like  feathers,  and  they  are  certainly  more  healthy  to  sleep  on. 


Sec.  25.]    s:XCERPTA   OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  415 

464.  Home-Made  Mattresses  of  Hair  and  Wool. — Hair  mattresses  can  also  he 
made  in  every  farmer's  family  of  very  good  quality  out  of  pig's  hair,  which 
slioiild  be  cleaned  in  the  same  way  that  fine  wool  is  cleaned  of  all  its  gummy 
dirt.  See  129.  Where  sheep  arc  kept,  a  great  deal  of  good  material  for 
mattresses  can  be  saved  from  taglocks  and  clippings  of  wool,  which  can  bo 
cleansed  with  but  little  trouble  by  placing  them  some  days  in  a  basket  in  a 
running  stream,  or  even  by  soaking  in  still  water.  The  filth  dissolves  with- 
out injury  to  the  wool.  The  cardings  of  horses  and  bullocks,  if  saved  and 
cleansed,  will  soon  accumulate  enough  for  a  mattress ;  for  one  of  twenty 
pounds  on  the  top  of  a  husk  one  will  make  a  luxurious  bed.  There  is  no 
secret  about  making  a  mattress.  Holster  the  edges  upon  one  of  the  sides, 
and  lay  it  flat  on  the  floor  or  a  broad  table,  and  fill  in  the  material  evenly 
of  an  equal  thickness  all  over,  and  then  sew  on  the  top  and  lift  tiie  mattress 
upon  two  or  three  narrow  strips  of  boards  supported  at  the  ends  upon  tables, 
benches,  or  barrels,  so  that  you  can  stitch  through  and  through  with  a  long 
needle  which  you  can  buy  for  such  work,  using  strong,  smooth  linen  twine, 
with  a  cloth  button  under  the  loop  of  each  stitch. 

Cotton  makes  a  soft,  pleasant  mattress  Avhen  new,  but  it  soon  mats  to- 
gether, and  we  do  not  esteem  it  a  healthy  material  for  beds  or  bedding,  ex- 
cept for  sheets  and  light  quilts.  Beech  leaves  make  a  very  good  mattress, 
clean,  sweet,  and  wholesome;  they  are  best  when  gathered  by  hand  from 
green  trees.  Straw,  too,  is  always  much  better  cut  in  a  green  state  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  rye  straw  is  the  best  kind. 

The  best  vegetable  material  ever  used  for  mattresses,  and  almost  equal  to 
hair,  is  the  long  moss  which  grows  upon  forest  trees,  covering  them  as  with 
a  gray  beard  in  several  of  the  "  Confederated  States."  It  requires  to  be 
macerated  in  water  until  a  thin  cuticle  peels  off  by  washing,  or  by  drying 
and  beating,  leaving  the  black,  hairy-looking  threads  of  the  interior,  which 
are  very  tough  and  durable. 

465.  How  to  Make  Bed  Comforters. — ^The  best  bedding  ever  used  is  linen 
sheets  and  blankets  for  summer,  and  cotton  sheets  and  blankets  for  winter. 
But  as  all  can  not  have  blankets,  we  will  tell  them  how  to  make  hed  com- 
forters. It  may  be  new  to  some  readers  that  nice,  warm  bed  comforters  can 
be  made  without  the  labor  of  quilting. 

Make  two  calico  spreads,  old  or  new,  and  tack  one  in  a  quilting-frame,  if 
you  have  one,  and  if  not,  spread  it  on  the  floor  and  lay  on  four  pounds  of  cot- 
ton batting,  and  then  the  other  spread,  and  tack  through  and  through  with 
a  darning-needle  and  tie  tight  over  a  piece  of  bright  colored  clotli,  or  yarn, 
or  wool,  in  squares  of  a  foot,  and  you  will  have  a  neat-looking  warm  article 
of  bedding.     Two  persons  can  make  five  of  theni  in  a  day. 

466.  Improvemeut  in  Quilting-Frames. — And  why  not  improve  quilting- 
frames?  They  need  it.  The  old  ones  are  about  as  awkward  contrivances 
as  ever  were  conceived — always  in  the  way  when  in  use,  with  their  long 
arms  sticking  out  all  over  the  room  long  after  they.had  ceased  to  be  useful. 
What  man  ever  looked  upon  these  necessary  implements  of  household  econ- 


il6  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


omy  -with  any  satisfaction  ?  He  looks  every  time  he  comes  into  the  liouso 
■with  an  anxious  eye  at  the  progress  of  tlie  work,  "lioping  the  confounded 
long-armed  quilting-frames  will  get  out  of  the  way  some  time."  Now,  for 
the  special  benefit  of  such  nervous  gentlemen,  some  jjood  soul  out  in  Mich- 
igan has  invented  a  quilting-machiiie  that  has  no  arms  to  stick  out  in  the 
way.  "  Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention,"  and  this  inventor,  we  sup- 
pose, lived  in  a  log-cabin  only  sixteen  feet  square,  which,  as  it  contained  two 
beds  and  a  cooking-stove,  had  no  spare  room  to  set  up  tiie  quilting-frames 
on  four  chairs ;  so  he  contrived  a  machine  something  like  this,  as  near  as 
we  can  understand  the  description  :  Frame  four  legs  together  like  the  frame 
of  a  kitchen  table,  with  side  pieces  nine  feet  long,  dropped  live  inches  below 
the  top  of  the  legs,  and  end  pieces  two  and  a  half  feet  long.  Now  take  some 
scantling,  two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  square,  and  round  them  with  inch 
round  tenons  upon  each  end  to  work  in  sockets  in  tiie  top  of  the  legs.  Upon 
one  end  of  each  of  these  rollers  have  a  little  ratchet  wlieel  and  catch,  and 
nail  a  strip  of  cloth  along  one  side  of  each  to  which  to  tack  the  edges  of  the 
quilt.  AVIien  all  ready,  roll  it  all  but  tho  two  and  a  half  feet  M-ide  strip 
upon  one  roller  and  tighten  the  catch  ;  now  quilt  that  side  and  roll  upon  the 
other  roller  and  so  on  till  finished.  The  side  ])ieces  should  be  made  to  go  in 
with  a  kc}',  so  that  the  frame  can  be  taken  down  and  packed  away  at  any 
time,  even  with  the  quilt  half  finished,  as  it  can  be  rolled  up  snug.  It  is  a 
simple  piece  of  domestic  machinery,  but  would  add  to  the  comfort  of  many 
a  household. 

467.  Carpets  and  Carpet  Sweepers.— Keep  a  broom  exclusively  for  carpet 
sweeping.  Never  use  it  for  any  other  purpose.  Every  one  knows  that  tho 
daily  dust  arising  from  sweeping  carpets  causes  a  permanent  injury  to  furni- 
ture, books,  pictures,  and  the  lungs.  It  is  an  old  but  good  way  to  sprinkle 
tlie  flt)or  first  with  damp  tea-leaves,  and  then  sweep  with  a  bristle  brush ; 
but  latterly  we  have  found  it  much  easier  and  more  convenient  to  use  one 
of  the  new  revolving  carpet  sweei)ers,  which  takes  up  the  dust  and  puts  it 
away  in  a  box  so  it  does  not  rise  without  using  any  moistening  application. 
They  are  especially  suited  to  libraries,  oliices,  cabinets,  and  parlors. 

The  most  economical  carpet,  probably,  is  a  good,  stout  American  ingrain, 
which  will  cost  about  two  dollars  a  square  yard.  If  you  are  buying  a 
carpet  for  durability,  choose  small  figures.  A  farmer  should  never  grudge 
the  money  to  cover  one  room,  at  least,  with  a  first-rate  carpet,  and 
cheaper  ones  for  sitting-rooms,  bed-rooms,  and  dining-room,  if  one  is  set 
ajjart  for  the  latter  purpose.  There  is  no  furniture  that  adds  so  much  to 
the  comfort  of  a  house  at  the  same  cost  as  carpets.  These  is  no  labor  better 
bestowed  about  a  house  than  giving  the  carpet  a  thorough  shaking  and 
beating  in  a  hot,  dry  day,  upon  tiie  clean  grass,  at  least  once  a  year. 

You  need  not  hesitate  to  wash  a  carpet  with  strong  soap-suds,  with  a 
brush,  as  it  lies  upon  the  floor,  using  clear  water  afterward,  and  drying  it 
by  ironing  upon  coarse  towels  spread  over  the  wet  spots. 

468.  Removing  Stains— Beef-Gall.— There  is  no  better  substance  than  the 


Seo.  25.]    EXCERPTA  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  HOUSEWIVES.  417 

veiy  cheap  article — upon  most  farms — of  beef-gall  to  take  out  slains  upon 
carpets,  as  well  as  many  other  things. 

The  clarified  gall  of  the  ox  is  also  much  used  by  scourers  for  renovating 
the  delicate  colored  silks  and  satins.  In  its  natural  state  it  contains  green- 
ish coloring  matter,  and  is  then  only  applicable  for  restoring  the  brightness 
of  dark  materials.  It  is  de-colored  thus:  Take  one  pint  of  gall,  boil  and 
skim  it,  then  divide  into  two  parts ;  to  one  half  pint  add  half  an  ounce  of 
salt,  to  the  other  add  half  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum ;  each  part  is  to  be 
heated  till  the  additions  are  dissolved;  then  pour  into  separate  bottles,  and 
allow  them  to  stand  in  a  quiet  place,  and  clear  for  a  month  or  eight  weeks, 
even  longer  if  not  bright.  The  clear  portions  of  both  are  then  to  be  poured 
gently  off  the  sediments  and  mijed  together;  the  coloring  matter  coagu- 
lates and  falls,  from  which  the  transparent  gall  is  finally  separated  by  filter- 
ing through  blotting-paper.  In  this  state  it  will  keep  any  length  of  time 
with  its  qualities  unimpaired,  and  free  from  odor. 

If  the  stain  upon  silk  or  satin  is  produced  by  an  acid,  such  as  from  fruits, 
and  that  upon  black  or  dark  colors,  tiie  best  re-agent  is  liquid  ammonia  (strong 
hartshorn)  rubbed  in  till  it  disappears.  For  plain  and  figured  silks,  of 
delicate  colors,  we  can  not  give  a  general  rule,  and  therefore  leave  them 
to  be  operated  upon  by  the  professional  degraisseurs.  To  obliterate  grease 
spots  from  white  silk  or  satin,  we  may  proceed  as  directed  for  colored  silks; 
but  fruit,  ink,  and  glove  marks  require  a  different  treatment.  These  marks 
are  generally  removed  by  dampening  the  part  with  oxalic  acid  dissolved  in 
v.ater ;  about  the  eighth  part  of  an  ounce  in  a  wine-glassful  of  water  is  strong 
enough.  The  common  salts  of  lemon  in  water  also  answer  well.  Cofiee- 
stains,  mud-splashes,  etc.,  will  mostly  give  way  to  the  use  of  soap  and  water. 
Curd  soap  should  be  applied  for  this  purpose. 

For  grease  spots  upon  cloth  and  all  kinds  of  woolen  goods,  soap  and  water 
may  be  used  without  fear,  provided  it  is  well  washed  out  afterward.  Ful- 
ler's earth  or  powdered  French  chalk,  made  into  a  paste  with  water,  and 
laid  upon  the  part,  is,  however,  the  best  application,  to  be  brushed  out  when 
dry. 

Paint  marks  are  removed  with  turpentine,  the  smell  of  which  may  be 
quickly  dissipated  l)y  hanging  the  article  upon  a  line  in  the  air. 

Silk  articles  should  not  be  kept  folded  in  white  paper,  as  the  chlorid  of 
lime  used  in  bleaching  the  paper  will  probably  impair  the  color  of  the  silk. 
Brown  or  blue  paper  is  better ;  the  yellowish,  smooth  India  paper  is  best  of 
all.  Silks  intended  for  dress  should  not  be  kept  long  in  the  house  before 
they  are  made  up,  as  lying  in  the  folds  will  have  a  tendency  to  impair  is 
durability  by  causing  it  to  cut  or  split,  particularly  if  the  silk  has  been 
thickened  by  gum.  Thread-lace  vails  are  very  easily  cut.  Articles  of  vel- 
vet should  not  be  laid  by  with  any  weight  upon  them.  If  the  n^p  of  a  thiu 
velvet  is  laid  down  it  is  not  possible  to  raise  it  up  again.  Hard  silk  should 
never  be  wrinkled,  because  the  thread  is  easily  broken  in  the  crease,  and  it 
never  can  be  rectified.     The  way  to  take  wrinkles  out  of  silk  scarfs  and 


418  DOMESTIO  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

handkerchiefs  is  to  moisten  the  suiface  evenly  with  a  sponge  and  some  weak 
glue,  and  then  pin  tlie  silk  with  some  toilet  pins  around  the  selvedges  on  a 
mattress  or  leather-bed,  taking  pains  to  draw  out  the  silk  as  tight  as  possible. 
"Wlien  dry,  all  the  wrinkles  will  have  disappeared.  It  is  a  nice  job  to  dre.^s 
light-colored  tilk,  and  few  should  try  it.  Efome  silk  articles  should  be  moist- 
ened with  weak  glue  or  gum-water,  and  the  wrinkles  ironed  out  by  a  hot  flat- 
iron  on  the  wrong  side. 

To  Take  Grease  Olt  of  Silk. — Hub  a  lump  of  wet  magnesia  over  the 
spot ;  wlicn  dr}-,  brush  off  the  powder,  and  no  grease  will  be  seen.  It  may 
be  applied  to  other  stuffs.  This  is  an  old  and  well-tried  remedy ;  but  there 
is  a  newer  and  better  remedy,  but  not  so  thoronglily  proved — thisisZx/i- 
zine,  the  most  complete  substance  to  cleanse  all  fabrics  that  we  have  ever 
seen. 

Ox-gall  and  turpentine  are  both  good  to  take  out  grease.  If  turpentine 
be  employed,  it  should  be  distilled,  and  perfectly  free  from  rosin.  The 
preparation  called  scouring-drops  is  pure  turpentine,  perfumed  with  essence 
of  lemon.  Either  of  these  substances  may  be  applied  with  a  ^xgcq  of 
sponge,  or  with  a  remnant  of  the  same  material  that  is  being  cleaned. 
When  the  grease  spot  is  large,  the  greater  part  may  be  removed,  in  the  first 
instance,  by  the  application  of  blotting-paper  and  a  hot  iron. 

Use  a  piece  of  zinc  to  stir  your  glue,  or  keep  a  small  piece  of  zinc  in  tlie 
bottom,  and  it  will — so  we  read — prevent  it  from  acquiring  that  impleasant 
odor  common  to  glue.  "Where  glue  is  always  to  be  heated  with  steam,  a 
zinc  glue-pot  is  recounneudcd. 

Tlie  presence  of  cotton  in  woolen  fabrics  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the 
following  tests : 

"When  boiled  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  the 
woolen  fibers  accpiire  a  red  color,  but  the  cotton  fibers  remain  colorless. 
When  the  fabric  is  boiled  with  caustic  soda  solution  (sp.  gr.  105^,  the  wool 
dissolves,  but  the  cotton  is  only  slightly  affected.  Picric  acid  also  stains 
wool  vellow,  but  has  no  action  on  cotton. 

There  are  five  pounds  of  pure  sulphur  in  every  100  pounds  of  wool. 
Hence  silverware,  wrapped  up  in  flannel,  or  any  other  woolen  stuff,  will 
turn  black. 

A  bit  of  glue,  dissolved  in  skira-milk  and  water,  will  restore  old  crape. 

Eibbona  of  any  kind  should  be  washed  in  cold  soap-suds,  and  not  rinsed. 

A  hot  iron,  held  over  varnished  furniture,  will  take  out  grease  spots. 


Sec.  20.] 


DOMESTIC   WINES. 


419 


SECTION  XXVI.-DOMESTIC  WINES,  CIDER,  AND  PRESERVES. 


RULES    FOR    DOMESTIC    WINE-MAKEKS — HOW    TO    PRESERVE    CIDER    SWEET PRE- 
SERVING   FRUITS   FOR   WINTER. 

yOMESTIC  WINE,  as  iisnallj  niamifacturccl,  is  ra- 
ther a  cordial  than  a  wine,  and  is  entirely  inferior 
to  good  grape  wine;  but  when  properly  made,  it 
will  be  a  very  healthful  beverage,  particularly  for 
Slimmer  drink,  when  fully  diluted  witii  water. 
We  recommend  to  those  who  have  the  means, 
to  manufacture  currant  wine;  and  let  it  be  pure  cur- 
rant wine,  using  nothing  but  currants,  water,  and 
sugar,  without  alcohol. 

There  is  no  great  difficulty  in  making  good  currant 
wine.  White  sugar  only  should  be  used.  Tiie  better 
the  quality  of  the  sugar  the  better  the  wine  will  be. 
The  idea  that  any  sort  of  sugar  will  do  for  wine  is 
pretty  well  exploded. 

It  is  now  also  said  that  white  currants  make  a  niucli 
nicer  wine  than  the  red  currants,  but  that  is  according  to  foncy. 

While  we  admit  that  the  true  wine  must  be  made  from  the  grape,  still, 
for  the  want  of  a  more  appropriate  name  for  beverages  made  from  fruits 
other  than  tlie  grape,  we  call  them  wines.  These  domestic  wines  may  bo 
made  from  the  currant,  rhubarb,  strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  and 
gooseberry,  of  passable  qualitj'.  Inferior  but  drinkable  wines  may  be  made 
from  paisneps  and  many  other  roots. 

In  the  manufacture  of  all  domestic  wines,  the  great  mistake  is  in  the  use 
of  sugar  of  an  inferior  quality ;  double-refined  is  not  sufficiently  pure  to 
manufacture  either  of  these  wines  of  the  best  quality  ;  treble-retincd  su"ar 
should  be  used;  tliat  of  inferior  kind  contains  gum,  and  after  the  fermenta- 
tion this  gum  becomes  fetid,  and  its  disagreeable  odor  has  to  be  overcome  at 
the  expense  of  the  odor  of  the  fruit,  and  therefore  it  sliould  never  be  used. 

Brown  sugar,  no  matter  of  how  good  a  quality,  will  not  make  wine,  for 
when  fermented,  that  portion  which  is  like  molasses  in  flavor,  if  separated 
from  the  sugar,  as  in  the  process  of  refining,  becomes  a  rank  rum,  and  not 
sufficiently  delicate  as  the  preserving  alcohol  of  the  result.  When  grapes 
are  fermented,  the  sugar  or  saccharine  matter  is  not  converted  into  ruiu,  but 
into  an  undistilled  brandy  of  an  unobjectionable  flavor. 

In  making  small-fruit  wines,  alcohol  should  never  be  added ;  a  sufficient 
quantity  will  be  produced  by  the  fermentation  to  preserve  the  product,  and 
any  further  addition  injures  tlie  quality  and  arrests  the  fermentation.  When 
alcohol  is  added,  these  wines  do  not  improve  at  all  by  age. 


420  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

The  common  practice  of  racking  cider  has  caused  many  to  rack  fruit 

•\vincs,  -whicli  some  wine-makers  tell  us  is  all  wrong.     They  say : 

"When  the  proper  amount  of  the  juice  of  a  fruit,  and  treble-refined 
sugar  iu  solution,  is  placed  in  a  barrel  with  the  bung  loose,  in  a  cellar  of 
even  temperature,  fermentation  will  readily  commence,  and  will  proceed 
until  the  sugar,  or  a  portion  of  it,  is  converted  into  alcohol,  when  it  will 
cease.  The  buffy  coat  which  rises  to  the  surface  will  then  settle  and  at- 
tach itself  to  the  cask ;  the  bung  should  then  be  driven  in,  and  in  six  months 
the  wine  may  be  drawn  ofl"  and  bottled.  No  alcohol  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  it." 

Let  these  general  rules  be  observed,  and  the  following  special  directions 
pui-sued,  and  domestic  wine  may  be  made  in  any  farmer's  family  of  almost 
any  kind  of  small  fruits. 

The  directions  given  in  469  are  from  George  II.  Hite,  of  Iforrisania,  near 
New  York,  who  is  one  of  the  most  successful  domestic  wine-makers  of  our 
acquaintance. 

469.  Ilow  to  Make  Currant  and  olher  Wines.— "The  currants  should  be 
perfectly  ripe  when  gathered ;  they  should  be  stemmed  and  washed  before 
pressing,  which  should  be  done  as  thorouglily  as  possible  with  a  12-inch 
cider  press.  Ascertain  the  amount  of  juice  thus  obtained,  and  then  add 
that  amount  of  water  to  the  pumice,  and  incorporate  the  water,  and  pum- 
ice well  together  :  lei  it  stand  a  few  hours,  and  press  it  again.  By  this 
process  an  additional  quantity  of  juice,  though  irot  so  strong,  is  obtained; 
then  mix  the  first  pressing  with  the  second,  and  weigh  a  gallon  of  it,  and 
whatever  it  falls  short  of  10  pounds  to  the  gallon,  add  enough  of  good  re- 
fined sugar  to  make  ifweigh  10  pounds,  and  so  on  of  the  rest.  I  would  here 
remark  that  an  additional  amount  of  sugar  added  to  the  above  will  make  a 
sweeter  wine,  and  perhaps  more  suitable  to  the  taste  of  many. 

"It  would  be  rather  an  expensive  business  to  those  who  have  but  few  ber- 
ries to  make  currant  wine  from  the  first  pressing  of  the  currant  alone,  as  it 
requires  one  bushel  of  currants  to  produce  a  little  over  three  gallons  of  pure 
juice.  The  red  currant  pure  juice  weighs  eight  and  a  half  pounds  to  the 
gallon.  The  white  currant  juice  comes  almost  within  the  wine-nuiker's  rule, 
weighing  nine  and  a  quarter  pounds  to  the  gallon.  The  way  in  which  I 
make  currant  wine  is,  to  use  the  pure  juice  alone  or  without  mucii  water, 
and  I  find  that  I  can  readily  command  three  dollars  per  gallon  for  it, 
whereas  the  other  would  be  dear  at  one  dollar  per  gallon,  and  not  much  of 
a  wine  at  that. 

*'  Elderberry  wine  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  first  stated,  adding  about 
half  water  in  the  way  of  re-pressing  the  pumice,  etc.,  as,  if  it  is  made  without 
the  addition  of  too  much  sugar,  it  resembles  claret  very  closely. 

"  Black  currant  wine  is  made  in  thcvsame  way  as  the  elderbeiTy,  only  the 
berries  should  be  scalded  before  pressing,  and  if  carefully  managed  in  the 
fermentation,  will  resemble  the  Ilhine  wines. 

"When  the  juice,  sugar,  and  water  are  well  incorporated  by  stirring  to- 


Sec.  26.]  DOMESTIC   "WIITES.  421 

gether  until  tlic  sugar  is  dissolved,  it  is  then  placed  in  an  open  tub  in  a  tein- 
perature  of  about  60  degrees  Fahrenheit,  there  to  stand  a  few  days  until  the 
froth  and  impurities  rise  to  the  surface,  which  must  be  removed  as  often  as 
they  accumulate  ;  and  when  the  liquid  becomes  limpid  and  somewhat  trans- 
parent, then  it  is  put  in  a  clean  barrel,  filling  to  within  five  or  eight  inches  of 
the  bung.  A  tube,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  siphon,  or  more  in  the  shape 
of  an  ox-bow,  made  of  glass,  is  inserted  into  the  bung  about  two  inches,  and 
made  air-tight  by  means  of  small  wedges  of  wood  and  wax,  etc.,  the  other 
end  passing  into  a  pail  of  water  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches.  This  is 
done  to  prevent  the  oxygen  of  the  air  penetrating  the  fermenting  mass,  and 
also  to  retain  much  of  the  finer  aromatic  essences  which  are  so  essential  to 
fine-flavored  wines. 

"  A  great  advantage  is  also  gained  thereby  in  rendering  it  less  necessary  to 
keep,  watch  over  the  fermentation  as  pursued  by  some  in  keeping  the  barrel 
bung  full  by  replenishing  with  some  of  the  juice  standing  near  at  hand, 
which  becomes  pricked  before  fermentation  has  ended,  rendering  it  in  t!ie 
end  little  less  than  sweetened  vinegar.  No  admixture  should  be  attempted 
after  fermentation  has  commenced,  and  if  the  temperature  of  fermentation  is 
kept  at  about  GO  or  65  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  about  six  weeks  or  two 
months,  it  will  be  ready  to  remove  the  tube.  Then  fill  the  barrel  full  of  the 
sort  made  in  a  separate  vessel  for  that  purpose,  and  put  the  bung  in 
moderately  tight  for  a  few  days,  and  after  that  drive  it  in  tight  until  about 
December,  when  tlie  wine  must  be  racked  ofl'  from  the  lees,  the  barrel  rinsed 
with  hot  and  cold  water,  and  when  drained  quite  dry,  insert  into  the  bung- 
hole  a  small  cup,  suspended  by  a  wire,  containing  one  ounce  of  spirits  of 
wine  or  alcohol,  ignited,  and  kept  there  until  the  barrel  is  well  fumigated, 
during  which  the  bung  must  not  be  closed.  Then  return  the  wine  again  and 
keep  it  there  for  three  months,  when  the  same  process  is  repeated.  If  it  is 
done  a  third  time  it  will  be  all  the  belter.  It  is  now  finished,  and  can  be 
kept  for  any  length  of  time,  either  in  bottles  or  wood,  slowly  improving 
by  age. 

"  Grapes  may  be  made  into  wine  in  the  same  way  as  first  mentioned  above, 
with  this  difierence,  that  when  the  pumice  is  to  be  re-pressed,  sugar  dissolved 
with  grape-juice  (by  heat)  must  be  added  to  the  water  that  is  mixed  with 
tlie  pumice,  and  stand  a  few  hours  before  the  second  pressing.  It  must  con- 
tain the  same  proportion  of  sugar  and  water  as  is  found  in  the  natural  juice 
of  the  first  pressing,  all  of  which  is  mixed  well  together  and  fermented  as 
above.  But  if  the  grapes  are  left  on  the  vine  until  they  are  quite  ripe,  say 
until  they  have  received  the  eflTects  of  a  white  frost,  and  carefully  selected, 
tlie  good  from  the  bad,  and  thoroughly  pressed  and  fermented  as  above, 
without  the  addition  of  either  sugar  or  water,  you  will  have  wine  worthy 
of  the  name.  It  is  true  we  can  not  have  so  great  a  quantity  of  juice,  but 
what  Ave  have  is  good."  • 

We  add  several  other  formulas  for  making  currant  wine,  as  follows  : 

First.  "  Gather  your  currants  when  fully  ripe;  break  them  in  a  tub  ;  pre>? 


422  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

them  through  a  sifter;  strain  through  a  flannel  bag,  and  measure  the  juice. 
Atkl  two  gallons  of  water  to  one  of  juice,  and  three  pounds  of  Kew  Orleans 
sugar;  stir  till  dissolved.  Strain  througli  a  hair  sieve,  then  a  close  tow 
liiien  bag,  and  afterward  a  flannel  one.  The  juice  must  not  stand  all 
night.  The  cask  must  be  sweet  and  clean,  never  used  for  beer  nor  cider,  aiul 
if  new,  well  seasoned.  Do  not  fill  j'our  cask  too  full,  otherwise  it  works 
out  at  the  bung,  which  is  injurious  to  the  wine;  make  a  quantity  over  and 
above  to  fill  up  the  cask.  Lay  tlie  bung  on  the  hole  to  prevent  flies  from 
creeping  in.  In  three  or  four  weeks  bung  up,  leaving  only  the  vent-hole 
open  till  done  working  ;  rack  off,  if  wanted  for  present  use,  but  it  is  best  to 
leave  it  on  the  lees  till  spring,  or  it  may  be  left  for  two  years  without  dam- 
age. When  you  draw  off  tlic  wine,  bore  a  hole  so  it  may  run  off  clear  of 
the  lees.  Some  put  in  spirits,  but  I  do  not  think  it  advisable.  Do  not  put 
in  more  than  one  third  juice,  for  that  would  render  the  wine  hard  and  im- 
pleasant ;  nor  too  much  sugar,  as  that  would  deprive  it  of  its  pure  vinous 
taste.     It  improves  by  age." 

Second.  A  sample  which  was  very  clear,  and  at  two  years  old  of  a  deli- 
icate,  fine  flavor,  was  made  by  the  following  rule: 

Take  two  quarts  of  juice,  two  quarts  of  water,  and  three  pounds  of  refined 
sugar;  mix  and  let  it  stand  two  or  tliree  days;  skim  every  day,  then  strain 
through  gauze,  and  put  into  the  cask  and  let  it  stand  one  year;  then  bottle, 
and  you  have  an  excellent  wine. 

Another  sample,  made  with  one  quart  of  juice,  three  quarts  of  water  and 
one  pound  of  sugar,  was  a  very  pleasant  drink,  but  would  not  keep  as  long 
as  the  other. 

Tiiird.  "  Before  pressing  the  juice  from  the  currants,  pass  them  oetween  a 
pair  of  rollers  to  crush  tlicm,  after  which  they  may  be  placed  in  a  strong 
bag,  and  they  will  part  with  the  juice  readily  by  light  pressure,  such  as  a 
common  screw  or  heavy  weights.  To  each  quart  of  juice  add  three  pounds 
of  double  refined  loaf  sugar — single  refined  sugar  is  not  sufliciently  pure — 
then  add  as  much  water  as  will  make  one  gallon.  Or,  in  other  words,  sup- 
pose the  cask  intended  to  be  used  to  be  tliirty  gallons ;  in  this  put  thirty 
quarts  of  currant  juice,  ninety  pounds  of  double  refined  sugar,  and  fill  the 
cask  to  the  bung  with  water;  roll  it  over  until  the  sugar  is  all  dissolved. 
Tills  will  be  told  by  its  ceasing  to  rattle  in  the  barrel.  Next  day  roll  it 
again,  and  place  it  in  a  cellar  where  the  temperature  will  bo  sure  to  be 
even.  Leave  the  bung  loose  for  the  free  admission  of  air.  In  the  course  of 
one  or  two  or  three  days,  fermentation  will  eounnence.  By  placing  the 
ear  to  the  bung-hole  a  slight  noise  will  be  heard,  such  as  may  be  observed 
when  carbonic  acid  is  escaping  from  champagne  or  soda  water.  Fermenta- 
tion will  continue  f<n-  a  few  weeks,  converting  the  sugar  into  alcohol.  As 
soon  as  this  ceases,  drive  the  bung  in  tightly,  and  leave  the  cask  for  six 
months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  wine  may  be  drawn  off  perfectly  clear, 
witliout  any  excess  of  sweetness." 

Fourth.  Take  one  quart  of  juice,  thi-ee  pounds  of  sugar  prepared  as  above, 


Seo.  26.]  DOMESTIC  WINES.  423 


and  Avater  enough  to  make  a  gallon ;  leave  it  in  the  cask  one  j'oar,  then 
draw  oft'  and  l)ottlo. 

470.  Elderberry  Wine. — We  have  tasted  of  a  wine  made  from  clderhci-rics 
Ly  Alfred  Specr,  in  New  Jersey,  that  certainly  had  some  excellent  qualities. 
After  prei)aring  tlie  jnice,  like  that  of  currants,  he  requires  four  years  to 
ripen  it.     Ilis  statement  is : 

■  "  First  year,  it  is  kept  in  large  casks,  M'ith  valve  bungs  to  allow  the  gas 
to  escape,  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  from 
coming  in  contact  with  tlie  wine. 

"  Second  year,  racked  to  small  casks,  and  moved  to  another  building. 

"Third  year,  drawn  off  in  bottles  and  piled  away  in  stacks,  which  are 
tlicn  completely  covered  witli  sand,  kept  at  one  certain  temperature  the 
year  round. 

"Fourth  year,  they  are  dug  out,  the  wine  decanted  in  fresh  bottles  and 
laid  away,  being  kept  in  another  temperature  until  the  end  of  this  j'ear, 
when  they. are  sealed,  labeled,  and  packed  ready  for  shipping. 

"The  principal  part  of  the  whole  operation  is  tlie  management  of 
the  temperature  in  the  rooms  and  cellars.  Each  year,  as  the  wine  is 
drawn  off  into  other  vessels,  it  is  moved  to  a  building  kept  at  a  dif- 
ferent temperature  from  the  previous  year,  where  it  is  kept  uniform  during 
tlie  whole  time  by  means  of  cool  vaults  or  stoves,  as  the  case  and  season 
require. 

"  So  that  after  four  years  it  becomes  unchangeable,  and  ready  for  market 
in  any  climate. 

"It  is  made  from  the  juice  of  cultivated  elderberries,  which  are  made  to 
grow  nearly  as  large  as  the  smallest-sized  grapes,  and  pure  without  the  ad- 
dition of  alcohol  or  spirits  in  any  form." 

471.  Wine  from  Rhubarb  Stalks. — Ehubarb  will  yield  live  times  as  much 
per  acre  as  grapes,  but  care  sliould  be  taken  not  to  use  the  stalk  too  close 
to  the  leaf,  as  it  will  impart  a  peculiar  flavor  to  the  wine.  Take  a  thirty- 
gallon  cask,  put  in  si.xteen  gallons  of  rhubarb  juice,  ninety  pounds  of  sugar, 
and  water  to  fill  the  cask.  Nothing  but  the  best  refined  sugar  should  bo 
used  if  the  best  results  are  desired_,  and  it  is  still  better  to  dissolve  the  sugar 
and  boil  it,  with  the' addition  of  a  spoonful  of  suli)liuric  acid  to  every  five 
or  six  gallons,  before  mixing  it  with  the  juice.  This  must  be  allowed  to  get 
cold  before  iising. 

Another  formula  says:  "Trim  off  the  leaves,  and  grind  and  press  the 
stalks  in  any  cider-mill.  To  each  gallon  of  juice  add  one  gallon  of  water 
and  six  pounds  of  refined  sugar,  and  fill  the  casks,  leaving  tlie  bungs  out. 
A  moderately  cool  cellar  is  the  best  place  to  keep  it.  Fill  up  occasionally, 
either  from  juice  kept  on  purpose  or  with  sweetened  water,  so  that  the  im- 
purities which  rise  to  the  surface  while  fermentation  is  going  on,  may  be 
worked  off.  When  sufficiently  fermented,  which  will  require  from  one  to 
two  or  more  months,  bung  tightly,  and  let  it  remain  till  winter,  Avhen  it  may 
be  racked  off  into  other  casks,  or  bottled.     Some  persons  refine  it  before 


424  rOMESTIC  ECONOilY.  [Coap.  IV. 

bottling,  by  putting  into  each  barrel  two  ounces  of  isinglass,  dissolved  iu  a 
quart  of  wine." 

Cahoon's  seedling  yields  the  greatest  quantity  of  juice.  Mr.  Cahoou's 
method  of  making  wine  is  to  mix  equal  quantities  of  water  with  the  juice 
of  the  stalks,  and  to  each  gallon  three  and  a  half  pounds  fair  qualify  of  New 
Orleans  sugar,  filling  the  barrels  quite  full,  and  refining  witli  isinglass, 
and  allowing  the  wine  to  remain  till  spring,  when  it  is  bottled.  By  adding 
or  diminishing  the  quantity  of  sugar,  it  will  vary  the  strength  of  the  wine 
in  the  same  proportion.  Tlie  pure  juice,  without  water,  makes  a  very  strong 
wine  by  using  four  pounds  of  sugar  to  each  gallon.  Mr.  Gaboon  estimates 
tliat  2,500  gallons  of  wine  can  be  made  from  an  acre  planted  witli  his  seed- 
ling.    Sold  at  from  $2  to  $4  a  gallon,  this  would  yield  a  return  of  $5,000. 

The  fault  of  the  above  is  the  unrefined  quality  of  the  sugar.  Well-made 
rhubarb  wine  will  cease  to  ferment  in  about  eight  weeks,  and  then  it  should 
be  corked  tightly,  and  kept  one  year  undisturbed  before  bottling.  In  three 
years  it  will  become  like  a  dry  sherry  wine. 

472.  Bottling  and  forks. — Use  none  but  strong,  heavy  bottles,  and  look  to 
your  corks  if  you  would  have  your  wine  keep.  One  of  the  greatest  mis- 
takes made  by  those  wlio  are  new  beginners  in  wine-making  is  the  using  of 
poor  corks;  they  do  not  reflect  that  the  common  cork  permits  tiie  air  to 
reach  and  destroy  the  wine  Besides  this,  a  poor  one  can  not  be  drawn 
wiliiout  breaking,  and  tlius  injuring  the  flavor  of  the  wine.  If  wine-makers 
woidd  desire  to  Imve  their  wine  keep  well  and  taste  well  on  opening,  let 
them  never  use  any  but  the  very  best  velvet  corks.  The  use  of  the  best 
quality  will  more  than  doubly  pay  by  securing  the  wine  from  spoiling,  and 
retaining  the  flavoi-,  which  is  often  lost  by  a  bad  cork. 

Bottles  should  always  be  stored  upon  their  sides,  or  in  racks,  with  the 
corks  down.     If  pour  corks  are  used,  they  must  be  covered  Avith  sealing-wax. 

473.  Wine  of  GrapeSi — Most  of  the  wine  made  in  this  country  is  barely 
drinkable;  wliat  is  called  pure  juice  of  tiie  grape  is  often  but  little,  if  any, 
better  than  very  ])oor  sour  cider,  and  is  not  generally  palatable  to  the  com- 
mon taste.  In  a  trial  of  wine  tliat  I  attended,  a  number  of  first-rate  judges 
of  wine  finally  settled  upon  a  specimen  of  currant  wine,  as  superior  to  any 
of  the  sweetened  specimens  of  grape  juice;  yet  the  concoctors  of  it  label  it 
"pure  juice  of  the  grape,"  "fit  for  sacramental  purposes  and  for  the  sick." 
Tliey  insist  tliat  fermentation  of  sugar  does  not  produce  alcohol.  Tliey  are 
misiaken ;  fermentation  produces  it,  and  distillation  separates  it.  This 
sugared  wine  is  not  pure — it  is  one  fourth  alcohol.  Much  of  the  imported 
wine  is  sugared.  Some  of  the  best  wine  can  not  be  imported;  we  can  not 
move  from  place  to  place  the  very  best  wines  made  of  pure  grape  juice. 

These  sweetened  beverages  all  lack  one  very  essential  element  of  wine, 
and  that  is  the  gout,  which  all  genuine  grape  wines  possess.  Unfortunately, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  American  grapes  have  proved  so  deficient  in 
giape-sugar,  that  they  would  not  make  wine  without  adding  cane-sugar, 
which  makes  rum  instead  of  brandy,  which  is  the  true  spirit  of  wine.     Some 


Seo.  26.]  DOMESTIC  WINES.  425 

of  the  best  wine-makers  of  the  country  now  believe  that  they  have  dis- 
covered, in  the  Delaware  grape,  one  that  will  make  wine  equal  to  the  best 
European  varieties.  Some  Cincinnati  Catawba  is  a  good  substitute  for 
Rhine  wine.     Some  good  wines  are  made  in  California. 

47-1.  How  to  IHake  Grape  Wine. — For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  wish  to 
do  a  little  in  the  way  of  domestic  wine-making,  we  will  give  a  few  simple 
rules,  such  as  are  followed  by  wine-makers  on  a  small  scale : 

Mashing  the  Gkape. — ^There  are  various  metliods  of  mashing  the  grape 
now  used  by  the  more  careful  wine-inakers.  Previous  to  the  mashing, 
however,  when  first-rate  wine  is  to  be  made,  the  bunches  are  carefully  ex- 
amined, and  all  unripe  and  rotten  berries  are  plucked  off  and  thrown  away  ; 
then  the  grapes  are  thrown  into  a  tub  and  mashed  by  tramping  with  the 
feet,  or  bruised  with  a  club,  or  crushed  by  passing  between  two  large 
wooden  rollers,  which  are  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  seeds  to  pass  with- 
out being  broken.  Tlie  seeds,  if  mashed,  would  give  a  bitter  taste  to  the 
wine.     To  tramp  grapes,  wear  India-rubber  boots. 

Peessing  the  Gkape. — Tiie  pressing  of  the  mashed  berries  is  a  simple 
process,  like  the  pressing  of  cheese,  or  apples  for  cider.  The  grape-press  is 
usually  made  to  hold  al^out  150  lbs.  of  grapes  at  each  pressing.  If  white 
wine  is  to  be  made,  the  grapes  are  pressed  as  soon  as  mashed ;  but  if  red 
wine  is  wanted,  the  whole  mass  is  left  to  ferment  for  six  or  seven  days,  in 
which  time  the  juice  takes  the  dark  color  of  the  skin. 

Fermentation. — Tlie  juice  for  white  wine,  as  it  comes  from  the  press,  is 
put  into  pipes  measuring  140  gallons,  about  115  gallons  of  juice  being  put 
into  each  cask,  leaving  one  fourth  of  it  empty.  Tlie  bung-hole  is  left  open, 
and  in  two  or  three  daj's  the  fermentation  begins,  and  its  force  is  over  in 
three  or  four  days.  The  wine-maker  then  proceeds  to  fill  up  the  casks, 
sradually  pouring  in  six  or  eight  gallons  at  a  time,  so  that  the  casks  are 
tilled  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  days  more.  The  casks  should  be  filled 
up  before  the  strength  of  the  fermentation  is  over,  so  that  the  dirt  or  scum 
may  be  borne  up  to  the  bung-hole  and  there  thrown  out. 

Eacking. — The  vigor  of  the  movement  being  over,  the  bung-hole  is  closed 
and  tlie  wine  is  left  for  a  period  varying  from  four  weeks  to  three  months. 
It  is  tlien  drawn  off  through  a  cock  placed  a  couple  of  inches  above  the  hot: 
torn  of  tlie  pipe,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  sediment  at  the  bottom. 
The  clearer  wine  is  poured  into  a  clean  cask ;  that  filled  with  sediment  is 
filtered  through  a  doubled  cotton  cloth,  and  is  then  mixed  again  into  the 
first  drawing,  or  it  is  used  without  filtration  in  making  brandy.  About 
one  twentieth  of  the  juice  as  it  comes  from  the  press  ftiils  down  as  sedi- 
ment. Tlie  process  of  transferring  wine  from  one  cask  to  another  is  termed 
"  racking  off." 

After  the  first  racking,  the  new  cask  i.s  completely  filled,  the  bung  closed, 
and  the  wine  is  not  disturbed  till  March  or  April,  when  it  begins  to  feel  a  more 
lively  fermentation,  for  that  process  never  ceases  entirely.  "Wlien  the  vine 
sprouts  in  March  or  April,  and  when  it  blossoms  in  June,  and  tlie  grape 


426  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [CniP.  IV. 

ripens  in  September,  the  new  wine  ferments;  and  at  tbose  times  the  bungs 
must  be  raised,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  disturb  the  barrels.  Between 
times,  wlien  there  is  no  perceptible  fermentation,  tlie  wine  should  be  racked 
oii'  two  or  three  times  in  a  year,  and  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  a  half  it  is 
clear  and  good,  but  it  continues  to  grow  better  with  age.  The  red  wine  is 
treated  in  precisely  the  same  manner,  except  that  it  is  allowed  to  ferment 
before  pressure.  Immediately  after  the.  pressure  the  wine  should  be  placed 
in  as  cool  a  cellar  as  can  be  obtained  in  the  country,  and  should  be  kept 
there  always.  This  cellar  should  have  no  moldy  matter  about  it,  no  vege- 
tables or  salt  meat  in  it,  nor  anything  that  can  corrupt  the  natural  swco'.ncss 
of  the  air. 

Red  and  White  Wine. — Bkandt. — All  the  white  wine  made  in  this  man- 
ner resembles  hock  or  sauterne ;  the  red  wine  may  be  made  to  resemble 
claret,  burgundy,  or  port.  When  the  berries  are  picked  early,  the  i-ed 
wine  is  like  claret,  but  has  more  body  ;  if  the  grapes  are  left  upon  the  stem 
until  they,  are  nearly  dry,  they  give  less  juice,  but  the  wine  has  a  much 
stronger  body,  and  rivals  port  in  strength. 

The  method  of  making  champagne  is  held  as  a  secret,  and  we  shall  not 
attempt  to  describe  it  fully,  Tlie  main  facts,  however,  are  that  the  wine  is 
bottled  about  six  months  after  pressing ;  it  is  again  re-bottled  in  eight 
months  more.  The  bottles  are  laid  down  upon  their  sides  in  racks,  and 
a  large  per-centage  of  them  are  broken  by  the  activity  of  the  fermenta- 
tion. 

The  refuse  of  the  press  and  all  the  sediment  of  the  new  wine  may  be  used 
in  making  brandy,  which  is  obtained  by  distillation  in  the  same  manner  as 
whisky  is  distilled  from  maize  or  potatoes.  For  every  hundred  gallons  of 
wine  about  twenty-five  of  brandy  are  obtained. 

475.  Wine  of  TomatoeSt — Wo  have  no  experience  of  wine  from  this  fruit, 
but  a  lady  writes  us  from  Iowa  as  follows : 

"Are  you  aware  what  very  excellent  wine  can  be  made  from  tomatoes? 
I  tried  it  on  a  small  scale  last  year,  and  find  it  serves  as  good  a  purpose  for 
iising  in  sickness  and  in  cooking  as  the  compounds  of  nauseous  drugs  usually 
sold  for  wine.  Many  who  have  tasted  it  were  unable  to  tell  it  from  grape 
wine.  If  people  will  use  wine,  it  is  certainly  well  to  have  it  free  from 
poison,  and  tomatoes  are  so  abundant  that  it  could  be  afi'orded  cheaply. 
If  vinegar  can  bo  made  from  it,  it  will  be  a  blessing  to  the  West,  where 
we  have  such  horrible  compounds  under  that  name.  The  recipe :  One 
pound  of  white  sugar  to  a  quart  of  juice,  and  similar  treatment  to  cur- 
rant Aviiio." 

476.  Blackberry  Cordial. — ^This  is  not  wine,  though  an  article  called  black- 
berry wine  is  often  made  in  the  same  way  that  wine  of  other  small  fruits  is 
made,  and  is  a  very  good  beverage  ;  but  this  is  what  the  name  implies, 
blackberry  cordial,  and  it  sliould  be  jirovided  in  every  family,  particularly 
where  there  are  growing  children  ;  it  is  such  an  excellent  remedy  for  chil- 
dren troubled  with  diarrhea  and  all  other  diseases  of  the  bowels  generated 


Seo.  26.]  DOMESTIC  WINES  AND  CIDER.  427 

ill  the  fepriiig  season.  To  ruake  it,  to  two  quarts  of  blackberry  juice  add  one 
pound  of  loaf  sugar,  half  an  ounce  of  nutmeg,  lialf  an  ounce  of  cinnamon, 
pulverized  fine,  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cloves,  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  allspice, 
finely  pulverized,  and  a  handful  of  raisins.  Boil  all  together  for  a  short 
time,  ahd  wiien  cold,  add  one  pint  of  fourth-proof  French  brandy.  Black 
currants  also  treated  in  the  same  way  make  an  excellent  cordial.     See  472. 

477.  Cider— Preserving  it  Sweet.— The  following  is  the  plan  recommended 
by  Professor  Horsford,  of  Cambridge,  Mass. : 

""When  the  cider  in  iho  barrel  is  undergoing  a  lively  fermentation,  add 
as  much  white  sugar  as  will  be  equal  to  half  or  three  qtrarters  of  a  pound  to 
each  gallon  of  eider,  and  let  the  fermentation  proceed  until  the  liquid  attains 
the  right  taste  to  suit;  then  add  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  sul- 
phite (not  sulphate)  of  lime  to  each  gallon  of  cider  in  the  cask  ;  first  mixing 
the  powder  in  about  a  quart  of  the  cider,  and  then  pouring  it  back  into  the 
cask  and  giving  it  a  thorough  shaking  or  rolling.  After  standing  bunged 
up  a  few  days  for  the  matter  added  to  become  incorporated  with  the  cider, 
it  may  be  bottled  or  used  from  the  cask." 

Do  not  mistake  sulphate  of  lime — which  is  a  natural  production,  and 
known  as  plaster  of  Paris — for  sulphite  of  lime,  which  is  a  manufactured 
article,  and  is  worth  by  the  barrel  about  thirty-three  cents  a  pound,  and  by 
the  cwt.  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents,  and  by  the  single  pound  fifty  cents. 
It  has  been  of  late  years  much  used  by  sugar-makers  to  prevent  fermentation 
of  cane-juice,  and  in  our  opinion  it  will  be  found  more  efibctive  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  fermentation  in  cider  than  an  arrester  of  it  after  it  has  proceeded 
nearly  to  completion. 

We  kept  cider  on  tap  that  was  treated  as  above  for  six  months,  which 
appeared  to  possess  exactly  the  same  degree  of  acidity  as  it  had  when  first 
treated,  but  it  had  an  unpleasant  sulphur  taste. 

Using  Heat  and  Bottling. — The  following  is  the  formula:  Fill  bottles 
with  sweet  cider  and  set  them  on  a  board  in  a  flat-bottomed  boiler  with  cold 
water,  which  heat  to  the  boiling-point  until  the  cider  begins  to  run  over, 
but  not  to  boil  so  as  to  alter  its  flavor;  then  cork  and  seal  just  as  fruits  are 
treated,  and  the  cider  will  keep  equally  well. 

Condensed  Cider  is  the  name  of  a  new  article  first  made  by  Gail  Borden, 
Jun.,  in  1863,  using  the  same  process  which  he  invented  for  condensing  milk  ; 
that  is,  boiling  it  in  vacuum  with  steam-pipes,  reducing  the  cider  direct  from 
the  press  to  a  stifl'  jelly,  which  will  keep  as  well  as  any  fruit-jelly  made  by 
domestic  process.  For  transportation  it  is  put  up  like  the  condensed  milk, 
in  tin  cans.  It  is  reduced  to  its  original  condition  by  adding  as  much  water 
as  it  had  parted  with.  It  is,  probably,  the  best  plan  ever  devised  for  keep- 
ing cider  sweet. 

478. — Oiling  Ciden — When  a  barrel  of  cider  is  tapped,  it  grows  hard ;  that 
is,  more  and  more  acid,  until  it  gets  too  hard  to  drink,  if  it  is  kept  long  on 
t<vp.  This  is  occasioned  by  the  air,  which  fills  the  cask  above  the  cider  as 
fast  as  it  is  drawn  out.     The  air  can  not  be  excluded,  even  if  the  cask  were 


428  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

air-tight,  because  the  cider  will  not  run  from  the  tap  if  there  is  no  air  tn 
press  it  out.  If  cider  is  exposed  long  to  air,  it  will  become  vinegar.  In 
fact,  the  way  to  make  vinegar  of  cider  is  to  expose  it  to  the  air  as  mucli  as 
possible.  To  prevent  the  cider  on  tap  from  becoming  acid,  it  is  recom- 
mended, as  soon  as  one  or  two  gallons  are  drawn  out,  to  pour  in  the  bung-hole 
about  half  a  pint  of  clear  sperm  oil,  or  sweet  oil  if  it  is  preferred.  It  should 
be  warm  when  poured  in,  and  it  will  spread  in  a  thin  coat  over  the  surface, 
and  keep  spreading  as  the  cider  is  drawn  down,  and  thus  exclude  the  air, 
without  giving  any  taste  of  oil  to  the  cider. 

This  plan  of  preserving  cider  is  worthy  of  farther  attention.  "We  have 
faith  in  it  from  knowing  that  oil-casks  arc  the  best  we  know  of  for  storing 
cider,  imparting  no  flavor,  and  keeping  it  sound  as  bottled  cider  for  years. 
Sperm-oil  casks  are  more  valuable  lor  cider-casks  than  for  any  other  ])urpose. 

479.  Filtering  Cideri — Cider  is  very  much  improved  hy  filtering.  This 
should  be  done  when  the  first  fern)entation  is  over,  by  racking  it  off  into 
clean  ban-els.     A  good  plan  for  a  filter  is  the  following: 

"Take  a  square  or  round  wooden  box,  made  of  inch  pine  plank,  three 
feet  in  diameter,  and  one  foot  four  inches  deep.  Make  it  with  a  bottom 
perforated  with  numerous  one-quarter-inch  augur  holes,  over  which  should 
be  laid  coarse  liemp  bagging.  Now  fill  in  the  box  for  eight  inches  with 
pieces  of  charcoal — animal  charcoal  is  the  best — about  nut  size,  and  on  the 
top  of  this  place  a  four-inch  layer  of  clean  washed  sand,  and  cover  all  with 
coarse  hemp  bagging,  and  you  have  a  cheap  and  good  filter.  Any  num- 
ber of  such  filters  may  be  used,  according  to  the  quantity  of  cider  to 
be  operated  upon,  and  the  cloth  can  be  frequently  washed  Avithout  dis- 
turbing the  sand  and  charcoal.  Before  any  cider  is  filtered  through,  pass 
a  stream  of  clear  water  into  the  filter  for  fifteen  minutes,  so  as  to  remove 
any  fine,  loose  particles  of  charcoal  that  otherwise  would  be  mixed  with 
the  cider." 

480.  Aeriiying  Cider. — If  cider,  when  it  first  comes  from  the  press,  could 
be  filtered,  and  the  clear  liquid  allowed  to  fall  from  an  upper  story  in  a  thin 
stream  into  a  large  tub  in  the  story  below,  or,  if  feasible,  to  continue  fulling 
from  one  to  another  through  several  stories  of  a  building,  it  would  become 
greatly  improved,  and  we  are  assured  by  one  who  has  tried  it,  that  it  may 
be  bottled  at  once  without  any  further  fermentation,  and  it  will  remain  in 
its  sweet  or  slightly  acidulated  state,  and  when  at  a  year  old  it  is  uncorked 
it  will  sparkle  like  champagne  wine. 

The  grand  secret  of  having  a  cider  equal  to  pure  wine  is  in  checking  any 
further  fermentation.  If  the  cider  is  left  to  itself,  the  acetous  fermentation 
follows— the  sedimentary  matter  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask  rises,  and  the 
liquid  becomes  muddy— this,  acting  as  yeast,  produces  a  second  and  inoro 
violent  fermentation,  resulting  generally  in  hard  cider. 

By  straining  out  the  crude  and  useless  matter  from  the  liquor,  the  liability 
to  excessive  fermentation  is  greatly  lessened,  and  so  it  is  by  fumigating 
casks  with  burning  sulphur  as  well  as  aerifying.     Bemcmber,  however,  tha^ 


Seo.  26.]  CIDER,   VIKEGAK,   AND  PRESERVES.  429 

this  airing  process  must  be  confined  to  eider  while  quite  new.  If  fermented 
cider  were  treated  in  the  same  way,  the  result  would  be  vinegar. 

When  cider  is  kept  tightly  bunged  up,  it  changes  little  and  very  gradually; 
bottled,  it  changes  none  at  all,  except  a  certain  improvement  by  age  which 
takes  place. 

Air  will  at  once  begin  to  change  the  alcohol  into  vinegar  if  it  comes  in 
contact  with  it,  and  this  will  make  the  best  cider  hard  and  sour  before 
long. 

481.  Tinrgar — How  to  Slake  it. — If  you  have  cider  that  "  won't  turn  to 
vinegar,"  just  try  the  following  plan :  Fill  a  barrel,  tub,  box,  or  any  other 
clean  vessel,  with  clean  shavings,  or  small  twigs  of  anj'  sweet  wood,  such  as 
maple,  birch,  beech,  etc.,  and  wet  them  with  vinegar,  if  you  have  it,  and  if 
not,  cider,  or  even  warm  water  will  answer.  This  barrel  must  be  full  of 
holes,  sides  and  bottom,  and  set  over  a  larger  vessel,  to  catch  the  drip  as  it 
leaches  through.  Tlic  cider  is  to  be  conveyed  to  the  leach  by  any  con- 
venient method.  A  good  way  is  to  put  it  in  a  pail,  set  on  the  barrel  over 
the  shavings,  and  carry  it  over  the  edge  by  siphons,  made  of  rags,  or  cotton 
lamp-wicking,  or  a  hank  of  cotton  yarn.  These  conductors  should  be  cut 
long  enough  to  reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  pail  or  pan  used,  up  over  the 
edge,  and  down  an  inch  below  the  bottom.  This  gradual  emptying  of  the 
pail,  and  trickling  down  through  the  filter,  exposes  the  liquid  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and  that  is  what  is  wanted  to  make  vinegar.  If  the  first  operation  is 
iusuflicient,  let  it  be  repeated,  and  good  strong  vinegar  will  be  the  result. 

CcEEANT  VmEGAE. — "  Last  year,"  writes  a  lady,  "  for  trial,  I  took  fourteen 
pounds  of  currants,  mashed  them  as  for  wine,  put  them  into  a  tub  with  two 
or  three  pails  of  water,  stirring  it  two  or  three  times  a  day.  After  standing 
several  days,  I  strained  or  pressed  it,  and  with  molasses  enough  to  make  it 
as  sweet  as  new  cider,  I  had  ten  gallons.  I  put  it  into  a  keg,  and  did  not 
open  it  till  December,  when  I  found  it  to  be  as  good  vinegar  as  was  ever 
made." 

Blackberry  vinegar  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  ;  or,  if  you  arc  making 
wine,  do  not  throw  away  the  seeds  and  skins  after  drawing  oii'  the  must. 
Pour  warm  water  over  these  until  they  are  entirely  covered,  and  let  them 
stand  in  an  open  vessel  three  or  four  days.  Then  draw  oif  the  liquid  and 
let  that  stand  until  the  acetous  fermentation  takes  place.  A  small  quantity 
of  coarse  sugar  or  molasses  will  hasten  the  process.  In  this  way  a  most 
excellent  article  of  wine  vinegar  may  be  obtained  by  many  who  have  not 
the  means  of  making  cider  vinegar. 

482.  Preserving  Fruits  for  Winter  Use.— We  have  already  given  a  plan  in 
337  of  a  fruit-drying  house,  and  have  recommended  preserving  various  kinds 
of  fruits  by  drying  for  winter  use,  and  now  we  give  some  directions  for 
various  other  preparations  for  preserving  fruit,  cooked  and  uncooked. 

Apples  keep  best  in  a  dry,  cool  room,  just  above  the  freezing-point.  If 
headed  in  barrels,  apples  will  keep  in  a  room  where  water  would  freeze 
quite  solid.    They  will  not  keep  well  in  a  warm  cellar  where  cabbage, 


430  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

turnips,  or  any  strong-smelling  substances  arc  stored,  for  tlicy  al)Sorb  the  un- 
pleasant odor.  If  packed  in  straw  or  chaff  that  becomes  damp  and  musty, 
they  will  spoil. 

483.  Grapes— How  to  Keep  Them.— Tliere  are  three  easy  ways  that  wil! 
serve  the  pui'poso  in  some  degi'ce — that  is,  it  will  preserve  them  some  weeks 
into  the  winter  in  a  tolerable  state  of  freshness.  Tiie  firet  is  to  liang  np  tlie 
bunches  separately  by  the  stems  in  a  dry  room,  barely  warm  enough  to  pre- 
serve fruit  from  freezing.  Tiio  next  is  to  pack  the  bunches,  each  separately, 
in  absolutely  dry  sawdust,  of  some  sweet  wood,  in  layers,  in  a  box  or  cask. 
The  other  is  to  pack  the  bunches  separately  between  layers  of  clean  cotton 
fiber  or  batting.  In  each  case  the  fruit  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  room, 
and,  when  packed  in  cotton,  the  room  may  be  so  cold  that  it  would  freeze 
water,  yet  will  not  injure  the  grapes.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  fruit  is 
dry  and  clean,  and  that  there  arc  no  decayed,  mashed,  or  imperfect  grapes 
on  the  bunches. 

Another  direction  says : 

"  In  gathering  grapes  for  keeping  fresh,  they  should  be  allowed  to  hang 
on  the  vines  until  fully  ripe,  and  then  gathered  with  care  to  avoid  bruising. 
The  foirest  bunches  should  be  cliosen  to  put  away,  and  with  a  pair  of  small 
scissors  all  defective  and  bruised  berries  should  be  cut  off.  They  should 
then  be  placed  in  boxes  well  ventilated,  and  remain  for  a  few  days,  when 
they  should  be  packed  in  boxes  holding  six  or  eight  pounds  each.  It  is  not 
important  that  the  box  be  tight ;  it  is  better  that  it  should  not  be.  Tliesc 
should  be  put  in  the  coolest  place  in  the  house,  whore  the  air  is  dry.  On 
the  approach  of  freezing  weather  they  may  be  removed  to  upj>cr  shelves  sus- 
pended in  the  cellar,  or  in  any  dry  room  where  the  temperature  is  as  near 
the  freezing-point  as  possible. 

"  "While  grapes  may  be  grown  in  such  profusion  and  with  so  little  labor, 
it  is  a  little  remarkable  that  a  sui)ply  for  every  household  in  the  country  is 
not  secured,  not  only  in  the  regular  season  of  them,  but  to  last  until  sprinjj. 
There  is  no  trouble  in  keeping  grapes  through  tlie  winter  as  fiesli  as  whei» 
they  are  first  gathered." 

484.  Preserving  Fruit  in  Air-Tight  Cans  a»<I  Bottles.— The  vuxlus  ojmandi 
of  putting  up  fruit  so  as  to  preserve  it  in  a  fresh  state  witliout  cooking,  dry- 
ing, or  packing  in  sugar  is  not  yet  fully  understood  b}'  ail  farmers'  families, 
though  largely  manufactured  for  sale  by  many  persons  in  cities;  and  man}' 
contrivances  have  been  invented  for  sealing  up  cans,  some  of  whicli  are 
A'ery  convenient ;  but  the  same  tiling  can  be  accomplished  with  bottles 
corked  and  sealed  according  to  these  directions. 

It  is  a  business  that  can  not  so  well  be  done  in  families  as  in  large  manu- 
factories, where  everything  is  arranged  for  convenience ;  but  still,  with  a 
little  experience  and  careful  attention,  every  family  can  save  enougli  of  tlie 
various  fruits  of  the  season  to  furnish  their  tables  with  a  great  delicacy 
during  that  portion  of  the  year  when  they  can  get  nothing  of  the  kind. 
The  whole  secret  consists  in  expelling  the  air  from  bottles  or  cans  by  heat, 


Sec.  26.J  PRESERVING  FRUIT  IN  AIE-TIGIIT  CANS.  431 

and  then  sealing  up  the  contents  hermetically.  If  the  article  to  be  pre- 
served is  peaches,  select  such  as  you  would  for  sweetmeats,  and  pare  and  cut 
them  so  that  they  can  be  put  in  the  bottle,  and  you  must  do  this  witii  the 
least  possible  delay,  or  they  will  be  colored  by  the  atmosphere.  Some  per- 
sons who  want  them  to  retain  their  natural  whiteness  peel  them  under  wa- 
ter. When  the  bottle  is  full,  cork  it  tight  and  wire  down  the  cork  with 
very  little  projecting  above  the  glass.  When  you  have  bottles  enougli  to 
till  a  kettle,  such  as  may  be  most  convenient,  put  them  in  and  boil  with  the 
water  all  around  up  to  the  nozzle  for  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  or 
until  the  bottle  appears  to  be  full  of  steam,  the  atmosphere  having  been 
forced  out  through  the  cork.  As  soon  as  the  bottles  are  cool  enougli  to 
handle,  dip  the  corks  in  sealing-wax,  so  as  to  cover  them  quite  tight.  An 
additional  precaution  is  used  by  some  in  putting  tin-foil  over  the  wax. 

Another  plan  is  to  cook  the  fruit  sliglitly  in  a  kettle,  and  then  put  it  into 
cans  or  bottles,  and  pour  hot  syrup  of  sugar  in  to  fill  up  the  interstices,  and 
then  cork  and  seal,  the  heat  of  the  fruit  and  syrup  answering  to  expel  tlie 
air.  But  the  less  they  are  cooked  or  sweetened,  tlie  more  natural  will  be 
the  taste,  like  fresh  fruit  when  opened.  We  have  eaten  peaches  a  year  old 
that  WG  could  not  tell  from  those  sugared  ten  hours  before. 

Tomatoes  are  very  easily  preserved,  and  retain  their  freshness  better  than 
almost  any  other  fruit.  The  small  kind  only  are  used.  Scald  and  peel 
them  witliout  breaking  the  flesh.  Bottles  should  hold  about  a  quart  only, 
because  when  once  opened,  the  contents  must  be  used  up  at  once.  Bottles 
made  on  purpose,  with  large  throats  and  a  ring  on  the  inside,  are  the  best, 
and  bottles  are  better  than  cans  for  all  acid  fruit.  The  cans,  however,  are 
more  easily  secured  by  solder  than  the  bottles  by  corks  and  wax,  as  the  air 
is  let  out  through  a  small  puncture  after  the  large  opening  is  soldered  up 
and  cans  heated,  and  that  hole  stopped  with  a  single  drop  of  solder. 

Every  article  of  fruit  will  keeji  fresh  if  the  air  is  exhausted  and  the  bottle 
sealed  tight.  The  least  particle  of  air  admitted  through  any  imperfection 
of  the  sealing  will  spoil  the  fruit.  If  tlie  air  could  be  driven  out  without 
heat,  there  would  be  no  need  of  any  cooking,  and  only  just  enough  sliould 
be  given  to  expel  the  air  and  not  change  the  taste.  Many  persons  prefer 
to  add  syrup  made  by  about  one  pound  of  sugar  to  a  quart  of  water  to  all 
suitable  fruits.  Green  corn,  beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  pie-plant,  currants, 
gooseberries,  cherries,  plums,  raspberries,  strawberries,  peaches,  are  the  most 
common  things  put  up  in  this  way.  Tliey  add  greatly  to  the  pleasures  of 
the  table  and  to  the  health  of  those  who  consume  them — in  that  respect 
quite  unlike  the  common  preserves. 

We  have  known  fruit  for  pies  put  up  in  three-quart  cans  by  partially 
cooking  in  an  open  kettle  in  a  syrup  just  sweet  enough  for  use,  and  putting 
the  fruit  in  the  cans  hot  and  soldering  immediately.     It  kept  thus  perfectly. 

Some  fruits  keep  mucli  better  and  with  less  heating  than  others.  Peas  are 
among  the  hardest  articles  to  keep,  they  contain  so  much  fixed  air. 

We  advise  every  family  in  the  country  to  try  this  plan  of  putting  up 


432  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Cuap.  IV. 


fruits  for  -winter  use  on  a  small  scale  this  year,  and  if  successful,  enlarge 
upon  it  next  year 

A  new  mode,  to  us,  of  canning  fruit  is  recommended  as  follows  : 
"  Take  a  common  wide-moutlied  crock  or  jar  of  any  size ;  prepare  the 
fruit  in  the  usual  -way  ;  fill  the  jar  and  tie  two  waxed  cloths  tightly  over 
the  mouth.  The  jar  must  not  be  A-ery  narrow-mouthed  in  proportion  to  its 
size.  A  common,  straight,  stone  gallon  jar  is  of  good  proportions.  If  the 
mouth  is  too  small,  the  cloths  can  not  follow  the  surface  of  the  fruit  down 
in  a  cold  time.  The  cloth  must  touch  the  fruit  at  all  times,  and  if  tlie 
mouth  is  wide  it  can  rise  and  fall  with  the  weather.  In  order  to  have  the 
jar  very  full,  it  is  well  to  let  the  fruit  cool  down  a  little  below  212  de- 
grees ;  then  fill  up  with  more  fruit  just  before  putting  on  the  cloth.  The 
clotlis  niay  be  of  the  common  muslin,  but  they  must  be  soaked  in  melted 
wax.  The  wax  should  be  beeswax  chiefly  ;  a  little  rosin  and  tallow  will 
help  it." 

4S5.  Dry  SuRar-Preserviilg;. — Strawberries,  raspbemes,  blackberries,  cher- 
ries, and  peaches  can  be  preserved  in  this  manner :  Lay  the  ripe  fruit  in 
broad  dishes,  and  sprinkle  over  it  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  used  in  cook- 
ing it.  Set  it  in  the  sun  or  a  moderately  heated  oven  until  the  juice  forms 
a  thick  syrup  with  the  sugar.  Pack  the  fruit  in  tumblers,  and  i)Our  the 
syrup  over  it.  Paste  writing-paper  over  the  glasses,  and  set  tliem  in  a  cool, 
dry  place.  Peaches  must  be  pared  and  split,  and  cherries  stoned.  Pre- 
served in  this  manner,  the  fruit  retains  much  more  of  its  natural  flavor  and 
healthfulncss  than  when  cooked.  The  paper  which  is  usually  pasted  over 
jars  of  preserves  is  porous,  and  admits  air.  To  render  it  perfectly  impervi- 
ous to  air,  apply  the  white  of  an  egg  with  a  brush  to  the  paper  before  cover- 
ing the  jars,  overlapping  the  edges  an  inch  or  two. 

486.  Dry  Pressure  Preserving. — By  submitting  vegetables  to  a  powerful 
pressure,  they  have  been  prepared  in  France  so  that  they  have  been  kept  in 
a  dry  state  many  months.  Cabbages,  beets,  parsneps,  peas,  apples,  etc.,  are 
divested  of  all  moisture  by  a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  and  thus  are  packed 
in  small  compass  for  use  of  men  on  sliip-board.  They  are  a  tolerable  sub- 
stitute for  fresh  vegetables,  but  as  unlike  them  as  bull  beef  is  to  tender 
lamb.  Upon  such  a  voyage,  however,  as  that  of  the  Grinnell  expedition, 
where'  the  ships  were  frozen  up  nine  months,  a  taste  of  such  food  as  this 
would  have  been  not  only  palatable,  but  extremely  beneficial  to  health.  We 
understand  it  is  not  expensive. 

487.  Currant  Jelly. — As  cuirant  jelly  is  pleasant  and  useful  to  both  the 
sick  and  the  well,  we  give  the  following  directions  for  making  it  of  excellent 
quality,  which  retains  the  beautiful  crimson  color  of  the  currant  much  bet- 
ter than  that  made  by  the  old  mode:  "Squeeze  the  juice  out  of  the  cui^ 
rants,  strain  and  measure  it,  put  it  in  a  porcelain  or  very  well-cleaned  cop- 
per or  brass  kettle,  and  boil  it  until  the  scum  ceases  to  rise ;  then,  without 
taking  the  juice  off  the  fire,  stir  in  one  pound  of  well-refined  sugar  to  every 
pint  of  juice,  and  as  soon  as  the  sugar  is  fully  dissolved — which  will  be 


Sec.  26.]  PICKLES  AND  PRESERVES.  433 


in  less  than  a  minute — take  it  off  and  pour  it  into  the  vessels  prepared  to 
receive  it." 

Cider  Jellt. — Boil  three  quarts  of  cider  jnst  from  the  press  till  it  is  re- 
duced to  one.  Skim  ■well,  and  add  not  quite  one  quart  of  white  sugar.  Boil 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  strain  through  a  coarse  linen  cloth  into  your 
jelly  glasses. 

488.  Pickling  Cncnmbers,  Itlelons,  Tomatoes,  Peaches. — The  great  art  in 
making  good  pickles  is  to  have  good  vinegar.  The  best  vinegar  for  pick- 
ling^is  made  of  sound  cider.  As  good  vinegar  is  not  always  at  hand,  the 
best  way  is  to  prepare  a  brine  strong  enough  to  bear  an  egg.  When  the 
tub  is  full  of  pickles,  allow  the  brine  to  cover  them ;  then  cover  them  over 
with  cabbage-leaves,  and  a  board  and  weight  to  keep  them  in  the  brine.  For 
use,  freshen  in  warm  water,  and  put  them  in  a  bright  brass  kettle,  with 
vinegar  enough  to  cover  them,  and  scald  them  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes ; 
put  them  in  jars,  and  pour  hot  vinegar  over  them ;  flavor  them  with 
cloves,  mace,  black  pepper,  an  onion  or  two,  and  a  little  horseradish  and 
ginger. 

For  Peach  Pickles. — Stir  two  pounds  of  white  sugar  into  two  quarts  of 
the  best  cider  vinegar.  Boil  it  ten  minutes,  skimming  it  well.  Have  ready 
some  large,  fully-ripe  peaches ;  rub  them  with  a  clean  flannel  to  take  oflF  the 
down,  and  stick  four  cloves  into  each.  Put  them  into  glass  or  whiteware 
jars,  rather  more  than  half  full,  and  pour  on  them  the  vinegar  boiling  hot. 
Cover  them  closely,  set  them  in  a  cool  place,  and  let  them  rest  for  a  week. 
Then  pour  ofif  the  liquid,  and  give  it  another  boiling.  Afterward  pour  it 
again  on  the  peaches;  cover  them  closely,  corking  the  jars  and  tying  leather 
over  each,  and  put  them  away  till  wanted  for  use.  Instead  of  cloves  you 
may  stick  the  peaches  with  blades  of  mace,  six  blades  to  each  peach.  If 
you  find  a  coat  of  mold  on  the  top  of  a  jar  of  pickles,  remove  it  carefully, 
and  do  not  throw  away  the  pickles,  as  they  may  still  be  quite  good  be- 
neath. 

489.  Apples,  how  Preserved,  and  (heir  Use. — Where  apples  abound,  as  they 
do  in  a  large  portion  of  the  Northern  States,  they  should  be  found  in  some 
form  upon  every  farm-house  table  at  nearly  every  meal.  Several  very 
choice  sorts  can  be  kept  through  the  winter  up  to  the  time  when  apples 
come  again ;  and  where  they  abound,  there  is  really  but  little  occasion  for 
preserving  small  fruits,  as  indicated  in  preceding  paragraphs.  Apples, 
when  first  taken  from  the  tree,  if  laid  in  a  heap  eighteen  inches  in  depth, 
and  covered  with  a  cloth,  or  a  little  straw,  will  soon  sweat  and  become  quite 
moist ;  then  the  cover  or  straw  should  be  taken  ofi^,  and  the  apples  suflered 
to  dry  as  suddenly  as  possible.  Then  packed  in  barrels  and  kept  till  tliey 
sweat  again,  and  finally  dried,  repacked,  and  stored  in  proper  situations,  they 
will  always  be  ready  for  furnishing  some  o£  the  best  sweetmeats  at  short 
notice  that  a  farmer  can  enjoy,  for  they  furnish  healthy  food. 

Apples  brought  to  the  table  raw  should  be  only  such  kinds  as  can  be  eaten 
after  sweet  things,  as  pastry  and  custards,  hence  all  intensely  sour  apples. 


434  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

liowever  grateful  at  other  times,  arc  not  fit  for  the  dessert.  There  is  almost 
an  infinite  number,  and  among  them  our  best  varieties,  -which  do  not  come 
within  this  stricture,  though  some  of  the  choicest  for  culinary  purposes  are 
too  sour  for  the  dessert  uncooked. 

The  eflect  of  heat  on  many  apples  is  quite  noticeable.  Baked  apples  are 
always  liked.  We  are  not  surpi'ised  when  a  tender  apple  bakes  soft  and 
delicate,  but  when  one  tough  and  corky  loses  all  these  cliaracteristics,  and 
surpasses  in  delicacy  even  the  other,  as  is  often  the  case,  we  appreciate  better 
the  chemical  action  which  heat  induces.  Sweet  apples,  free  from  decay, 
worms,  or  gnarly  spots,  scrupulously  cleaned  and  placed  in  pans,  and  baked 
in  a  slow  oven  till  fully  done,  are  excellent.  The  apples  should  shrivel  and 
dry  away  very  much,  and  the  skin  should  not  be  broken  so  as  to  let  the 
juice  out.  The  sweetness  is  thus  concentrated,  and  they  are  three  times  as 
good  as  if  simply  baked  through. 

Sour  or  tart  apples  may  be  baked  much  quicker ;  the  juice,  instead  of  be- 
coming viscid  and  thick  by  heat,  is  apt  to  flow  out,  or  the  steam  splits  the 
skin  and  lets  it  out,  and  it  is  likely  to  burn  to  the  pan.  Baked  tart  apples 
should  be  eaten  witii  sugar,  or  they  may  be  baked  with  sugar.  Tart  apples, 
washed,  placed  in  a  pan  with  a  little  water,  and  sprinkled  over  well  with 
sugar — or  the  same,  cored  and  the  holes  filled  with  sugar — or  pared  as  well 
as  cored,  and  spice  added  with  the  sugar,  are  delicious.  Some  use  one  or  two 
cloves  to  each  apple,  or  a  bit  of  cinnamon  with  some  lemon-peel ;  others  grate 
nutmeg  or  sprinkle  cinnamon  over  the  apples  in  the  pan. 

To  our  taste,  plain  baked  apples,  or  sliglitly  sugared  if  very  tart,  is  the 
very  best  preparation  of  this  valuable  fruit  for  the  table. 

Apple  Ccstaed. — To  make  the  cheapest  and  best  every-day  farmer's  apple 
custard,  take  sweet  apples  that  will  cook  soft,  pare,  cut,  and  stew  them ; 
when  well  done,  stir  till  the  pieces  are  broken ;  \j-hen  cool,  thin  with  milk 
to  a  proper  consistency,  and  bake  with  one  crust,  like  a  pumpkin  pie.  Eggs 
may  be  prepared  and  added  with  milk,  thougli  it  will  do  without.  No 
sweetening  is  necessary.  It  may  be  seasoned  with  any  kind  of  sj^ice  to  suit 
the  taste — the  less  the  better. 

Raw  Apples  and  Milk. — A  tender  sub-acid,  or  sweet  apple — the  latter 
preferable — pared  and  sliced  thin  into  a  bowl  of  milk,  for  breakfast  or  sup- 
per, is  a  great  luxury  to  some  persons  at  any  time  of  the  year ;  and  it  is  not 
less  healthful  thau  grateful  to  the  palate. 


Sec.  27.]  HYGIENIC.  435 


SECTION  XXVII.-HYGIENIC. 

FEEPAEATION    OF    FOOD    FOR    THE    SICK REifEDIES    FOB    POISONS,    BITES,    AND 

STINGS. 

(E  will  not  tire  the  reader  with  nostrums  under  this 
title ;  we  simply  ask  attention  to  a  very  short  section 
upon  matters  of  great  importance  to  those  who  are 
suffering,  and  which  come  properly  under  the  head 
of  this  chapter.  All  of  our  readers  who  have, 
while  recovering  from  sickness,  asked,  "  "What  shall 
I  eat  ?"  will  appreciate  all  that  is  said  in  the  next 
paragraph. 

490.  Food  for  the  Sick  and  Dyspeptic— Sickness 
occurs  in  every  family,  and  during  convalescence 
the  appetite  is  sometimes  so  delicate  it  needs  a  good 
deal  of  pampering.  In  some  families  there  is  always 
an  invalid,  who  can  not  eat  the  every-day  food  of 
those  whose  appetites  are  strong.  To  sucli,  some  of 
the  following  hints  may  be  very  acceptable,  and  equally  acceptable  to  some 
who  are  not  sick. 

What  shall  I  eat?  How  often  this  question  is  asked  by  the  sick,  or  those 
Avith  delicate  appetites!  Nature  demands  food,  but  the  appetite  does  not 
crave  it,  and  the  mind  of  the  feeble  invalid  can  not  fix  upon  anything  that 
he  will  relish. 

It  may  relieve  such  sufferers  to  point  out  a  few  suitable  articles  of  food, 
such  as  are  easily  prepared  and  usually  tempt  delicate  aj^petites. 
Here  is  one  peculiarly  New  Englandisli : 

"  Cut  some  codfish  in  bits  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  boil  it  a  minute  in  water 
to  freshen  it.  Pour  off  all  the  water,  and  add  some  cream  and  a  little 
pepper. 

"Split  and  toast  a  Boston  cracker,  and  put  the  above  upon  it.  Milk  and 
a  little  butter  may  be  used  instead  of  cream. 

"  Hani  or  smoked  beef  may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way.  For  a  variety, 
beat  up  an  egg  and  stir  it  in,  instead  of  cream,  or  with  the  cream. 

"These  preparations  are  also  good  for  a  relish  for  a  family  breakfast 
or  tea." 

Another  excellent  dish  for  sick  or  well,  and  economical  withal,  is  made 
by  taking  a  few  cakes  of  pilot-bread  and  soaking  them  till  partially  soft, 
after  breaking  them  into  mouthfuls,  in  just  water  enough  to  be  all  absorbed  ; 
then  cut  a  slice  of  fat  salt  pork  into  very  small  pieces,  fry  it  crisp,  pour  it 
over  the  bread,  and  heat  the  whole  in  a  stove  or  oven,  or  in  a  spider. 


436  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

Anotlicr  plan  is  to  pour  over  tlie  Lrcad  a  sweetened  butter  gravy,  or  vino 
sauce,  or  the  juice  of  stewed  fruit  or  preserves.     All  are  good. 

A  very  excellent  food  for  delicate  stoinuclis  may  be  made  by  sweetening 
■water,  cold  or  hot,  with  refined  sugar,  and  crumbling  into  it  stale  bread. 

Bread  and  cider  used  to  be  a  favorite  food  in  Yankee  land  in  old  times. 
Sweeten  the  cider,  and  crumb  into  it  toasted  bread. 

Sometimes  a  piece  of  codfish  or  a  slice  of  fat  salt  pork,  roasted  upon 
live  coals,  will  tempt  a  convalescent  appetite  -when  notliing  else  will  answer. 

In  making  porridge  of  corn  or  oatmeal,  be  careful  to  cook  it  -well.  Do 
not  think  it  done  till  it  has  boiled  an  hour. 

Rice  gruel  does  not  need  so  much  cooking.  It  should  not  be  given  to  a 
person  of  constipated  habits.  Simple  boiled  rice  is  a  delicate  food  for  the 
sick. 

Arrowroot,  tapioca,  farina,  and  corn  starch  arc  all  of  the  same  character — 
highly  concentrated  food.  A  good  gruel  may  be  made  of  either,  and  fla- 
vored with  sugar,  nutmeg,  lemon,  or  whatever  would  be  agreeable.  Stale 
bread,  very  dry,  crumbed  and  made  into  a  gruel,  is  perhaps  the  most  di- 
gestible. Stale  bread,  toasted  very  dry  and  brown,  and  then  steeped  in  wa- 
ter a  long  time,  makes  a  good  drink  for  the  sick,  and  furnishes  considerable 
nourishment. 

In  all  cases  of  sickness,  when  the  appetite  craves  fruit  vre  -would  give  it, 
ripe  and  fresh  in  its  season,  or  preserved  and  cooked  in  the  most  simple 
manner.  Apples  for  the  sick  should  always  be  roasted.  So  should  po- 
tatoes. 

If  tlie  friends  of  the  sick  possess  a  little  skill  and  neatness  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  dishes,  the  patient  need  never  say,  "  What  shall  I  eat  T' 

The  following  is  well  relished  by  some  appetites,  but  we  doubt  its  di- 
gestibility: Shave  a  good  crisp  head  of  cabbage  as  fine  as  i)ossible;  add  a 
tablespoonful  of  horseradish  to  each  quart  of  shaved  cabbage ;  let  one  pint 
of  vinegar  come  to  a  boil;  have  ready  three  well-beaten  eggs  with  a  little 
salt ;  pour  the  eggs  into  the  vinegar  and  stir  until  cooked  ;  then  pour  it 
over  the  cabbage  and  set  it  away,  as  it  is  better  when  cold.  Tliis  will  keep 
some  days,  and  is  always  ready. 

Roasting  a  Chicken  may  bo  thought  a  very  simple  operation,  but, 
in  our  opinion,  not  one  in  ten  of  modern  housekeepers  can  do  it  to  per- 
fection. First,  because  they  have  no  conveniences.  The  abominable  cook- 
ing-stove has  spoiled  many  a  dish,  and  none  more  so  than  this  of  a  roast 
chicken,  which  never  has  been  and  never  will  be  roasted  to  perfection  in 
any  other  way  than  tied  np  by  the  legs  swinging  by  a  string  before  a  wood 
fire,  dripping  its  gravy  into  a  ])an  in  wliich  there  is  a  little  cream  and  a 
lump  of  butter,  with  which  the  roast  is  to  bo  basted  from  time  to  time  until 
the  skin  is  brown  and  flesh  thoi-oughly  cooked.  It  is  tliis  cooking  in  the 
open  air  that  gives  it  the  i)cculiar  richness.  If  a  chicken  must  be  roasted  or 
baked  in  a  stove-oven,  it  should  bo  done  with  the  oven  door  open.  "With 
some  stoves  it  can  be  much  better  done  in  an  open  pan  set  down  before  the 


Sec.  27.]  HYGIEIHC.  437 

grate.     All  holes  in  the  body  of  a  fowl  should  be  sewed  up  as  tight  as  pos- 
sible— not  merely  drawn  together,  but  tight. 

^  A  badly  cooked  fowl  should  never  be  set  before  an  invalid,  or  one  whose 
digestion  is  naturally  weak.  The  following  makes  a  nice  dish  for  a  delicate 
appetite : 

Lay  half  a  dozen  crackers  in  a  tureen ;  pour  enough  boiling  water  over 
them  to  cover  them.  In  a  few  minutes  they  will  be  swollen  three  or  four 
times  their  original  size.  Now  grate  loaf  sugar  and  a  little  nutmeg  over 
them,  and  dip  on  enough  cream  to  make  a  nice  sauce,  and  you  have  a 
simple  and  delicious  dessert  that  will  rest  lightly  upon  the  stomach,  and  it 
is  easily  prepared.  Leave  out  the  cream,  and  U  is  a  valuable  recipes-  for 
"  sick-room  cookery." 

LEMOX.VDE.— Three  lemons  to  a  pint  of  water  makes  strong  lemonade ; 
sweeten  to  taste.  This  is  a  cool,  refreshing,  pleasant,  and  salubrious  bev- 
erage for  invalids. 

Mead.— Three  pounds  of  sugar,  five  gills  of  molasses,  three  pints  of  wa- 
ter, three  ounces  of  tartaric  acid,  one  ounce  of  sarsaparilla.  Stir  it  over  the 
fire  till  at  the  boiling-point.  When  cold,  bottle  and  cork  tight.  Add  the 
supercarbonate  of  soda  when  you  drink  it. 

GiNGEu  Beee.— Two  gallons  of  boiling  water,  two  pounds  of  crushed 
sugar,  one  and  a  half  ounces  of  bruised  ginger,  one  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar, 
one  lemon,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  yeast.  Mix  all  together  (except  the  yeast) 
and  let  it  stand  over-night ;  tlien  add  the  yeast ;  strain  and  bottle  it ;  tie 
down  the  corks.     In  twelve  hours  it  may  be  drank. 

Beef  Tea  is  very  nourishing  if  rightly  prepared.  Take  perfectly  lean 
parts  of  fat  beef,  cut  it  into  cubes  half  an  inch  square,  and  soak  it  some  hours 
in  cold  water,  and  then  boil  all  together  for  an  hour.  You  may  improve 
this  by  adding  a  toasted  cracker  to  each  bowlful. 

The  following  formula  is  given  by  Liebig :  Half  a  pound  of  fresh,  lean  beef, 
cut  small  in  one  pint  and  a  third  of  pure  water,  with  four  drops  of  muriatic 
acid  q,nd  half  a  small  spoonful  of  salt,  to  stand  an  hour  cold,  and  then  strain 
without  squeezing.     It  may  then  be  cooked  and  taken  hot  or  cold 

Mutton  or  chicken  tea  sliould  be  made  according  to  the  first  of  the  above 
directions,  and  rice  may  be  added,  if  not  intended  solely  for  drink. 

491.  Cautions  about  Preserving  Health.— The  art  of  preserving  health  is  of 
more  consequence  than  all  the  prescriptions  for  pampering  sick  appetites.  A 
great  deal  of  sickness  might  be  avoided  by  forethought.  There  is  always 
some  cause  to  produce  sickness,  and  that  cause  may  frequently  be  removed 
by  a  few  hours'  labor. 

Stagnant  water  in  the  cellar  is  a  great  breeder  of  disease.  Let  there  al- 
ways be  a  free  passage  of  air  through  the  cellar  by  taking  out  the  windows, 
so  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  and  keep  it  healthy. 

If  there  are  stagnant  ponds  near  your  dwellings,  they  should  be  drained. 
Kemove,  as  far  as  you  can,  every  cause  of  disease  ;  be  temperate  and  regu- 
lar in  all  your  habits  ;  avoid  exposure,  and  be  careful  of  what  you  eat. 


438  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  (Ohaf.  IV. 

492.  PoisonSi — There  Sre  numerous  poisons  lurking  unsusi^ectcd  abont. 
many  dwellings  that  tend  to  produce  sickness.  Among  otlier  poisons,  wc 
enumerate — 

Oxalic  acid  used  iu  solution  for  cleaning  hrass  and  removing  stains  from 
linen,  is  a  virulent  jjoison.  Lime  forms  an  insoluble  compound  with  it,  and 
proves  the  best  antidote  when  it  lias  been  taken  into  the  stomach. 

Among  vegetable  poisons  we  find  the  mountain  laurel  {Kalinia  laiifolia), 
and  the  dwarf  or  sheep  laurel  {K.  augustifolia).  Tliese  not  only  are  eaten 
by  animals,  but  the  leaves  are  mistaken  by  children  for  wintergreen,  and 
■\ve  have  known  serious  cases  of  poisoning  to  result. 

Poison  sumach  {Rhus  venenata)  and  poison  vine  or  poison  ivy  {R.  toxico- 
dendron) produce  excessive  irritation  of  the  skin,  and  even  blistering  from 
contact  Avith  most  persons,  and  some  are  so  sensitive  that  the  odor  only  of 
the  first  or  its  smoke  in  burning  produces  most  painful  results.  Tlie  wild  or 
poison  parsnep  has  a  similar  effect  upon  some  persons,  and  some  very  del- 
icate skins  are  aflected  by  the  garden  parsnep.  The  effect  is  hightened 
when  the  leaves  are  covered  with  dew ;  when  dried,  they  may  be  handled 
with  safety. 

Water  liemlock  {Cicuta  maculata)  is  a  virulent  poison.  From  the  form 
of  its  inflorescence  and  the  aromatic  odor  of  its  seed  and  root,  it  is  some- 
times mistaken  for  sweet  cicely  {Myrrhis  odorata)  by  cliildren.  Pains 
should  be  taken  to  extirpate  it  wherever  found,  as  also  to  prevent  tiie  spread 
of  a  similar  plant,  a  foreigner,  poison  hemlock  {Conium  maculatiim). 

Among  poisonous  garden  flowers  we  have  the  larkspur,  monkshood,  and 
foxglove. 

Opium,  tlie  product  of  the  poppy,  in  some  form,  either  as  laudanum  or 
elixir,  is  a  very  frequent  means  of  poisoning.  These  medicines  are  too  pow- 
erful to  be  trusted  in  ignorant  bands,  as  the  yearly  record  of  fatal  accidents 
sadly  attests. 

Tlie  green  color  on  wall  paper  and  on  cards  attached  to  varions  dry 
goods,  often  contains  arsenic,  a  single  square  incli  having  enough  to  destroy 
a  child.  Green  wall  paper  is  unfit  for  use,  especially  for  sleeping-rooms. 
The  exhalation  from  such  walls  has  been  known  to  sicken  the  occupants. 

[The  frequent  use  of  poisonous  colors  upon  candy  or  children's  playthings 
indicates  the  need  of  the  utmost  caution  on  the  part  of  paicnts.  The  red, 
green,  yellow,  and  blue  colors  may  all  be  liarmless,  but  fatal  cases  of  jjoi- 
soning  and  the  examination  of  chemists  prove  that  the  grossest  ignorance  or 
the  deepest  depravity  prevails  with  some  makers  and  venders. 

Copper  in  all  its  forms  is  poisonous.  Acid  or  greasy  food  allowed  to  stand 
in  copper  or  brass  vessels,  readily  corrodes  them,  and  proves  their  unfitness 
for  such  uses.  The  metallic  or  brassy  taste  of  the  articles  usually  aftbrds 
reasonable  warning. 

Common  black  writing-ink,  made  of  nutgalls  and  iron,  is  not  poisonous, 
but  the  blue  ink  has  a  different  composition,  and  is  so  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree.     Indelible  ink  and  also  hair-dyes  having  nitrate  of  silver  as  the  es- 


Sec.  2r.]  HTGIENIC.  439 

scntial  ingredient,  are  poisonous.  Corrosive  sublimate  used  in  alcohol  as  a 
bedbug  poison  should  never  be  kept  in  families,  as  it  has  been  the  cause  of 
very  many  accidents. 

Phosphorus,  an  ingredient  in  friction  matches,  is  a  deadly  poison.  Too 
much  caution  can  not  be  used  to  keep  them  away  from  small  children,  who 
will  put  anything  in  their  mouths.  The  free  use  of  warm  water  will  not 
only  favor  the  vomiting  which  may  ensue  from  the  action  of  the  poison  it- 
self, but  as  a  diluent  it  may  serve  to  weaken  its  power  and  render  it  com- 
parativel}^  harmless.  Common  table-mustard  is  a  very  prompt  emetic.  The 
dose  is  a  teaspoonful  of  dry  mustard ;  stir  this  in  a  tumbler  of  water  and 
drink  at  one  draught.  It  is  quick,  sure,  and  as  agreeable  as  any  emetic.  If 
some  does  remain  in  the  stomach,  it  does  no  harm.  In  a  few  cases  some  an- 
tidote may  neutralize  the  poisonous  substance  in  the  stomach,  but  the  main 
dependence  must  be  in  removing  immediately  its  contents  either  by  an 
emetic  or,  better,  liy  the  stomach-pump.  Vegetable  acids,  as  vinegar,  are  good 
antidotes  to  many  of  the  vegetable  poisons,  yet  no  rules  can  be  given  upon 
which  it  would  be  safe  to  rely  without  medical  assistance. 

493.  Bee  Stings  and  Mosquito  Bites. — "We  have  often  cured  the  poison  of 
bee  stings,  and  relieved  the  pain  almost  instantly  by  an  application  of  spirits 
of  hartshorn  (liquid  ammonia).  If  that  is  not  convenient,  wet  the  skin  and 
apply  powdered  saleratus  or  sal  soda,  which  effects  upon  some  persons  in- 
stant relief.  The  same  things  may  be  applied  with  success  to  mosquito  bites 
upon  children  or  others,  where  they  are  particularly  poisonous.  Some- 
body has  published  a  statement  that,  if  a  piece  of  raw  beef  is  placed  in 
a  room  infested,  with  mosquitoes,  they  will  all  suck  the  beef  and  let  folks 
alone. 

494.  Snake  Bites  and  Remedies. — ^The  most  virulent  and  fatal  of  all  poisons, 
excepting  always  the  poison  of  bad  ventilation,  comes  from  snake  bites, 
which  occur  occasionally  in  some  of  the  new  settlements  of  our  country. 
We  have  known  death  to  supervene  in  several  cases  for  want  of  a  little 
knowledge  of  remedies  ready  at  hand.  One  remedy  is  to  drink  whisky,  or 
any  spirit,  as  soon  as  possible,  sufficient  to  produce  insensibility.  Another 
remedy  is  to  kill  a  chicken,  or  any  other  animal,  and  cut  it  open  and  apply 
the  warm  flesh  to  the  wound,  holding  fast,  and  renewing  it  when  it  loses  the 
animal  heat.  Another  is  a  poultice  of  equal  parts  of  raw  onions,  tobacco, 
and  salt,  mashed  together,  moistened  with  whisky,  and  bound  on  tight  and 
frequently  renewed.  Sweet  or  olive  oil,  we  know  as  a  very  valuable 
remedy,  taken  in  half-gill  doses,  and  cloths  bound  upon  the  bitten  spot 
soaked  in  oil.  We  eslTnestly  recommend  a  trial  of  the  following  remedy  : 
Wet  a  bunch  of  lint  with  a  teaspoonful  of  chloroform,  and  lay  it  on  the 
bite,  and  cover  it  with  a  watch  crystal,  a  wine-glass,  or  a  tumbler,  pressed 
down  so  as  to  exclude  the  air,  and  hold  it  there  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes, 
which  will  probably  raise  a  blister,  and  prove  so  painful  that  the  pain  of  the 
poison  will  not  be  felt. 

495.  Hydrophobia — Cure  of  Mad-dog  Bites. — A  Leipsic — Germany — journal 


440  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


gives  tlie  following,  said  to  have  proved  many  times  a  sure  remedy  for  the 
bite  of  a  mad  dog : 

"Take  immediately  -warm  vinegar  or  tepid  water,  wash  the  wound  clean 
therewith,  and  then  dry  it ;  then  pour  upon  the  wound  a  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  because  mineral  acid  destroys  the  poison  of  the  saliva." 

Brazilian  Mode  of  Cuke. — We  have  seen  it  stated  that  the  bites  of  rat- 
tlesnakes and  mad  dogs  and  stings  of  scorpions  are  cured  in  Brazil  by  the 
use  of  spirits  of  hartshorn.  It  should  be  applied  immediately,  if  possible, 
and  the  wound  kept  wet  by  cloth  application  or  continual  sponging,  and 
doses  of  the  spirits  diluted,  taken  into  tlie  stomach  three  or  four  times  a 
day.  It  is  said  that  the  spirits  of  hartshorn  Las  a  chemical  affinity  for  the 
poison  virus,  and  absorbs  and  decomposes  it,  and  thus  renders  it  harmless. 
If  this  is  the  case,  then  ammonia  in  any  form  would  have  the  same  effect. 
At  any  rate  the  remedy  is  simple  and  easily  tried,  and  should  be  tested. 
We  have  faith  in  it,  knowing  it  to  be  an  excellent  remedy  for  a  bee  sting. 

496.  Remedies  for  Lockjaw,  Felons,  and  Ulcers. — We  have  heard  a  great 
deal  about  the  medicinal  value  of  a  poultice  made  of  grated  beet-roots,  and 
now  we  find  the  following  statement,  which  we  consider  worthy  of  attention, 
the  remedy  is  so  easily  applied  : 

"A  young  lady  ran  a  nail  into  her  foot,  which  produced  lockjaw  of  such 
a  malignant  character  that  her  physicians  pronounced  her  recovery  hope- 
less. An  old  nurse  applied  a  poultice  of  pounded  beetroots,  renewing  it 
often,  and  the  result  was  a  complete  cure." 

A  good  remedy  for  a  felon  is  made  of  common  soft  soap  and  air-slaked 
lime,  stirred  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  glazier's  putty.  Make  a  leather 
thimble,  fill  it  with  this  composition,  and  insert  the  finger  therein,  and  our 
informant  says  a  cure  is  certain.  This  is  a  domestic  application  that  every 
housekeeper  can  apply  promptly. 

A  fig  heated  as  warm  as  it  can  be  borne,  and  cut  open  and  applied  to 
almost  any  ulcerated  sore,  and  renewed  as  it  cools,  is  recommended  for  boils 
and  similar  affections  as  one  of  the  best  remedies.  It  may  be  applied  to  an 
ulcerated  tooth. 

497.  Remedy  for  a  Tight  Finger-Ring. — If  it  can  not  be  removed  by  such 
mechanical  appliances  as  inserting  a  stout  thread  under  it  and  pulling  upon 
it,  nor  by  thin  strips  of  metal,  then  chemistry  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the 
strength  of  the  ring  destroyed,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  broken.  This  is  done 
by  rubbing  it  with  quicksilver,  which  has  an  affinity  for  pure  gold,  and 
makes  it  brittle. 

9 


Tin:   DAIRY. 


441 


SECTION  XXVIII.-THE  DAIRY. 


BrTTEE-MAKmCr, 


A8    PRACTICED    BY    FIESTCLASS    DAIRYMEN CIIEESE    AND 

CHEESE-MAKING. 


(E  can  not  teach  all  who  need  to  be  taught  tlic 
perfect  art  of  butter-making,  -which  is  one  of  tlie 
useful  arts  that  but  few  households  possess.  In  the 
great  butter  market  of  New  York,  we  find  that  not 
one  tenth  is  really  first-rate ;  and  probably  more 
than  one  half  is  sold  from  one  to  three  cents  a 
pound  below  the  first  price,  while  tons  are  sold 
every  year  at  the  price  of  soft  grease,  and  used  for 
other  purposes  than  food.  "What  a  loss  to  the  pro- 
ducers !  In  hopes  to  aid  this  class,  we  have  em- 
bodied in  this  section  directions  for  making  butter, 
as  practiced  by  some  of  the  best  butter-makers  in 
the  country.  Among  these. we  may  name  A.  B. 
Dickenson,  Hornby,  Steuben  Co.,  N.  Y''. ;  Jesse  Car- 
penter, of  Elmira,  IST.  T. ;  John  T.  Norton,  of  Farmington,  Ct.,  and  others. 
498.  First  Requisites  in  Butter-Making.— A.  B.  Dickenson  says :  "  One  of 
the  first  requisites  in  butterrmaking  is  care  that  all  the  utensils  of  the  dairy 
are  kept  dry  and  sweet;  that  the  milk-room  is  well  ventilated,  of  a  proper 
temperature,  free  from  dampness  and  the  unpleasant  smell  generated  by 
moisture ;  that  the  cream  is  not  allowed  to  stand  too  long  upon  the  milk, 
nor  after  it  is  skimmed ;  that  it  be  churned  at  a  proper  temperature,  tlie 
operation  being  neither  hurried  unduly  or  carried  too  far;  that  it  should  lie 
salted  with  the  nicest  salt  obtainable,  not  injured  by  the  addition  of  su^-ar 
or  saltpeter,  and  that  all  the  buttermilk  be  properly  and  efi'ectually  removed. 
"The  utmost  moisture  which  should  be  found  in  thoroughly  worked  but- 
ter is  a  very  slight  dew,  and  it  should  be  of  such  firm  consistency  as  to  slice 
down,  hardly  dimming  the  brightness  of  a  knife:blade.  No  butter  is  prop- 
erly made  unless  it  will  bear  these  tests. 

"  For  depositing  the  milk,  when  strained,  the  tin  pail  of  the  capacity  of 
about  twelve  quarts  is  preferable  to  any  other  kind  of  vessel.  It  is  snfli- 
ciently  large  to  fulfill  all  the  requirements  in  that  particular,  while  its  su- 
periority over  the  shallow  pan — which  is  considerably  used — is  too  palpable 
to  admit  of  doubt. 

"  No  first  quality  of  butter  can  be  made  either  in  November  or  August. 
While  the  one  is  too  cold  with  frost-bitten  grass,  the  other  is  quite  too 
warm,  and  without  ice  it  is  impossible  to  make  first  quality  of  butter.  Be 
careful  in  washing  butter  to  handle  it  with  a  ladle,  so  as  not  to  aflfect  the 


442  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

grain ;  then  put  it  away  in  some  sweet,  fool  place  out  of  the  reaeli  of  any  bad 
odor  wliicli  it  might  absorb.  Wlien  it  lias  stood  long  enough  to  get  its 
proper  rich  color,  work  it  over  and  lay  it  down  and  keep  it  with  the  same 
degree  of  care.  It  would  spoil  in  sixty  days  in  a  common  farm  cellar, 
where  meats,  fish,  and  vegetables  are  kept. 

"  It  would  be  a  much  easier  task  to  teach  a  man  to  make  a  watch  than  how 
to  make  the  first  quality  of  butter,  as  it  is  the  most  sensitive  and  the  most 
liable  to  jnjury  of  all  the  eatables  extracted  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
It  is  so  sensitive  as  to  partake  of  everything  that  can  affect  it  that  it  comes 
in  contact  with — as  onions,  carrots,  parsncps,  turnips,  fish,  or  anything  else 
that  would  make  it  unpalatable,  cither  in  the  butter  or  the  milk  before 
churning.  Isot  onl}'  so,  but  the  butter  partakes  of  everything  the  cow  eats 
or  drinks,  and  the  longer  it  stands  after  being  made,  the  more  perceptibly 
will  the  unpalatable  things  on  which  she  fed  make  themselves  manifest.  By 
this  it  M'ill  be  seen  that  the  most  important  thing  for  first  quality  of  butter 
is  tlie  food  for  the  cow.  ]S"eithcr  from  roots  of  any  sort  or  kind,  nor  grain 
of  any  description,  can  first  quality  of  butter  be  extracted.  It  must  be  from 
something  that  imparts  a  sweeter  and  finer  flavor.  The  cow  must  give  good 
rich  milk,  as  first  quality  of  butter  can  not  be  made  from  poor  palo  milk, 
for  it  lacks  the  essential  quality  of  good  butter." 

liost  and  quiet  are  as  important  to  a  butter-producing  cow  as  good  food. 
She  should  never  be  dogged,  beaten,  driven  on  a  run,  nor  have  her  quiet  in 
any  way  disturbed. 

499.  Churnin.7,  Washing,  aad  Coloring  Dattor,— In  spite  of  all  tlio  patented 
improvements,  the  old  dasher  churn  still  holds  its  position,  not  onlv  in  fam- 
ilies, but  among  dairymen.  The  following  are  A.  B.  Dickenson's  directions 
for  churning  milk  and  working  butter  : 

"The  churn  sliould  be  as  nearly  straight  up  and  down  as  possible,  as  the 
dash  should  stir  all  the  milk  every  stroke  it  makes,  so  that  the  butter  in  the 
churn  should  all  come  at  the  same  time.  If  the  milk  is  too  cold,  the  only 
safe  way  to  warm  it  is  to  place  a  pail  of  milk  in  a  large  boiler  of  warm  wa- 
ter to  bring  it  to  the  exact  temperature,  whicli  is  about  55  to  CO  degrees — a 
few  degrees  warmer  in  cold  than  warm  M-eather.  As  soon  as  the  butter  lias 
come  and  gathered,  take  it  immediately  from  the  churn  in  its  warm  state 
and  put  it  in  a  large  wooden  bowl,  wliich  is  the  best  vessel  for  the  purpose  ; 
then  put  it  in  cold,  snfi  water ;  tlien  commence  pulling  the  butter  over  with 
the  ladle  in  so  gentle  and  careful  a  manner  as  not  to  affect  the  grain,  for  as  sure 
as  that  is  injured  at  the  washing  or  working,  the  butter  becomes  oily  and 
can  never  be  reclaimed.  Every  particle  of  milk  must  be  washed  out,  and 
then  season  with  the  best  Liverpool  salt.  Set  the  bowl  away  until  the  next 
day,  and  when  sufficiently  cool,  work  the  mass  thoroughly,  but  not  so  as 
to  make  it  oily,  and  on  the  third  day  pack  it  away  if  it  has  assumed  the 
right  color.  Examine  it  well  before  packing,  and  be  sure  that  no  milky 
water  runs  from  it,  for  if  packed  with  the  least  drop,  you  will  hear  from  it 
next  April. 


Sec.  2S.]  TlIE   DAIRY.  443 

'•  If  jour  spring  or  ■well  is  hard  water,  save  ice  from  streams,  as  lime  never 
congeals  ■with  ice.  Save  rain-water,  and  then  ■with  ice  yon  -will  liave  soft, 
cool  water  to  wash  j-our  butter,  without  which  you  can  not  get  the  milk 
out  without  injuring  the  grain.  Soft  water  is  as  indispensable  to  wash  but- 
ter as  it  is  to  wash  fi^ie  linen.  "Washing  butter  is  not  positively  necessary 
if  it  is  to  be  ^ised  within  a  few  weeks. 

'•Th.e  idea  of  coloring  butter  with  anything  after  it  is  made  is  as  absurd 
as  painting  rye  bread  white,  with  the  expectation  of  making  it  taste  like 
■wheat." 

Jesse  Carpenter  says :  "  Tlic  milk  in  the  churn,  when  fit  for  churning, 
should  indicate  64  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  should  be  agitated  with  a  move- 
ment of  the  dash  at  not  less  than  fifty  strokes  to  the  minute.  Less  motion 
will  fail  to  divide  properly  the  butter  from  the  milk.  When  done,  tlie 
butter  sliould  be  taken  from  the  churn  and  thrown  into  a  tub  oi-  a  small 
churn  partly  filled  with  water  42  to  44  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the  butter- 
milk forced  out  with  a  small  dash.  It  should  then  be  put  into  trays  and 
washed  until  the  water  used  ceases  to  be  the  least  discolored  with  buttei-- 
milk.  It  is  then  ready  for  salting,  which  done,  carry  the  trays  immediately 
to  tho  cellar.  Use  one  and  a  quarter  ounces  of  salt  to  the  pound  of  worked 
butter.  Three  or  four  hours  after  tlie  first  salting,  stir  with  a  ladle  and  put 
it  in  the  form  of  a  honeycomb,  in  order  to  give  it  the  greatest  possible  sur- 
face exposure  to  the  air,  which  gives  color  and  fixes  the  high  flavor. 

"  Butter,  when  well  manufactured,  while  standing  preparatory  to  pack- 
ing, is  composed  of  granuhited  particles,  between  which  are  myriads  of  in- 
finitesimal cells  filled  wtih  brine,  which  is  its  life.  At  this  period  it  should 
be  touched  with  a  light  Imnd,  as  too  much  and  too  careless  working  will  destroy 
its  granular  and  cellular  character,  and  reduce  the  whole  to  a  compact  and 
lifeless  mass,  with  au  immediate  loss  of  flavor,  and  a  certain  and  reliable 
prospect,  if  packed,  of  a  rapid  change  of  its  character  from  indifiierently 
good  to  miserably  poor  butter.  It  should  never  be  worked  in  the  tray 
while  in  a  dry  state,  or  all  the  ill  results  just  alluded  to  will  be  realized. 
As  a  general  rule,  after  the  butter  has  stood  in  the  trays  twenty-four  liours, 
and  has  been  worked  three  or  four  times  as  directed,  it  is  ready  for  packing. 
After  the  firkin  is  filled,  it  should  stand  a  short  time,  and  then  should  be 
covered  with  a  clean  piece  of  muslin,  and  the  whole  covered  with  brine." 

Mr.  H.  E.  Lowman,  a  neighbor  of  Mr.  Carpenter,  states  the  following 
fact  about  his  butter,  which  is  a  strong  one  in  favor  of  washing  butter : 

"  Mr.  Carpenter  for  the  last  twenty  years,  besides  fattening  the  calves  to 
the  customary  age  of  four  weeks,  has  averaged  a  fraction  over  two  firkins 
to  the  cow  per  year.  He  has  had  butter  stand  in  packages  in  his  cellar  for 
one  year  and  a  half,  and  open  then  with  a  flavor  so  fresh  and  sweet  that 
the  very  best  and  most  critical  judges  and  buyers  were  deceived  one  year 
in  its  age,  none  even  suspecting  it  to  be  the  product  of  a  former  year.  He 
never  has,  during  that  period,  failed  to  reach  in  New  York  market  the 
highest  figure  representing  the  maximum  market  for  Orange  County  butter, 


i44  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

:uk1  latterly  he  has  very  often  exceeded  the  very  liighcst  market  from  i  to 
2^  cents  per  pound." 

J>utter  is  judged  hy  its  color,  aroma,  taste,  and  consistency.  Its  color 
sliould  be  a  delicate  pale  straw,  not  apj^roaching  M'hite,  and  yet  ])erhaps  that 
is  better  than  the  deep  orange  tint,  almost  always  a  sure  indication  of  ex- 
traneous coloring  matter.  The  peculiar  smell  of  good  butter  is  easily  rec- 
ognized. The  better  the  quality  the  more  delicate  this  aroma;  while,  as  the 
quality  degenerates,  about  in  the  same  proportion  does  the  smell  vary,  until 
it  l)ccomes  ijositively  offensive.  This  fragrance  is  dependent  very  much  on 
the  process  of  manufacture.  Orange  County  dairymaids  make  "  Orange 
County  butter"  wherever  they  follow  the  same  processes.  The  taste  of  the 
butter  will  betray  any  inattention  to  the  proper  care  of  either  the  milk, 
cream,  or  the  vessels  in  which  they  are  kept.  So  will  the  addition  of  any 
foreign  matter,  such  as  impure  or  too  much  or  too  little  salt,  sugar,  or  color- 
ing matter.  A  certain  amount  of  salt  is  necessary  to  bring  out  the  true 
flavor  of  butter  in  its  greatest  delicacy.  In  texture  or  consistency,  a  greater 
difference  is  seen  than  upon  any  other  point.  Some  arc  firm,  leaving  no  mark 
upon  a  knife  after  being  thrust  into  a  lump,  with  hardly  enough  moisture  to 
dim  its  brightness,  while  other  lots  are  soft,  leaving  greasy  streaks  upon  the 
blade,  and  large  drops  of  an  opaque  liquid  oozing  from  the  newly  cut 
surface.  The  existence  of  cither  of  these  signs  gives  sure  indication  of  an 
imperfect,  if  not  bad,  process  of  making. 

500.  Number  of  Quarts  of  Milk  for  a  Pound  of  Butter.— The  number  of 
quarts  of  milk  required  to  make  a  pound  of  butter  varies  very  widely.  By 
many  trials  in  England,  it  is  found  that  one  pound  of  butter  requires  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  quarts  of  milk ;  that  is  about  one  ounce  from  a  quart, 
varying  with  the  feed  and  the  season.  Although  it  may  be  true  that  the 
milk  of  a  majority  of  the  cows  in  this  country  would  require  an  equal  nuuiber 
of  quarts  to  make  a  pound  of  butter,  yet  there  are  cows  that  will  give  a 
pound  to  four  quarts  of  milk.  Col.  Jaques,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Maj. 
John  Jones,  of  Delaware,  both  had  a  "  cream-pot"  breed  of  cows  which  we 
saw  a  few  years  ago  produce  this  result.  But  we  believe  that  it  requires  an 
average  of  fourteen  quarts  to  a  jwund,  and  that  is  why  farmers  prefer  to  sell 
their  milk  where  it  brings  over  two  cents  a  quart.  At  that  rate  a  milk- 
dairyman  can  not  even  afford  to  make  his  own  family  butter;  he  can  buy  it 
from  a  iarmer,  who  can  not  sell  his  milk,  at  a  rate  more  economical. 

William  Buekminster,  of  Framingham,  Mass.,  in  18.55,  exhibited  a  Devon 
cow  for  premium,  as  the  best  butter-niakcr,  with  satisfactory  proof  of  the 
following  yield  of  milk : 

"In  June  and  July  last  she  filled  a  common  milk-pail,  at  night,  as  full  as 
any  dairymaid  would  wish  to  carry.  And  on  June  17  her  milk  weighed,  morn- 
ing and  night,  each  34}  pounds;  June  10,  morning  and  night,  345  pounds; 
June  19,  morning  and  night,  34  pounds;  June  20,  morning  and  night,  323 
pounds;  June  21,  morning  and  night,  32J  pounds;  June  22,  morning  and 
night,  30i  pounds ;  June  23,  morning  and  night,  30^  pounds." 


Sec.  28.]  THE  DAIRY.  445 

He  also  certified  at  the  time  slie  was  offered,  in  October,  that  four  quarls 
of  her  milk,  when  fed  on  grass  only,  and  that  of  an  ordinary  pasture,  pro- 
duced one  pound  of  the  finest  yellow  butter.  "This  cow,"  he  says,  "  is  one 
of  the  six  cows  owned  and  bred  by  me,  whose  milk  has  repeatedly  yielded 
one  pound  of  butter  from  four  beer  quarts.  Her  keep  through  the  autumn 
of  the  thi-ee  years  of  lier  milking  has  been  grass  feed  only,  no  grain,  or 
roots,  or  corn  stover  having  been  given  her." 

This  is  the  richest  milk  of  any  but  Alderneys,  and  above  their  average. 

William  S.  Lincoln,  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  produced  from  one  cow,  owned 
by  him,  in  the  spring  of  1858,  eighteen  pounds  of  butter  a  week  ;  and  cows 
that  produce  fifteen  or  sixteen  pounds  a  week  are  not  uncommon  in  that 
State.  The  "  Oaks  cow"  yielded  her  owner  nineteen  pounds  a  week  at  the 
best,  and  nearly  500  pounds  in  the  course  of  the  season.  These  are  extra- 
ordinary cases,  it  is  true ;  but  if  one  cow  can  do  it,  others  can." 

Now,  if  these  are  facts — and  who  can  dispute  them  ? — what  are  we  to 
think  of  the  quality  of.  judgment,  sense,  or  economy  of  men  who  will  keep 
cows  on  their  farms  for  the  sole  purpose  of  making  butter,  at  an  average  of 
one  pound  to  fourteen  quarts,  when  they  could  have  cows  that  would  give 
a  pound  from  less  than  half  that  quantity  ?  Let  this  fact  be  thought  of,  that 
it  does  take  fourteen  quarts  of  milk  for  a  pound  of  butter,  which  might  be 
made  from  four  quarts.  While  this  is  a  fact,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  Orange  County  farmers  have  quit  making  butter,  notwithstanding  the 
high  reputation  it  had  attained,  and  prefer  to  send  their  milk  to  New  York 
from  every  farm  within  reach  of  the  river  or  railroad.  If  the  milk  averages 
two  and  a  half  cents  a  quart  Avlien  sold,  and  it  would  take  fourteen  quarts 
to  make  a  pound  of  butter,  it  would  make  the  first  cost  of  the  butter  thirty- 
five  cents  a  pound,  besides  all  the  labor  of  its  manufacture. 

The  Ilomcftead  says:  "Mr.  Coit,  of  Norwich,  keeps  two  cows  which,  in 
the  best  of  the  season,  furnish  four  quarts  of  milk  daily  for  use,  and  make 
nineteen  pounds  of  butter  a  week.  The  writer  also  thinks  that  an  improved 
style  of  milk-room  would  be  quite  as  likely  to  increase  the  yield  of  butter 
as  an  improved  breed  of  cows.  If  only  an  additional  poimd  a  week  from 
each  cow  could  be  secured  in  this  way,  it  would  be  a  matter  worth  looking 
into  by  our  farmers,  and  would  greatly  increase  the  yieldof  butter  in  theState." 

Think  of  it,  farmers,  in  every  State.  An  additional  pound  of  butter  a 
week  to  each  cow !  What  would  be  the  aggregate  ?  Can  anybody  tell  ? 
Can  anybody  think  of  the  vast  amount,  and  that  it  would  be  all  clear  profit? 
And  it  is  just  as  easy  as  it  is  to  do  right  instead  of  wrong. 

Good  cows,  sweet  feed,  and  pure  water  are  the  first  of  all  requisites  to 
the  manufacture  of  good  butter.  Good  cows,  that  proper  color  and  right 
consistency  be  secured ;  sweet  feed  and  pure  water,  that  no  flavor  be  im- 
parted to  the  milk  which  would  render  the  butter  unpalatable.  Dependent, 
however,  as  the  quality  of  the  article  is  upou  the  cow  and  the  goodness  of 
the  food,  a  proper  degree  of  care  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  dairywijman  is 
of  much  greater  conseaueuce. 


446  DOMESTIC  ECOXOMY.  [Cbap.  r\'. 

Undoubtedly  butter  can  be  worked  so  as  to  keep  sweet  without  washing ; 
60  can  wlieat  be  cut  with  a  sickle,  and  thrashed  with  a  flail,  but  they  arc  not 
great  labor-saving  machines. 

With  successful  butter-makers  the  churning  occupies  about  half  an  hour. 
By  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  cream,  it  could  be  done  in  one  half 
the  time,  but  the  quality  of  the  butter  would  be  much  reduced.  In  winter, 
to  facilitate  the  rising  of  the  cream,  the  eartheu  pans  for  holding  the 
milk  are  rinsed  in  hot  water  before  use,  and  warm  water  is  applied 
around  them,  not  to  heat  the  milk,  but  for  a  time  to  maintain  its  original 
temperature. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  dairy  is  less  than  fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
the  milk  will  not  ripen  for  churning,  and  in  such  case  should  be  removed  for 
a  time  to  a  temperature  of  iifty-tive  degrees.  The  sudden  warming  of  the 
milk  will  not  always  enable  it  to  yield  up  its  butter  readily. 

One  butter-maker  says :    "  Carefully  conducted  experiments  prove  that 
more  butter  is  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  milk,  when  set  in  pans . 
partly  filled,  than  when  full."     This  is  in  opposition  to  the  theory  of  A.  B. 
Dickenson. 

A  French  chemist  declares  that  butter  may  be  made  without  churning,  by 
the  use  of  a  filter,  uKide  of  white  felt,  in  the  form  of  a  bag,  in  the  four 
corners  of  which  are  inserted  porous  strings,  like  candlewick,  to  hasten  oflf 
the  fluid  portion  of  the  milk.  The  bag  being  suspended  by  the  four  corners, 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty  hours,  the  contents  of  the  filter  will  be  found  to 
be  of  the  consistence  of  "  smear  case"  (soft  cheese).  This  solidified  cream 
is  then  placed  in  a  linen  bag,  tied  tight,  and  the  bag  kneaded  like  a  roll  of 
dough.  In  a  few  minutes  the  mass  grows  liquid,  and  the  butter  and  butter- 
milk are  separated. 

One  large  butter-maker  sa^:  "I  use  a  horse-power  churn,  of  a  capacity 
sufliciently  great  to  make  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  butter.  I 
always  try  the  temperature  of  my  churn  before  putting  in  the  cream.  If 
below  fifty -five  degrees,  I  raise  it  to  that  point  with  warm  water,  and  keep 
the  cream  as  near  that  point  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  cream  is  in  the 
churn  I  start  the  horse,  and  keep  him  moving  at  a  steady  gait  until  the  but- 
ter is  broken,  or  begins  to  gather  in  small  lumps.  Opposite  the  opening 
through  which  the  cream  is  poured  into  the  churn  is  an  inch  hole,  which  is 
stopped  with  a  plug.  When  the  butter  is  formed  as  above  stated,  I  open  this 
hole  and  draw  oif  all  the  buttermilk,  then  start  the  horse  again,  and  keep 
him  going  until  I  gather  the  butter  into  a  solid  mass.  This  accomplished, 
it  is  taken  from  the  chui-n  and  put  into  a  tub  prepared  for  it.  I  then  weigh 
the  whole  mass,  and  transfer  it  to  the  butter-worker,  when  it  is  worked  over 
twice,  after  which  I  add  one  dessert  tablespoonful  of  the  very  best  dairy 
salt  to  every  pound.  I  again  Mork  it  well,  so  as  to  incorporate  the  salt 
thoroughly.  It  is  again  weighed  into  pound  lumps  and  printed.  The 
human  baud  is  never  allowed  to  touch  the  butter,  nor  is  water  ever  used  to 
wash  it" 


Sec.  28.]  THE  DAIRY.  447 

Of  course  it  is  sold  immediately ;  if  it  is  to  be  kept,  we  tliiuk  it  must  be 
washed. 

501.  Butter  Affected  by  Food  of  Cows.— The  quality  of  all  butter  is  so 
greatly  atfected  by  the  food  of  the  cows,  that  no  one  can  make  good  butter, 
although  he  has  good  cows,  if  their  food  is  poor.  In  summer,  there  is  nothing 
bettor  than  clover  pasture.  At  any  rate,  the  pasture  must  atibrd  sweet  grass, 
running  water,  and  trees  for  shade  and  rest.  A  cow  should  be  selected  for 
her  quiet  disposition,  as  much  as  any  other  quality,  for  a  butter-making 
cow ;  for  milk  alone,  this  is  not  so  important.  If  she  has  vicious  propen- 
sities, she  can  not  be  cured  by  viciousness.  In  winter,  clover  hay,  cured  in 
the  most  perfect  manner,  is  better  for  butter  than  any  other  hay.  To  this 
add  slops  once  or  twice  every  day,  composed  of  bran,  shorts,  cut  potatoes, 
corn  meal  partially  cooked,  and  salt,  and  an  occasional  handful  of  bone 
meal,  lime,  ashes,  or  charcoal-dust  will  be  found  advantageous.  Carrots 
are  always  good  for  a  butter  cow.  Nothing  should  ever  be  given  her  that 
is  not  sweet  enough  for  you  to  eat  yourself.  And  even  that  is  not  always 
good  food  for  a  cow,  as  turnips,  cabbages,  and  onions  are  considered  good 
food  for  the  table — ^they  are  not  for  the  stable,  if  sweet  milk  is  an  object. 

Then  she  must  be  kept  in  a  clean,  sweet-smelling  stable,  warm  and  dry, 
but  ventilated.  The  same  stable  should  be  used  in  summer  for  milking, 
after  which  the  cows  may  be  allowed  to  sleep  out,  if  it  is  such  weather  that 
they  can  lie  upon  the  ground  in  comfort ;  and  if  not,  keep  them  in  until  after 
milking  in  the  morning.  Every  cow  should  know  her  own  stall  as  well  as 
a  man  knows  his  own  bed,  and  they  will  soon  learn  to  be  unwilling  to  cat 
or  be  milked  anywhere  else.  Food  and  care  of  the  cow,  and  perfect  quiet 
and  comfort  for  her  in  every  respect,  are  the  first  requisites  in  making  good 
butter. 

A  stable  can  be  kept  sweet  enough  to  lodge  in  by  the  daily  use  of  plaster, 
charcoal,  prepared  muck,  or  an  occasional  sprinkling  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
or  solution  of  copperas. 

It  is  necessary  for  a  full  flow  of  milk  to  maintain  a  continual  supply  of 
albuminous  food,  while  in  the  latter  period  of  fattening,  such  kinds  of  food 
are  superfluous,  and  only  tend  to  enrich  the  manure  heap  There  is  one 
leading  feature  in  his  practice,  to  which  the  utmost  importance  is  attached 
by  Mr.  Ilorsefall — an  English  dairyman — the  maintenance  of  the  condition 
of  his  cows  giving  a  large  yield  of  milk.  Tliis  is  done  by  the  addition  of 
bean  meal  in  greater  quantitj'  to  those  yielding  the  most  milk  He  refers 
also  to  the  eff"ect  of  clover  upon  the  supply  of  milk  as  known  to  all  dairy- 
men, the  dry  material  of  which  is  nearly  as  rich  in  albumen  as  beans,  and 
the  inference  is  drawn  that  "  albuminous  matter  is  the  most  essential  ele- 
ment in  the  food  of  the  milch  cow,  and  that  any  deficiency  in  the  supply  of 
this  will  be  attended  with  loss  of  condition,  and  a  consequent  diminution  in 
the  quality  of  her  milk."  He  is  of  the  opinion  that  "  you  can  increase  the 
proportion  of  butter  in  milk  more  than  that  of  casein  or  other  solid  parts." 
Rape-cake  seems  more  efiicient  for  this  purpose  than  linseed-cake,  the  oily 


448  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

matter  in  this  seed  more  nearly  resembling  that  in  butter  than  tliat  of  flax- 
seed. He  also  says:  "It  seems  worthy  of  remark  that  a  cow  can  yield  a 
lar  greater  weight  of  butter  than  she  can  store  up  in  solid  fat.  Numerous 
instances  occur  where  a  cow  gives  off  two  pounds  of  butter  per  day — four- 
teen pounds  per  week — while  lialf  that  quantity  probably  would  not  be  laid 
on  in  fat  if  she  was  fed  for  that  purpose." 

These  "English  notions"  arc  wortliy  of  American  attention. 

502.  Butter  Affected  by  the  Packages.— It  is  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes 
that  butter  packers  make,  to  put  it  up  in  bad  packages.  Let  it  be  taken  for 
an  incontrovertible  fact  that,  as  a  general  thing,  a  dairy  of  butter  of  uniform 
quality  may  be  packed,  one  half  in  rough,  untidy  casks,  and  the  otlier  in 
neat,  swcet-Iooking  firkins,  of  suitable  and  uniform  size,  and  that  half  will 
outsell  the  other  at  least  ten  per  cent.  The  purchasers  of  butter,  by  the 
single  package  or  by  the  hundred  packages,  are  always  influenced  by  the 
outside  appearance.  One  of  the  reasons  why  Western  butter  sells  at  a  price 
generally  under  the  market  is  because  it  comes  in  bad  order.  IIow  can 
people  expect  first  prices  for  butter  in  mottled  rolls,  packed  in  a  dry-goods 
box  or  a  flour  barrel?  Such  butter,  when  it  arrives  in  New  York,  is  de- 
nominated '•  "Western  grease,"  and  sells  at  a  price  corresponding  with  its 
name. 

503.  When  to  Skim  Milk. — The  right  time  to  skim  milk  is  just  as  the  milk 
begins  to  sour  in  the  bottom  of  the  pans.  Then  the  cream  is  all  at  the 
surface,  and  should  at  once  be  removed,  with  as  little  of  the  milk  as  pos- 
sible. That  housewife,  or  dairymaid,  who  thinks  to  obtain  a  greater  quan- 
tify by  allowing  the  milk  to  stand  beyond  that  time,  labors  under  a  mistake. 
Any  one  who  doubts  can  try  it.  Milk  should  be  looked  to  at  least  three 
times  a  day. 

504.  Alderney  Cows  and  Alderney  Dutter. — It  is  our  matured  opinion  that 
the  Alderney  cow  is  the  only  one  for  a  family,  where  but  one  is  kept,  and 
where  rich  milk  and  sweet  cream  are  a  leading  object.  (See  47,  48,  49.) 
There  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact,  that  this  breed  of  cattle  is  superior  to  any  other 
for  making  butter  of  rich  flavor  to  the  taste,  and  with  a  peculiar  sweet 
aroma.  We  have  thoroughly  tested  butter  made  from  Alderney  cows,  by 
John  T.  Norton,  of  Farmington,  Conn.,  and  have  submitted  it  to  the  sight, 
smell,  and  taste  of  some  good  judges  of  butter,  who,  without  hesitation,  pro- 
nounced it  as  unlike  as  it  is  richer  than  any  other  kind  they  have  ever  tasted. 
We  kept  it  some  weeks  e.\posed  to  an  atmosphere  that  would  soften  ordinary 
butter  so  that  it  could  not  easily  be  handled,  and  yet  this  remained  almost 
as  firm  as  though  just  from  a  cool  dairy-room.  There  can  be  no  mistake  in 
its  natural  superiority  and  good  keeping  qualities  over  butter  made  from 
cows  of  other  breeds.  This  fact  is  as  well  known  in  England  as  the  fact 
that  Southdown  mutton  is  superior  to  that  of  other  breeds  of  sheep.  And 
the  fact  is  beginning  to  be  known  here,  for  we  have  heard  of  Alderney  but- 
ter selling  in  market,  in  places  where  it  is  well  known  in  this  country,  at 
double  the  price  of  good  butter  of  common  stock.     This  much  for  the  in- 


Seo.  28.]  THE  DAIRY.  U9 

formation  and  benefit  of  those  who  do  not  know  that  there  is  a  very  great 
ditiorence  in  breeds  of  cattle  for  butter  as  well  as  for  beef.  For  the  latter 
purposes  tiie  Alderneys  are  certainly  superior  to  the  Durhams.  Herefords, 
Devons,  Ayrshires,  or  natives. 

Anollier  good  qnality  of  the  Alderneys  is,  that  they  will  live  upon  house- 
slops  or  garden  or  yard  clippings,  or  upon  short  pastures. 

Mr.  Norton  says :  "  I  live  on  one  of  the  old  worn-out  farms  of  Connecti- 
cut, which  I  am  trying  to  improve;''  and  we  say,  upon  such  a  farm  he  finds 
it  not  only  pleasant  for  his  own  nse  to  kecj)  Alderney  cows,  but  profitable  to 
make  butter  from  them  for  the  Hartford  market.  Our  recommendation, 
however,  is  not  for  dairy  purposes,  but  strictly  for  private  family  use,  and 
for  that  we  do  consider  this  small  breed  of  cows  most  valuable.  There  are 
persons,  however,  of  experience,  who  believe  the  Alderneys  valuable  for 
dairy  farms. 

T.  M.  Stoughton,  of  Greenfield,  Mass.,  says :  "  Alderney  cows  are  not 
only  good  for  private  family  use,  but  actually  the  best  for  a  large  dairy. 

"  My  experience  has  been  with  a  herd  of  cows  imported  by  Mr.  Jonathan 
Bird,  of  Belleville,  N.  J.,  from  the  island  of  Jersey,  and  selected  with  par- 
ticular regard  to  their  milking  qualities.  The  herd  came  under  my  care  in 
1856,  with  the  request  from  Mr.  Bird  that  I  should  give  them  the  same  care 
and  feed  as  my  native  and  Ayrshire  cows,  keeping  a  careful  account  of  their 
product  by  measurement  and  weight,  so  as  to  be  able  to  determine  whether 
they  are  a  profitable  breed  for  butter-making.  The  following  statement  is 
ofiered  as  an  answer  to  '  What  is  a  good  cow  V 

'•  Cow  No.  1  calved  in  January,  1S51 — came  into  my  care  last  of  May. 
In  June,  she  made  lOi  pounds  of  butter  per  week;  in  July,  10^  pounds  per 
week;  in  August,  9i  pounds  per  week;  in  the  month  of  September,  30 
pounds;  in  October,  28  pounds;  and  two  weeks  in  November,  12i  pounds; 
and  calved  in  December — making  lOSi  pounds  in  five  months. 

"No.  2  calved  in  September,  1851,  and  through  the  month  of  October 
made  14i  pounds  of  butter  per  week  ;  in  Jiyie  following  she  made  12  pounds 
per  week ;  in  August,  C  pounds  per  week ;  and  calved  early  in  October — 
making  317  pounds  of  butter  for  the  year. 

"No.  3  was  a  three-year-old  heifer,  calved  in  September,  1856.  In  the 
month  of  October,  made  Hi  pounds  per  week;  in  June  following,  8.^ 
pounds  per  week ;  in  August,  4  pounds  per  week — making  267  pounds  for 
the  year. 

"  No.  4  was  a  heifer  two  years  old ;  calved  in  March,  1858.  From  the 
1st  of  April  to  November  she  made  200  pounds  of  butter.  Greatest  yield 
per  week,  10|  pounds ;  and  made  7  pounds  per  week  in  September. 

"No.  5,  a  heifer  eighteen  months  old;  calved  in  March,  1858.  In  the 
five  months  following  she  made  108  pounds  of  butter. 

"The  above  five  are  an  average  of  the  ten  milking  cows.  Their  feed  has 
been  pasture  only  in  the  summer  months,  with  hay  and  two  quarts  of  corn 
meal  and  rye  middlings  in  the  winter  months.     From  the  above  statement 


450  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


it  will  be  seen  that  tlie  cows  which  have  come  to  maturity  will  make  300 
pounds  of  butter  per  year  under  favorable  circumstances.  Alderney  bultcr 
sells  iu  the  diflerent  markets  of  the  country  for  from  forty  to  fifty  cents  per 
pound.  The  best  dairies  of  New  York  and  New  England  do  not  average 
over  200  pounds  per  cow  (native  and  Duriiam).  The  average  price  of  their 
butter  is  not  over  twenty-five  cents  per  pound. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  peculiarities  of  the  Alderney  cow  is  her  uni- 
formity of  quantity,  making  nearly  as  much  butter  at  the  end  of  eight 
months  after  calving  as  at  four.  The  objections  urged  against  the  Alderney 
cow  are,  that  she  is  a  voracious  feeder,  lean,  awkward  in  ajipearauce,  and 
will  make  but  little  beef  when  old. 

"  Admitting  the  Alderney  cow  to  be  a  pretty  sharp  feeder,  it  can  hardly 
be  expected  that  a  cow  will  make  from  ten  to  fourteen  pounds  of  first-rate 
butter  by  simply  standing  in  a  cold  stable,  and  looking  at  a  haymow,  or  by 
shirking  round  a  stack  of  swamp  hay.  That  she  is  inclined  to  he  lean  is  an 
evidence  that  she  is  a  good  milker ;  for  a  cow  that  secretes  fatty  matter  can 
not  secrete  good  milk  at  the  same  time,  without  being  fed  too  high  for  the 
permanent  good  of  the  cow.  If  she  is  ugly  lo  look  at  she  is  a  good  one  to 
go,  for  she  will  be  worth  §100  when  six  months,  especially  if  a  heifer.  And 
after  being  milked  twelve  or  thirteen  years,  producing  over  3,000  pounds  of 
butter,  it  is  of  no  great  consequence  whether  she  makes  600  or  900  pounds 
of  beef." 

505.  Heating  New  Milk> — The  Dainjman^s  Record  gives  the  opinion  that 
the  heating  of  new  milk  to  near  the  boiling-point  just  after  it  is  drawn  from 
the  cow,  is  preferable  to  allowing  it  to  stand  for  a  time  before  heating,  and 
thinks  both  butter  and  cheese  are  improved  in  flavor  by  so  doing,  "  because 
the  animal  odors  which  are  objectionable  would  be  expelled,''  and  goes  on 
to  say  that  "  tasteless  and  leathery"  cheese  is  caused  by  manufacturing 
under  too  high  a  temperature  rather  than  fi-om  high  heating  before  manu- 
facturing. 

506.  Dust  and  Fly  Covers  for  Milk-Pans.— To  keep  dust  out  of  milk-pans, 
make  hoops  of  ratans,  or  ash  wood,  a  little  larger  than  the  tops  of  the  jJans, 
and  stretch  over  and  sew  on  them  some  thin  cotton  stuff  that  will  not  stop 
the  circulation  of  the  air,  but  will  keep  out  the  flics  and  mites,  and  when  the 
milk  is  cool,  lay  these  covers  over  the  pans.  To  keep  out  flies,  use  mosquito 
netting  or  wire  gauze  instead  of  cloth.  The  wire  gauze  is  a  fine  thing  to 
cover  all  windows  in  fly-time. 

Some  inventive  Connecticut  genius  has  contrived  a  portable,  ventilated 
milk-closet,  which,  from  the  description,  we  should  think  a  very  good  thing, 
but  presume  that  any  ingenious  wood-worker  could  get  up  one  a  little  dif- 
ferent in  form  to  answer  the  same  purpose  ;  and  we  recommend  all  fami- 
lies who  keep  but  one  cow,  to  provide  themselves  with  such  a  convenient 
ventilated  milk-closet ;  or  one  that  will  let  fresh  air  in  and  foul  air  out,  and 
keep  the  milk  safe  from  pestiferous  insects  and  vermin. 

The  following  item  shows  the  benefit  of  keeping  milk  cool :  "  In  sending 


Sec.  28.]  THE  DAIRY.  451 

milk  to  market,  though  it  left  the  dairy  perfectly  sweet,  it  was  often  found 
curdled  on  delivery  to  customers.  To  remedy  tliis,  the  cans  were  covered 
with  thick  cotton  cloth,  and  this  was  wet  with  salt  water.  In  this  way  the 
difficulty  was  entirely  obviated." 

507.  Necessity  and  Value  of  a  Family  Dairy  Room. — Every  farm-house 
should  have  a  room  for  milk,  solely  devoted  to  that,  and  nothing  else.  In 
very  dry  soils  this  can  be  made  easiest  and  best  in  the  cellar,  provided  it 
has  a  chimney  ventilator  of  ample  dimensions  running  to  the  top  of  the 
house,  which  can  be  easily  made  when  building,  and  no  railk-room  is  perfect 
without  such  ventilation,  and  in  our  opinion  the  cause  of  bad  butter  is  as 
much  in  the  want  of  a  suitable  place  to  stand  the  milk,  and  a  cool,  sweet 
room  to  store  the  butter,  as  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  It  is  all  import- 
ant, also,  that  the  milk-room  should  be  of  an  unvarying  temperature,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  kept  so  without  extra  expenditure  over  the  profitable  advantage. 
An  attachment  to  the  ice-house  is  the  best  place  for  storing  butter.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  good  plan  for  a  family  dairj'-room  : 

Build  very  convenient  to  the  kitchen,  but  not  adjoining,  an  eight-inch  wall 
brick  building,  eight  feet  by  sixteen  feet  inside,  with  a  door  in  one  end  and 
a  window  in  the  other,  and  arch  it  over  ten  feet  high  in  the  center,  and  plas- 
ter it  all  over  ontside  with  water-proof  cement.  The  top  should  be  covered 
with  a  coat  of  asphaltum,  if  to  be  had,  or  else  with  sand  and  tar.  Give  the 
inside  a  coat  of  hard-finished  plaster,  and  paint  that  well,  so  that  it  can  be 
washed.  Where  there  is  a»  good  chance  for  drainage,  the  walls  may  be 
dropped  two  feet  below  the  surface,  or  the  whole  built  into  a  hillside,  in 
which  case  there  can  be  no  door  nor  window  in  one  end,  but  there  cau  and 
must  be  a  large  chimney  ventilator.  Make  the  floor  of  cement  or  flag- 
ging-stones, and,  if  not  too  expensive,  use  stone  shelves,  built  in  the  wall. 
The  outside  is  to  be  banked  up  with  earth  and  sodded  over  so  as  to  form 
a  grass}'  mound,  forming,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  cave  cellar.  A  retaining  wall 
must  be  built  each  side  of  the  door-way,  and  a  shed  over  it,  with  wire- 
screened  windows  in  the  door  for  ventilation,  the  sash  being  hinged  to  swing 
down  and  fasten  to  the  lower  half  of  the  door.  Such  a  room  will  keep  milk 
sweet  and  of  even  temperature,  and  is  not  more  expensive  than  a  good 
frame  building. 

The  place  where  the  milk  is  set,  churning  done,  or  butter  stored,  should 
be  absolutely  sweet,  clean,  and  deodorized  of  every  smell.  Water — cold 
water,  and  its  liberal  application — is  an  essential  about  the  dairy-house,  and 
ontside  of  it;  upon  everything  ever  used,  hot  water,  soap  and  sand,  and  hard 
hand-work,  to  make  absolute  purity,  are  the  essential  requisites  to  produce 
good  butter.  Every  woman  should  assure  all  the  "men-folks,"  and  often 
rei^eat  it  to  them,  that  no  woman  can  make  good  butter  if  the  cows  are  not 
provided  with  suitable  food.  EecoUect,  food  and  shelter — airy,  roomy, 
clean  stables,  summer  and  winter;  none  of  your  milking  in  the  road,  among 
the  hogs  ;  setting  milk  for  cream  where  the  air  is  scented  with  hog-pen  efflu- 
via, or  any  other  but  that  of  roses,  mint,  and  new-mown  hay. 


452  DOMESTIO  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 


Food  is  the  first,  purity  the  second,  teuiperaturo  the  third  requisite  in 
making  sweet  yellow  butter. 

The  Lest  way  to  make  dairy  shelves  is  to  use  strips  sawed  one  by  two 
inches,  and  set  so  that  the  pans  will  stand  upon  their  edges,  or  else  place 
thcni  wide  enough  apart  to  receive  the  botioui  of  the  pan,  having  cross 
strips  nailed  in  to  support  the  sides,  so  that  the  pans  would  only  touch  at 
four  points,  and  so  cause  the  milk  to  cool  quickly,  and  save  lahor  in  keeping 
the  shelves  clean ;  for  a  pan  of  warm  milk  set  upon  a  flat  slielf  in  a  room  a 
little  damp,  or  when  the  shelf  has  just  been  wasiied,  will  generate  mold — 
certainly  more  than  when  set  on  strips,  as  here  recommended. 

A  Mr.  Motley,  of  Massachusetts,  has  a  dairy-room  in  the  cellar  of  his  house, 
and  arranged  to  be  ventilated  by  an  area  window,  which  is  covered  with 
wire  netting.  The  floor  is  cemented,  and  of  course  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
Plain,  broad  wooden  shelves  around  the  four  sides  of  the  room  hold  the  pans 
of  milk.  A  marble-top  table,  standing  in  the  center  of  the  apartment,  is 
used  for  working  the  butter,  and  preparing  it  for  market.  The  milk  is. 
churned  in  one  of  the  well-known  Crowell  "  thermometer  churns,"  of  a 
capacity  of  thirty  gallons.  A  small  air-tight  wood  stove  is  used  to  insure 
an  equable  temperature  in  winter.  About  100  pounds  of  butter  are  made 
weekly,  which  is  sold  to  gentlemen  in  Boston  at  fifty  cents  per  pound.  It 
is  put  up  in  neat  quarter-pound  rolls,  prettily  stamped,  and  sent  to  town  in 
tin  boxes,  fitted  with  shelves  inside  to  keep  the  layci-s  of  rolls  separate. 
As  to  the  delicious  qualify  of  the  butter,  that  is  proved  by  the  price. 

508.  How  to  Make  Winter  Butter.— If  cows  are  fed  with  roots,  meal,  or 
even  whole  corn,  which,  by-the-by,  is  only  to  be  tolerated  when  corn  is 
worth  less  than  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel,  there  will  be  no  complaint  of 
poor  white  butter,  unless  the  fault  is  in  the  churning  or  the  keeping  of  the 
milk.  Milk,  in  winter,  should  be  kept  about  the  same  temperature  as  in 
summer-time,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  unskimmed  merely  because 
"  it  is  taking  no  harm."  Take  off  the  cream,  and  if  not  enough  for  an  im- 
mediate churning,  let  it  be  kept  cool  and  sweet  till  enough  is  accumulated, 
when,  if  it  is  necessary  to  sour  it,  it  may  be  put  in  a  warm  place  and  done 
all  at  once.  When  put  info  the  churn,  it  should  be  at  a  temperature  of  62 
degrees,  and  if  kept  at  that,  yellow  butter  will  be  got  in  thirty  miuutea  by' 
churning  moderately,  if  your  cows  have  had  a  little  salt  every  day. 

509.  Butter  Colored  to  Order.— Are  the  butter-eaters  of  Xew  York  .nware 
that  butter,  so  far  as  color  is  concerned,  is  made  to  order  as  much  as  their 
boots,  hats,  and  coats?  "We  assure  them  that  such  is  the  fact,  as  is  well 
known  to  all  dealers,  and  should  be  known  to  all  consumers,  and  by  them 
wholly  discountenanced.  Our  present  notice  of  the  fact  arises  from  hear- 
ing a  woman  bitterly  denouncing  the  grocer  who  sent  her  "  white  butter." 
After  she  had  selected  some  '•  nice  yellow"  butter,  at  two  cents  higher  price 
per  pound,  and  retired,  the  grocer  asked  ns  to  test  the  samples.  We  found 
the  rejected  white  butter  as  sweet  and  fresh  as  could  be  desired,  and  worth 
twenty  per  cent,  more  than  the  other,  according  to  our  taste.     The  other. 


Seo.  28.]  THE   DAIRY.  453 

however,  was  pretty  to  look  at.  It  was  of  a  deep  yellow  hue,  but  we  at 
once  declared  that  it  was  made  so  by  anuatto.  "  Yes,"  said  the  grocer, 
"3'ou  are  right.  That  butter  was  made  to  order  for  me  for  just  such  cus- 
tomers as  that  woman,  who  do  not  know  good  butter  by  the  taste — they 
judge  only  by  looks.  It  actually  cost  me  two  cents  a  pound  less  than  the 
other.     You  saw  how  I  sold  it." 

A  butter-maker,  writing  to  the  author  about  "  coloring  butter  to  order," 
says: 

''  We  think  j'ou  K^ew  Yorkers  possessed  of  remai'kable  tastes,  if  you  really 
prefer  butter  made  yellow  to  order  instead  of  that  of  a  natural  color,  though 
perfectly  sweet.  If  it  is  the  color  instead  of  the  quality  that  you  care  for, 
we  shall  have  to  solicit  a  sample  of  the  shade  desired,  and  order  more  dye- 
stuff.  "We  shall  have  to  make  butter  for  home  use  and  for  city  use,  as  no 
one  in  the  country  will  eat  colored  butter  in  winter  except  as  the  milk 
colors  it.  There  is  but  very  little  in  the  country  at  this  season  that  an- 
swers the  orders  from  the  city,  except  such  as  has  been  fixed  up  to  suit  your 
market." 

Xow,  butter-eaters,  yoii  hear  how  yellow  butter  is  made  "  fresh  from  the 
cow"  in  winter,  and  how  much  you  pay  for  the  privilege  of  eating  "  annatto 
and  other  dyestuffs." 

510.  Rules  for  Salting  Butterf — First,  none  but  the  very  purest  rock-salt, 
or  manufactured  salt,  prepared  especially  for  the  dairy,  should  ever  be  used. 
An  experienced  Scotch  dairyman  says : 

"Take  the  best  crystal  salt,  wash  it,  dissolve,  strain,  settle,  and  turn  off; 
boil  it  down  in  some  perfectly  clean  iron  vessel,  skim  as  boiling;  when 
stirred  off  dry,  it  will  produce  fine  salt,  white  as  the  drifting  snow,  which, 
if  stirred  up  in  a  glass  of  water,  will  produce  no  sediment,  and  will  be  dis- 
tinct from  any  mineral  or  other  possible  impurity." 

Three  experienced  dairywomen  in  Berkshire  County,  Mass.,  give  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  quantity : 

"  No.  1.  A  teacupful  of  salt  to  six  pounds  of  butter. 

"  No.  2.  One  pint  of  salt  to  fifteen  pounds  of  butter. 

"  No.  3.  An  ounce  of  salt  to  a  pound  of  butter." 

Salting  the  cream  before  churning  has  been  advocated  as  a  good 
practice.  To  every  quart  of  cream,  as  it  is  skimmed  and  put  in  the  pot  to 
accumulate  until  sufficient  for  churning,  add  a  tablespoonful  of  salt.  It 
is  stated  that  the  time  of  churning  is  very  much  lessened  by  salting  the 
cream. 

511.  Packing  and  Preserving  Butter. — A  patent  has  been  granted  to  "W. 
Clark,  of  London,  England,  for  a  new  method  of  treating  butter.  The  but- 
ter is  worked  in  the  usual  manner,  and  is  then  placed  between  linen  cloths 
and  submitted  to  severe  pressure,  which  removes  the  whey  and  water.  It 
is  then  covered  with  clean  white  paper,  which  has  received  a  coating  on 
both  sides  with  a  preparation  composed  of  the  white  of  eggs  and  fifteen 
grains  of  salt  to  each  egg.     The  paper  is  dried,  and  then  heated  before  the 


454  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

lire  or  with  a  hot  iron  just  before  it  is  applied  to  the  lumps  of  butter.  It  is 
claimed  that  butter  treated  in  this  way  will  keep  two  months  without  salt 
in  a  cool  cellar.  Any  ordinary  cheese-press,  or  the  presses  accompanying 
the  portable  cider-mills,  now  common,  will  answer  the  purpose.  Pressing 
removes  the  water,  and  the  prepared  paper  excludes  tlie  air. 

Earthen  jars,  made  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  fifty-pounds  tub  (not  a 
firkin),  and  put  in  a  wooden  tub,  made  to  fit,  with  a  head  in  each  end,  are 
recommended  as  an  improvement  for  packing  butter.  If  desirable,  the 
wooden  tub  may  be  made  large  enough  to  fill  with  salt  between  the  two,  or 
can  be  made  close.  The  heads  should  be  made  close  to  the  butter-pot  in 
either  case.  Butter  packed  in  this  way  will  keep  sweet  any  length  of  time, 
if  well  made,  while  in  the  present  mode  of  packing,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten,  it  will  taste  of  the  tub  after  being  packed  two  months.  The  first  cost 
of  the  two  is  about  one  dollar,  and  after  being  sent  to  market,  they  can  bo 
returned  a  distance  of  300  miles  at  a  cost  of  about  thirty  cents.  We  fear  the 
expense  of  this  improvement  will  prevent  its  general  adoption,  though  we 
can  perceive  no  reason  to  doubt  its  efticacy. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  if  butter  could  be  rendered  absolutely  pure,  it 
would  keep,  if  excluded  from  the  air,  as  well  as  sweet-oil.  That  it  is  hardly 
ever  pure  may  be  shown  by  a  sample  melted,  and  put  in  a  bottle,  to  stand  a 
few  hours  in  a  wai-m  place,  when  the  oily  part  will  float  upon  the  top  of 
water  or  other  impurities  it  may  contain. 

512.  How  to  Cool  Butter  without  Ice.— The  following  plan  of  cooling  but- 
ter is  founded  upon  the  scientific  principle  of  cooling  a  body  by  evapora- 
tion. Fill  a  deep  plate  or  flat  dish  with  water,  and  in  that  set  a  trivet,  such 
as  are  often  used  upon  the  ironing-table,  to  hold  a  plate  of  butter  above  the 
water.  Cover  the  butter-plate  with  a  porous,  earthen  flower-pot  that  must 
have  its  edge  immersed  in  water,  and  a  cork  in  the  bole  in  the  bottom. 
Now  dash  water  upon  the  pot,  and  repeat  several  times  as  it  evaporates 
during  the  day,  keeping  it  in  a  cool  place,  and  at  supper-time  you  may 
bring  your  butter  to  the  table  as  delightfully  firm  as  you  would  from  an 
ice-house. 

513.  Milking  by  Machinery. — If  anything  has  been  or  may  be  invented  to 
relieve  woman  from  the  tiresome  labor  of  milking,  it  will  be  hailed  with  in- 
tense satisfaction.  We  therefore  chronicle  the  fact  of  the  recent  invention 
of  a  milking  machine.  The  manner  of  its  construction  is  simple  enough. 
It  consists  of  two  diaphragm  pumps  made  of  tin  and  India  rubber,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  easily  taken  apart  for  washing.  The  teat-cups  are  made 
tapering  to  fit  any  size,  and  attached  by  flexible  joints,  so  as  to  be  spread 
apart  to  suit  wide-spreading  teats,  or  those  more  contracted.  It  is  possible 
that  it  will  prove  a  very  useful  invention.  If  so,  we  presume  that  farmers 
will  hear  more  of  it. 

The  machine  is  attached  to  a  pail,  and  set  on  a  stool  under  the  udder,  the 
four  teats  inserted  in  four  tubes,  and  the  pump  operated,  and  the  milk  drawn 
and  conveyed  by  a  conductor  into  the  pail,  the  inventor  says  in  a  marvel- 


Sec.  2S.]  THE    DAIRY.  455 

ously  short  time— say  three  minutes  for  an  ordinary  cow  ;  milking  entirely 
clean,  without  injurj'  and  to  her  advantage,  as  it  is  beneficial  to  have  the 
work  done  quickly,  and  the  machine  is  intended  to  do  it  quicker  than  it  is 
possible  by  hand.  It  is  said  also  that  cows  gently  stand  this  machine  milk- 
ing ;  the  contrivance  is  ingenious,  and  will  work.  Its  practical  utility  wo 
can  not  vouch  for. 

514.  How  to  3Iake  Cows  give  Down. — We  have  often  heard  that  one  man 
could  lead  a  horse  to  Avater,  but  two  could  not  make  him  drink.  The  great 
mistake  of  most  people  in  the  management  of  horses,  cows,  and  even  men, 
is  trying  to  make  them  do  things  by  force  instead  of  milder  means.  The 
best  way  to  make  a  cow  give  down  is  to  coax  her.  Patience  and  perse- 
verance will  generally  overcome  the  difficulty  and  effect  a  cure.  We  have 
seen  cows  that  had  been  trained  to  being  fed  when  milked  until  they  would 
only  give  down  when  bribed  to  do  so.  Strapping  up  the  fore  leg  of  a  cow 
with  a  strap  slipped  over  the  bent  knee  so  that  she  can  not  walk  until 
milked,  will  sometimes  cure  her  refractory  disposition.  If  a  cow  will  not 
give  down  by  gentle  means,  it  is  of  no  use  to  try  to  make  her  do  it. 

515.  Milk  Farms— Product,  Price,  Profit.— Milk  for  Cities— Condensed  Milk. 
— The  entire  business  of  many  farmers,  near  cities,  is  producing  milk  for  sale. 
It  is  sent  by  railway  more  than  lUO  miles.  The  average  value  upon  the 
roads  that  supply  New  York  may  be  three  cents  a  quart,  ranging  about  as 
follows,  as  a  general  thing:  for  five  months,  at  2  cents;  one  month,  2i  cents  ; 
two  months,  3  cents  ;  four  months,  3i  cents.  Freight  will  average  two 
cents  a  quart,  besides  a  great  loss  of  cans.  It  costs  the  farmer  most  to  pro- 
duce milk  in  April.  The  cost  of  winter  feed,  5  lbs.  of  meal  and  15  lbs.  of 
hay  per  day.  The  annual  average  product  of  good  cows  would  be  $00  each. 
If  cream  only  is  sold,  say  10  quarts  per  week  at  15  cents,  and  9  lbs.  of 
"  skim  cheese"  at  8  cents,  will  make  a  cow  yield  $2  22  per  week. 

The  yield  of  milk  of  extraordinary  cows  has  been,  for  one,  15i  quarts  a 
day  for  150  days;  for  another,  1-li  quarts  a  day  for  six  months,  sold  at  3i 
cents  a  quart,  producing  $107,  from  one  cow,  fed  on  grass  and  meal. 

The  income  of  an  Illinois  cheese  and  butter  dairy,  owned  by  Mr.  Savory, 
of  De  Kalb  County,  is  given  as  follows,  in  a  poor,  dry  season  :  10,500  pounds 
of  cheese,  at  10  cents,  $1,050  ;  500  pounds  of  butter,  at  U  cents,  $70 ;  50 
calves,  at  $1  50,  $75  ;  whey  and  sour  milk  (estimated),  $50  ;  total  income, 
$1,215.  De.  :  50  cows — to  getting  100  tuns  of  hay,  $150 ;  care,  milking,  etc., 
$200;  two  hired  girls,  30  weeks,  and  board,  $180;  interest  on  cash  value  of 
cows,  $100.  Total  cost,  $630— $24  per  cow ;  and  taking  value  of  feed  and 
labor  into  account,  was  perhaps  as  profitable  as  a  New  York  milk  farm. 
See  1"  41,  etc. 

Condensed  Milk. — There  is  one  method  of  sending  milk  to  the  cities, 
lately  adopted,  that  will  enable  farmers  living  beyond  the  limit  of  shipping 
fresh  milk,  to  send  it  to  market.  It  can  be  done  upon  the  same  principle  as 
associated  cheese  dairies.  See  T  518.  There  are  two  modes:  the  product 
of  one,  called  "  condensed  milk,"  resembles  ricli,  thick  cream ;  the  other. 


456  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

called  "  concentrated  milk,"  resembles  and  is  composed  in  part  of  dry,  white 
suorar.     Tiie  former  has  nothing  added,  but  much  taken  away. 

The  process  of  condensing  milk  was  invented  by  Gail  Borden,  Jun.  (him- 
self an  octogenarian).  The  first  manufactory  was  established  at  Burrville, 
Litchfield  Co.,  Conn.,  if  we  remember  rightly,  about  1854-55,  and  is  still  in 
successful  operation,  conducted  by  'Wm.  Borden.  Another  establishment 
has  since  been  started  at  Wassaic,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Harlem  Rail- 
road, So  miles  north  of  New  York.  Tliis  is  conducted  bj'  the  inventor  liim- 
self,  whose  residence  is  at  that  place,  where  parties  desirous  to  commence 
similar  operations  can  obtain  the  necessary  information.  The  product  of  this 
invention  furnishes  to  residents  in  cities  wlio  have  a  taste  for  pure  milk  all  that 
they  can  reasonably  desire.  The  process  of  condensation  not  only  separates 
the  water  from  the  more  solid  elements  of  the  milk,  but  absolutely  frees  it 
from  all  impurities,  even  including  the  unpleasant  odor  that  is  usually  com- 
bined with  the  milk  of  cows,  and  which  sometimes,  when  they  jye  unhealthy, 
is  exceedingly  offensive.  Samples  of  milk  from  all  the  dairies  arc  constantly 
subjected  to  tests  to  indicate  the  quality  and  detect  impurity.  As  it  is  brought 
in  from  the  farms,  it  is  emptied  through  fine  strainers  into  tin  cooling  vats. 
These  must  lie  placed  in  running  water  or  cooled  with  ice.  The  first  jjrocess 
in  the  operation  of  condensing  milk  is  to  free  the  natural  milk  of  all  its  animal 
heat;  and  during  this  cooling,  if  there  is  any  sediment  that  was  not  removed 
by  the  strainers,  it  is  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  vats  and  igectud.  The  milk 
is  then  heated  by  steam  nearly  up  to  the  boiling-point.  This  brings  up  a  very 
small  per-centage  of  cream  that  makes  butter.  The  milk  is  now  ready  to  com- 
mence the  process  of  condensation,  and  is  drawn  bj-  an  e.xhaust-pipo  into  a 
steam-boiler  heated  by  coils  of  pipe  which  raise  the  temperature  to  a  given  de- 
gree, converting  the  water  into  vapor  which  fills  the  upper  part  of  the  boiler 
from  which  it  is  pumped  ofl';  and  as  it  is  discharged  into  the  air,  it  gives  out 
a  fetid  odor  almost  equal  to  the  swill-milk  of  Xew  York.  This  pumping  is 
continued  until  this  odor  is  exhausted,  and  until  so  much  of  the  water  has 
been  separated  from  the  milk,  that  when  it  is  once  cooled  again  it  has  the 
appearance  of  thick,  smooth  cream.  It  is  then  packed  in  cans  for  transporta- 
tion; and  we  see  no  reason  why  milk  could  not  be  put  up  in  this  way  upon 
the  prairies  of  Illinois  as  well  as  the  pastures  of  Dutchess  County. 

For  many  purposes  tiie  condensed  milk  is  used  in  the  same  condition  ;  for 
ice-creams,  eating  upon  fruit,  and  many  culinary  purposes,  it  is  delicious. 

"When  milk  is  desired  in  its  ordinary  condition,  add  water  until  the  con- 
densed milk  is  thoroughly  combined  with  it,  and  it  is  like  good,  rich,  fresh 
milk,  except  that  it  has  lost  a  little  of  that  piquancy  which  is  found  in  some 
'•pure  milk."  and  which  some  city  people  seem  to  relish. 

The  advantages  to  the  farmer  of  this  invention  he  will  readily  understand. 
A  n)ilk-coiidensing  factory  established  in  any  neighborhood,  as  it  may  be 
wherever  there  is  a  i)ure  stream  of  water,  would  i)rove  as  grout  a  conveni- 
ence as  a  grist-mill,  and  more  advantageous,  because  he  can  sell  his  grain 
in  the  rough  state,  but  can  not  dispose  of  his  milk  unless  it  is  converted  into 


Sec.  2S.]  THE   DAIRY.— CIIEESE-MAKHSTG.  457 

some  condensed  product.  Tlie  advantage  of  selling  milk  instead  of  convert- 
ing it  into  butter  or  cheese,  every  farmer  can  calculate  for  himself,  upon  the 
basis  that  it  will  require  foyr  quarts  of  milk  for  one  pound  of  cheese,  or 
fourteen  quarts  for  ono  pound  of  butter,  taking  the  avcragj  product  of  cows 
and  average  process  of  manufocturc.  If  intended  for  a  condensing  factory 
in  the  immediate  noigliborliood,  the  farmer  would  be  enabled  to  carry  the 
milk  directly  from  the  stable. 

Another  advantage  would  be  gained  in  the  saving  of  cans,  many  of  which 
sent  to  cities  are  lost  in  spite  of  all  the  care  of  the  owners.  The  establish- 
ment of  such  factories  will  open  up  new  fields  of  industry  in  many  parts  of 
I  ho  country,  adding  wealth,  comtbrt,  and  happiness  to  farmers'  families. 
We  urge  them  all  to  consider  the  subject,  and  compare  with  other  products 
of  the  dairy  this  new  one  of  condensed  milk. 

510.  Cheese— How  to  Make  It.— The  following  directions  are  given  by  Ed- 
win Pitcher,  of  Martinsburg,  N.  Y.,  a  noted  maker  of  good  cheese : 

"  The  way  to  make  a  mild,  rich,  good-flavored,  sound  cheese  is  to  work 
the  curd  carefully,  so  as  not  to  start  the  white  whey,  or,  in  other  words, 
work  out  the  cream ;  second,  cook  it  well ;  salt  even,  and  enough  to  make  it 
good  flavored ;  press  it  well,  and  keep  it  cool  and  dvy  when  made.  A 
neglect  in  part  will  spoil  the  whole.  We  set  our  milk  86  degrees,  as  nearly 
as  we  can,  and  put  in  rennet  enough  to  bring  the  curd  in  half  an  hour. 

"  We  use  a  cheese-cutter.  Cut  the  curd  carefully  over  once,  and  then  lot 
it  stand  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  till  the  whey  begins  to  rise;  then  work  it 
line  with  a  cheese-cutter;  then  put  hot  water  enough  under  the  tin  vat  to 
raise  the  heat  to  90  degrees.  Stir  often,  so  as  not  to  let  it  pack  down.  We 
then  dip  off  about  one  third  of  the  whey,  and  increase  the  heat  to  about 
102  degrees,  and  keep  it  at  that  heat  till  it  is  well  cooked,  keeping  it  fine  all 
the  lime.  When  it  is  done,  it  will  fall  apart  in  the  hand  like  wheat.  We 
dip  out  of  the  tin  vat  (when  it  is  cooled  down  to  90  degrees)  into  a  sink,  and 
when  the  curd  is  dry  put  in  a  teacupful  of  salt  curd,  enough  to  make  fifteen 
pounds  after  it  is  pressed.  K  the  curd  is  a  little  too  soft,  put  in  a  little  more 
salt  to  harden  it.  We  cool  in  the  vat,  in  hot  weather,  by  putting  in  cold 
water  under  the  vat,  to  90  degrees,  before  dipping  out.  I  think  it  hurts  the 
cheese  very  much  to  dip  it  out  too  hot. 

"My  cheese-room  is  plastered,  and  I  let  down  my  windows  from  the  top 
in  hot  weather,  and  I  have  a  ventilator  in  the  center  overhead.  The  floor 
is  matched  and  made  tight,  so  as  to  shut  up  the  room  in  cool  weather,  with 
seven  trap-doors  to  let  in  the  air  when  necessary.  I  think  it  essential, 
in  making  good  cheeses,  to  keep  them  cool.  The  cheese-rooui  should  never 
be  over  75  or  80  degrees,  and  it  is  better  not  over  70  degrees.  I  use  cold 
water  on  the  floor,  and  a  large  piece  of  ice  in  a  pan  on  the  counter  if  the 
weather  is  too  hot.  Keeping  cool  is  a  great  cure  for  almost  everything.  It 
saves  cheese  from  fermenting  and  becoming  strong.  You  can  not  very  well 
cook  your  cheese  too  much  in  May  or  June,  and  you  must  be  sure  and  keep 
your  rennet  sweet." 


45S  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY.  [Chap.  IV. 

A  first-ratc  clieese-maker  of  Herkimer  County,  N.  Y.,  gives  the  follow- 
ing as  licr  practice : 

"I  set  the  milk  at  90  degrees,  in  spring  and  fall,  and  SG  degrees  in  hot 
weather.  Heat  up  three  times — first  90  degrees,  then  95  degrees,  and  last 
100  degrees.  I  put  about  one  teacupful  of  salt  to  sixteen  pounds  of  curd, 
and  use  much  care  in  breaking  it  up  and -working;  cutting  at  first  wiih  a 
dairy -kniie  of  four  blades,  and  using  the  knife  with  one  hand  during  iho 
whole  operation,  taking  particular  care  not  to  squeeze  the  curd  in  any  way, 
but  pass  one  hand  under,  and  lifting  gently,  and  letting  it  fall  off  the  hand 
and  between  the  fingers,  and  with  the  other  keep  the  knife  in  motion  in  the 
curd,  cutting  it  as  fine  as  possible  by  the  time  it  is  ready  for  salting. 

"Thought  and  care  are  essential  in  all  the  various  operations.  Intense 
interest  and  anxiety  are  necessary  in  order  to  do  all  these  things  well,  for 
they  influence  the  texture,  flavor,  and  quality  of  the  cheese. 

"  Rknnet. — The  stomach  of  the  calf  should  be  taken  when  empty  (no 
curd  in  it) — care  taken  not  to  get  dirt  on  it — and,  without  rinsing  or  wash- 
ing, salted  inside  and  out  with  one  teacupful  of  salt  to  a  rennet,  and  placed 
in  an  earthen  dish.  It  should  lie  in  the  salt  two  days,  then  be  stretched 
and  dried  upon  a  stick  in  the  form  of  a  hoop.  When  dried,  take  it  off  the 
stick,  and  place  it  in  a  tight  sack  for  use.  Those  prepared  one  season  arc 
not  to  l)e  used  till  the  next. 

"When  rennets  are  to  be  used,  put  three  in  an  earthen  vessel;  then  lake 
two  gallons  of  water,  put  one  quart  of  salt  in  it,  boil  and  skim,  and  cool  till 
niilk-warm.  Then  pour  it  upon  them,  and  in  one  week  the  liipior  will  l,o 
fit  for  use.  One  teacupful  of  it  will  curdle  the  milk  of  two  niilkings  from 
fifteen  cows,  fit  to  break  up  in  forty  minutes." 

An  cxi^erienccd  cheese-maker  of  Warner,  N.  II.,  gives  her  method  as 
follows : 

"I  first  scald  the  tub,  then  strain  the  milk  into  it  as  soon  as  brought  from 
milking.  Next  put  in  sufiicicnt  rennet,  the  quantity  depending  upon  tho 
quality  to  fetch  the  milk  to  a  curd  in  from  forty  to  sixty  minutes.  The  curd 
is  then  dipped  carefull}'  into  the  basket  for  draining  until  the  next  morning. 
The  morning's  milk  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  (after  tho  thorough 
scalding  of  the  tub).  The  curd,  when  formed,  is  dipped  in  with  that  of  the 
previous  evening;  then  left  to  drain,  with  an  occasional  stirring  with  a  knife 
or  slice.  I  prefer  a  knife,  as  it  is  not  so  likely  to  injure  tho  curd.  Wlicu 
snfticicntly  drained,  which  it  will  be  by  nine  or  ten  o'clock  if  properly  at- 
tended to,  I  lie  together  the  ends  of  the  cloth,  and  hang  in  the  cellar  until 
the  succeeding  day,  when  the  curd  of  that  day  is  prc]>ared  in  the  manner  of 
the  previous  clay's  curd.  It  is  now  ready  for  scalding.  I  pour  boiling  hot 
M-ater,  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  for  ten  pounds  of  curd,  into  the  tub ;  next 
slice  in  the  curd  from  the  basket,  handling  it  carefully,  so  as  not  to  disturb 
the  white  whey.  The  curd  is  next  brought  from  the  cellar  and  sliced  in  tho 
same  manner.  It  is  put  in  lastly,  for  being  older  it  does  not  require  as  much 
scaldinfj  as  the  newer  curd.     I  now  let  it  stand  from  five  to  ten  minutes, 


Seo.  28.]  THE  DAIRY.— CHEESE-MAKING.  459 

from  the  time  the  last  slice  is  dropped  in,  tlien  dip  back  into  the  basket,  curd 
and  water  together,  to  drain.  I  check  and  stir  it  up  Avith  the  knife  four  or 
five  times,  when  it  is  ready  for  grinding.  The  mill  is  placed  upon  the 
cheese  tongs  over  the  tub  ;  the  curd  is  then  sliced  into  the  mill  and  ground, 
when  it  is  ready  for  the  seasoning,  which  consists  of  a  common-sized  teacup- 
ful  of  rock-salt  and  one  teaspoonful  of  saltpeter  for  every  twenty  pounds  of 
curd.  It  is  thoroughly  mixed — not  squeezed — with  the  hands.  It  is  then 
ready  for  pressing,  which  is  done  gently  until  night,  when  the  cheese  is 
turned,  cloth  changed,  and  jrat  back  to  pressing  with  sufficient  weight,  where 
it  remains  until  the  next  cheese  is  ready  for  the  press." 

"\Ve  find  in  the  best  large  cheese-dairies  of  this  country,  that  where  the 
curd  is  scalded  by  steam,  that  the  right  temperature  varies  among  different 
cheese  manufacturers;  thus  Mr.  O.  S.  Curaings,  of  Trenton  Falls,  N.  Y., 
scalds  to  lOi  degrees;  Mr.  A.  Coon,  of  Eussia,  from  lOS  to  110  degrees ;  Mr 
"W".  Buck,  102  to  101  degrees ;  and  Mr.  S.  JST.  Andrews,  100  to  102  degrees. 

517.  English  Cheese-Making.— The  method  of  heating  the  milk  by  the  ap- 
plication of  steam  to  the  cheese-vat,  is  a  great  improvement  over  the  English 
method.  So  is  the  method  of  separating  the  curd  from  the  whey  by  strain- 
ing it  through  a  cloth  much  more  expeditious.  In  Cheshire  the  whey  is  re- 
moved by  pressing  down  a  flat-bottomed  pan  gently  on  the  curd  in  the 
cheese-tub  and  allowing  it  to  fill.  "When  the  curd  is  thus  partially  freed 
from  the  whey,  it  is  again  gently  broken  and  allowed  to  settle  and  sep- 
arate and  the  whey  is  boiled  out  slowly,  the  curd  being  placed  on  one 
side  of  the  tub,  -which  is  slightly  raised,  and  a  board  is  placed  on  the  curd 
with  heavy  weights  on  top  to  press  out  the  whey. 

The  curd  is  then  cut  into  pieces  six  or  eight  inches  square,  and  again 
pressed  with  heavier  weights.  When  as  much  whey  as  possible  is  removed 
in  this  way,  the  curd  is  placed  in  a  vat  and  gently  broken.  It  is  then  put 
under  the  press  and  a  slight  pressure  applied  at  first,  wliich  is  gradually  in- 
creased till  no  more  whey  can  be  pressed  out.  To  facilitate  the  flow  of  the 
whey,  the  cheese  is  pierced  with  skewers.  This  preliminary  pressing  occu- 
pies four  or  five  hours.  The  cheese  is  then  taken  out  of  the  press,  broken 
up  again  very  fine,  salted,  put  up  in  the  vat  again,  and  pressed  under  a 
heavy  press  for  three  or  four  days,  clean  and  dry  cloths  being  put  round  the 
cheese  as  the  old  ones  become  wet. 

This  is  a  tedious  process,  and  we  think  some  of  the  operations  of  the 
American  process  might  be  adopted  in  England  with  advantage.  The  es- 
sential point  of  diff'erence  is  the  scalding;  this  renders  less  salt  and  less 
pressing  necessary.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  preserving  action  of  the 
salt  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  absence  of  whey  in  the  cheese  when  it  is 
applied  ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  Cheshire  dairymen  press  their 
curd  before  the  salt  is  added.  Many  people  prefer  cheese  made  by  the 
English  process. 

518.  Cheese-makiag  by  Assoriated  Interest  in  Manufactories. — This  system 
was  originated,  we  believe,  by  Jesse  Williams,  of  Rome,  Oneida,  Co.,  N.  Y., 


4(30 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 


[Chap.  IV. 


sonicwlicro  about  the  year  1S50.  Since  tliat  time  it  lias'been  jrreatl}'  extended 
in  Central  and  Northern  New  York,  and  considerably  in  Northern  Oliio.  It 
is  like  the  uianufacfuring  of  any  other  iiirni  produce,  except  that  this  is 
usually  carried  on  upon  joint  account  of  the  producers  of  the  raw  material. 
Tlie  success  of  this  mode  of  cliecso-making  has  now  become  fully  cstablislied. 
It  not  only  lessens  the  expense  of  manufacture,  but  improves  the  quality'  of 
the  cheese.  Tiie  establishments  vary  greatly  in  size,  using  the  milk  of  from 
one  hundred  to  fourteen  hundred  cows.  The  business  has  become  so  im- 
portant that  regular  organizations  have  been  effected,  both  in  New  York  and 
Ohio.  To  enable  our  readers  to  consult  with  those  already  engaged  in  the 
business  wc  give  the  following  list,  naming  the  owner  or  superintendent  and 
location  of  a  number  of  establishments  represented  in  a  convention  held  at 
Home  in  January,  1864.  This  list,  though  representing  onl}-  a  portion  of  the 
dairy  interest,  shows  ho%y  the  subject  has  affected  the  minds  of  farmers  in 
the  central  part  of  New  York. 


Names.  Factories  located.      Cows. 

Hugh  Qiiinn Oneida  Co 627 

V\'illiams,  Adams  &  Dewey .  Oneida  Co 350 

G.  W.  Ddvis Oneida  Co 380 

F.  Clark Oneida  Co 350 

Hiram  Bromi Chenango  Co. . .   500 

James  Katbburn Oneida  Co 707 

Charles  Rathburn Oneida  Co 125 

.1.  W.  Broolxs Oneida  Co 320 

Ci   E.  Morse JIadison  Co C50 

J.  Greenfleld Oneida  Co 300 

D.  Ellis Warren,  Miiss. . .  500 

Is  wc  Sliell Herkimer  Co 600 

A.  Anstead Oneida  Co 500 

J.  G.  Coatcs Oneida  Co 300 

Henry  Hill Oneida  Co 500 

G.  W,  Wheeler Oneida  Co 200 

Gold  Creek  Factory Herkimer  Co.  .  .  600 

Collins'  Factory Erie  Co 1,000 

New  Woodstock  Factory .. Madison  Co. . .  .1,200 

F.  Smith Oneida  Co 575 

Crosby  &  Huntington Oneida  Co 510 

G.  B.  Weeks Oneida  Co 640 

H.  L  Ilcse Oneida  Co 1,000 

B.  F.  Stevens Lewis  Co 800 

T.  Tillinghast Cortland  Co 900 

Kenny  &  Frazer Cortland  Co 1,400 

Konie  Cheese  Manuf.  Ass  .Oneida  Co 624 

Wri-lit  &  Williams Oneida  Co 5-50 

Wbittaker  &  Curry Oneida  Co 500 

D.  Thomas OneiJa  Co 500 


Names.  Factories  located.      Cows. 

L.  M.  Dunton Lewis  Co 800 

Asel  Burnham,  Jr Chautauque  Co.  500 

Hanck,  Wilco.'c  &  Co Chautauque  Co.  600 

Clear  Spring  Factory Chautauque  Co.  600 

A.  L.  Fish Herkimer  Co 500 

Sehnser  &  Davis Fulton  Co COO 

Caydatta  Cheese  Factory.  .Montgomery  Co.  6O0 

West  Ejiton  Factory Madison  Co 600 

Miller,  Fowler  &  Co Oneida  Co 800 

R.  U.  Sherman Oneida  Co 130 

Jerome  Bush Lewis  Co 700 

A.  S.  King Oneida  Co 200 

S.  Allen Oneida  Co COO 

Alfred  Buck Oneida  Co 475 

Brown  &  Co Madison  Co 800 

F.  A.  Norton Madison  Co 500 

S.  Conan Madison  Co 600 

Savery  &  Coventry Madison  Co CCQ 

Kirkland  Cheese  Co Oneida  Co 80Q 

J.  L.  Dean Oneida  Co SCO 

Colosse  Cheese  Factory ....  Oswego  Co 600 

Harvey  Farrington Herkimer  Co  . . .  470 

J.  H.  Hubbard Ooeida  Co 40O 

David  Yourden Oneida  Co 160 

Ezra  Barnard Oneida  Co 220 

Asa  Chandler Oneida  Co 270 

J.  M.  Famham I>ewis  Co 897 

David  W.  Wilcox Oneida  Co 750 

Levi  Tanner Oneida  Co 950 

E.  S.  Bennett Oswego  Co 250 


PLATE    XIV. 

(Page  401.) 

This  picture  illustrates  the  subject  upon  which  the  chapter  treats, 
wlierc  it  is  placed  as  a  sign  is  sometimes  shown,  to  indicate  the 
things  within.  It  is  the  sign  of  the  garden.  In  it  were  grown  the 
cabbage,  corn,  cucumbers,  turnips,  tomatoes,  i)umpkins,  potatoes, 
beets,  carrots,  parsneps,  egg-plants,  ornamental  gourds,  onions,  and 
so  on  of  all  the  rest.  It  indicates  some  of  the  subjects  of  this  chap- 
ter, but  not  all.  It  would  require  a  large  picture  to  do  that.  So, 
after  taking  a  glance  at  this,  look  well  at  every  one  of  the  next 
hundred  pages.  Evei:y  paragraph  about  "  The  Garden  and  its 
Fruits"  has  a  deep  interest  to  every  reader.  The  picture  is  only  a 
sort  of  wayside  resting-place  for  tlie  weary  reader's  eye.  It  is  to 
amuse  arid  lead  the  traveler  on  to  more  substantial  fare. 


XIV 


462  THE  GARDEN"  AND  ITS  FEUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

it  will  dissolve  no  more,  and  then  using  that  brine  to  slake  lime.  A  bushel 
of  salt  may  thus  be  mixed  with  three  bushels  of  unslaked  lime  and  the  mix- 
turo  applied  at  the  rate  of  30  to  100  bushels  of  the  slaked  lime  per  aere.  If 
the  lime  after  slaking  is  kept  in  a  pile  under  a  shed,  the  outward  portion 
eflloresees,  and  it  may  be  raked  off  and  put  away  in  barrels  as  it  accunin- 
lates.     The  lime  is  then  in  the  best  possible  eondition  for  use. 

Of  tlic  profits  of  gardens  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Any  one  who  is  fa- 
miliar with  the  operations  of  the  market  gardeners  near  large  cities,  knows 
that  the  business  is  more  profitable  than  ordinary  farming.  There  is  no 
reason  why  many  other  persons  should  not  enjoy  similar  protits. 

There  is  not  one  village  in  ten  in  all  the  Eastern  States  that  is  large 
enough  to  support  a  locomotive  butcher  that  would  not  support  a  good 
market  garden  from  the  first  year  of  its  cstablislimcnt,  the  produce  being 
sent  around  to  the  houses  in  the  same  way  that  the  butcher  sends  his  meat. 
Of  course,  all  the  waste  or  refuse  of  the  garden  must  be  fed  to  the  cow, 
pig,  and  poultry,  and  of  course  the  owner  would  grow  wealthy  faster  than 
the  owner  of  a  large  farm  cultivated  in  the  ordinary  way, 

The  great  secret  of  success  in  market  gardening  lies  in  the  succession 
of  crops.  Heavy  manuring,  thorough  cultivation,  and  a  good  market  arc 
of  course  important  adjuncts,  but  all  of  these  will  not  give  maximum  re- 
sults without  the  gardener's  skill  in  keeping  the  ground  fully  occupied  ;  and 
in  that,  more  than  in  all  other  things,  is  where  not  only  gardencre,  but 
farmers,  fail.  They  keep  too  much  unoccupied  land,  allowing  a  grain  crop, 
oats,  for  instance,  to  be  followed  by  a  crop  of  miserable  weeds  more  worth- 
less than  it  is  easy  to  imagine,  for  they  arc  more  exhausting  than  the  grain, 
and  of  no  use  to  man,  animal,  or  soil.  Land  should  never  be  left  idle.  lu 
a  well-arranged  market  garden  one  thing  succeeds  another  so  rapidly  that 
one  row  of  the  first  crop  is  off  to  day  and  its  successor  growing  in  its  place 
to-morrow.  The  owner  can  not  aftbrd  to  Avait  till  all  is  oflT,  because  by 
planting  one  after  the  other,  he  has  the  ripening  crop  for  sale  in  the  same 
order,  and  thus  secures  the  whole  value  of  the  manure. 

The  work  in  a  market  garden  properly  begins  in  autumn.  There  arc 
several  vegetables  that  must  be  started  at  this  season,  and  all  the  ground 
should  be  manured  cither  then  or  during  the  winter.  Much  of  the  success  of 
the  garden  pecuniarily  depends  upon  liaving  its  products  a  little  anticipate 
the  usual  season.  Potatoes  early  in  the  season  are  worth  two  dollars  a 
bushel.  Three  weeks  later  they  are  down  to  a  dollar  or  less.  There  is  a 
like  falling  off  from  most  other  articles,  though  hardly  anything  fails  to  re- 
turn a  j>aying  price. 

Spinach  is  sown  in  September  and  October  to  furnish  cuttings  in  April 
and  May.  Cabbage  is  sown  about  the  same  time  to  furnish  plants  for  the 
cold  frame,  which  are  ke])t  through  the  winter,  transplanted  in  April,  and 
furnish  heads  in  June.  They  are  put  into  the  frame  in  rows  very  near  to- 
gether in  November,  and  when  the  winter  sets  \n,  are  covered  with  boards, 
removing  only  in  mild  weather  and  increasing  light  and  heat  as  spring  ad- 


Sec.  29.]  PLEASUEE   AND  PROFITS   OF   GAEDEKING.  463 

vaiices,  1111111  the  open  ground  is  in  condition  to  receive  them.  These  are 
called  cold-frame  plants,  and  furnish  heads  about  two  ■weeks  earlier  than  the 
hot-bed  plants  started  in  March.  The  best  varieties  for  this  early  crop  a're 
the  Early  York  and  the  Winnigstadt,  -which  makes  a  very  solid  head  of  ex- 
cellent quality. 

Lettuce  is  also  sown  in  the  fall,  and  -n-ith  a  little  protection  keeps  well 
through  the  winter.  About  the  first  of  March  operations  commence  with 
the  hot-beds.  These  are  prepared  witli  various  quantities  of  manure,  ac- 
cording to  the  heat  required.  The  beds  are  generally  from  four  to  six  feet 
wide,  for  convenience  in  attending  to  the  plants.  They  are  covered  with  a 
sash  about  three  feet  wide,  the  glass  being  not  more  than  seven  by  nine. 
In  these  beds  a  great  variety  of  plants  are  forwarded — cabbage,  tomatoes, 
peppers,  egg-plants,  and  other  early  plants. 

The  whole  ground  is  covered  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  warm,  and  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  allow  a  succession  crop.  In  the  first  course  come  radishes, 
spinach,  lettuce,  cabbage,  potatoes,  peas,  turnips,  corn,  kohl-rabi. 

Early  potatoes  are  off  in  time  for  late  cabbage  ;  early  radishes  in  time  for 
celery,  sweet  corn,  or  cabbage.  Early  peas  are  always  followed  by  a  crop 
of  something  that  will  ripen  before  frost.  Earl 3'  corn  may  be  followed  by  tur- 
nips, or  by  spinach  for  spring,  which  will  be  off  in  time  for  tomatoes.  Beets 
are  followed  by  celery,  and  peppei-s  are  transplanted  among  the  heads  of  let- 
tuce a  week  or  two  before  they  go  to  market ;  or  squashes  or  cucumbers  are 
planted.  Quassia  chips,  steeped  in  hot  water,  and  that  sprinkled  upon  the 
vines,  are  found  to  be  efficient  protection  against  bugs.  Carrots  form  a  good 
succession  crop  to  the  onions.  Tliey  are  sowed  between  the  rows  about  the 
middle  of  June.  Two  crops,  and  sometimes  three,  are  always  grown  from 
the  same  plot  of  ground  in  a  season.  Nothing  but  ignorance  of  these  facts 
prevents  a  great  many  small  owners  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  small  towns 
from  establishing  market  gardens  for  the  supply  of  those  who  can  not,  or  at 
least  do  not,  grow  a  supply  for  themselves  of  tlie  most  common  sorts  of  gar- 
den vegetables.  It  is  a  fact  but  little  appreciated,  that  a  very  large  portion 
of  those  who  have  lived  all  their  lives  upon  a  farm,  and  made  its  cultiva- 
tion their  only  business,  are  utterly  incompetent  to  manage  a  garden — that 
is,  a  garden  intended  for  supplying  any  market  with  vegetables. 

Illustrative  of  the  pleasures  and  profits  of  gardening,  we  insert  a  report 
of  a  visit  of  the  author  to  the  garden  of  an  artist,  to  show  wliat  an  un- 
professional gardener  may  do  upon  a  little  spot  of  ground.  Geo.  II.  Hite, 
of  Morrisania,  lives  upon  a  village  lot,  and  is  by  profession  an  artist.  Not 
an  artist  in  gardening — not  one  who  professes  or  pretends  to  practice  horti- 
culture upon  a  scientific  or  artistic  plan.  Nor  do  I  mention  his  garden  as  a 
model  of  taste  and  skill  which  may  be  imitated  by  the  wealthy  at  great  ex- 
pense. I  mention  it  rather  as  the  garden  of  a  mechanic,  and  just  such  a  one 
as  a  great  many  mechanics  or  professional  men  might  have  if  they  would — 
if  they  only  knew  how.  I  mention  it  full  of  hope  that  it  may  be  the  moving 
cause  toward  inducing  other  men  who  have  daily  employment,  as  this  one 


4G4  TBE  GARDEIT  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [CnAr.  V. 

has,  at  some  trade  or  profession,  to  devote  a  little  time,  some  money,  and  a 
great  deal  of  sound  common  sense  in  the  cultivation  of  tlic  little  half-iicro 
plats  that  Avo  often  see  surroundin;:^  village  residences,  which  arc  mere  ex- 
amples of  the  utter  uselessness  of  land  except  to  enable  tiie  owner  to  show 
how  barren  and  worthless  he  can  make  it.  There  is  no  need  of  this  idle  use 
of  land.  There  is  no  reason  why  every  owner  of  a  village  lot  should  not 
revel  in  all  the  luscious  fruits  of  the  season,  and  treat  himself  and  his  friends 
to  an  occasional  bottle  of  wine,  equal  to  any  that  lie  could  purchase  for  a 
couple  of  dollars,  just  as  Geo.  H.  Ilite  is  now  able  to  do,  free  of  expense; 
for  his  garden  pays  its  own  way,  and  a  little  more,  of  all  cost  of  cultivation, 
leaving  him  in  the  enjoyment  of  its  delicious  fruits,  fresh  from  the  earth,  or 
their  pn^ducts  preserved  to  continue  almost  as  fresh  throughout  the  winter. 
And  he  is  not  b}'  profession  nor  early  education  a  gardener,  being  a  native 
of  a  State  less  noted  for  its  horticultural  skill  and  fruits  than  for  its  pro- 
due:  ions  of  great  corn  crops,  great  bullocks,  great  men — physically  and  in- 
tellectually. Mr.  Hite  is  a  Kentuckian,  and  some  of  his  early  years  were 
spent  in  painting  portraits  in  Louisiana.  Then  he  came  to  Js^ew  York,  and 
during  other  years  acquired  fame  as  an  artist  upon  ivory.  Then,  some  years 
ago,  like  a  sensible  man,  he  began  to  create  a  home  for  his  old  age,  when  it 
comes ;  it  is  only  in  the  blossom  now ;  and  that  home  I  have  visited,  and  I 
wish  I  could  take  every  one  M'ho  hears  or  reads  of  it  with  nie  to  learn  what 
an  artist  has  done,  and  what  a  mechanic,  a  lawyer,  a  doctor,  or  anybody 
else  might  do  in  a  garden  tipon  a  village  lot.  Will  the  sluggards  who  sigh 
after  an  abundance  of  fruit,  and  envy  those  who  liave,  j'ct  take  no  steps  to 
have  it  themselves,  believe  me  when  I  tell  them  that  in  this  garden  there 
are  grapevines  of  such  extent,  luxuriance,  ami  fruitftilncss,  that  sevei-al  bar- 
rels are  required  to  hold  the  juice  of  the  surplus  of  the  crop?  The  fruitful 
arbor  that  extends  some  fifty  feet  from  the  rear  of  the  house,  affords  a  de- 
lightful shady  spot,  which,  independent  of  the  fruit,  is  well  worth  its  cost. 
Isabella  grape  wine,  five  years  old,  with  no  addition  whatever  to  the  juice 
of  the  grape,  is  excellent.  Strawberries  grow  to  ])erfeetion  in  this  garden  ; 
and  as  a  cultivator  of  currants,  Mr.  Ilito  excels.  Not  merely  a  few  basket- 
fills  for  family  use,  but  bushel  after  bushel,  red,  white,  and  black.  The  ber- 
ries of  the  true  red  Dutch  variety  are  upon  the  average  as  large  as  the  cherry 
currants  under  ordinary  cultivation  ;  ami  as  for  productiveness,  no  state- 
ment can  convey  an  idea.  To  believe,  you  must  see.  And  this  is  the  result 
of  pruning.  True,  Mr.  Ilite  follows  the  Scriptural  injunction  about  a  bar- 
ren tree,  to  "  dig  about  and  dung  it,"'  with  all  of  his  trees,  and  vines,  and 
slirubs,  and  flowers,  and  table  vegetables;  but  with  the  currant  the  secret 
of  success  is  pruning.  "Keep  no  old  wood,"  is  his  injunction.  Every 
branch  that  has  borne  three  crops  must  be  cut  away  at  the  ground,  having 
been  twice  shortened  in,  by  which  the  short  fruit-spurs  on  the  new  wood 
are  always  loaded,  and  the  Ininches  growing  close  to  the  canes,  so  that  they 
look  like  ropes  of  red  berries.  To  commence  with  a  single  plant,  cut  it 
away  close  to  the  ground,  to  induce  several  vigorous  shoots,  instead  of  one, 


6ec.  20.]  ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY  OF  GARDEN  PLANTS.  465 

growing  tree-shaped.  Next  spring  shorten  all  these  canes,  and  let  the  fruit 
grow  below  and  new  shoots  above,  and  next  spring  shorten  these  again. 
Some  of  Mr.  Kite's  three-year-old  plants  are  now  five  or  six  feet  hio-h,  so 
loaded  with  fruit  that  they  have  to  be  trained  to  stakes,  which,  by-the-by, 
is  the  true  way  to  grow  currants.  Next  spring  these  vigorous,  fruitful 
branches,  all  that  are  three  years  old,  will  be  unsparingly  cut  away.  It  is 
tlie  secret  of  success.  Meantime,  new  shoots  come  up  in  successive  order 
to  t.nhe  their  place.  I  have  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  currant  bushes  thus 
treated,  of  the  sour  sort  that  are  now  growing  neglected  along  many  a  gaf- 
den  wall,  untrimmed  in  half  a  century,  may  be  made  to  aflTord  a  field  crop 
of  more  than  two  hundred  bushels  per  acre  of  superior  size  and  flavor  to 
those  grown  in  the  ordinary  waj-,  and  that  the  cost  of  production  will  be  far 
below  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel.  The  annual  pruning  would  be  the  great- 
est part  of  the  labor,  and,  in  the  vicinity  of  this  city,  the  wood  cut  away 
would  be  worth  nearly  the  cost  of  cutting;  and  in  the  country,  where  stone 
chimneys  and  brick  ovens  are  still  fashionable,  the  brush,  when  well  sea- 
soned, would  make  superior  oven  wood.  Besides  wliat  I  have  said  of  this 
garden,  there  is  much  more  to  be  learned  from  it,  and  that  where  it  blos- 
soms now,  nine  or  ten  years  ago  was  a  wilderness  of  wild  bushes,  blackber- 
ries, and  rocks,  and  that  lie  who  has  said  "  presto,  change  !"  is  not  a  magician, 
but  a  very  humble  individual,  with  no  more  power  to  produce  such  change 
than  the  most  humble  one  of  the  mighty  multitude  who  have  an  idea  above 
the  gutter,  with  a  will  to  work  that  idea  out  in  tlie  rich  productions  of  na- 
ture improved. 

Besides  the  fruitful  grapes  I  have  alluded  to,  Mr,  Ilitehas  others,  prin- 
cipally of  the  Delawares,  now  growing  beautifully ;  and  so  satisfied  is  he 
with  the  advantages  of  growing  superior  grapes,  that  he  dug  up  a  fruitful  bed 
of  strawberry-plants  to  make  room  for  more  Delaware  grapevines,  which 
he  thinks  will  be  the  greatest  wine-grape  in  America.  Some  of  the  surplus 
products  of  his  little  plot  of  ground  aflPorded  the  owner  one  year  $iOO  in 
cash,  which  was  more  than  enough  to  pay  for  hired  labor  and  manixre.  This 
should  encourage  others  to  go  and  do  likewise.  I  would  have  gone  to  this 
man  for  mj'  miniature  portrait,  but  who  would  think  of  going  to  an  artist 
to  learn  horticulture?  Yet  I  have  learned,  and  in  my  ojjinion  others  may, 
from  very  unexpected  sources.     Let  us  try. 

519.  Origin  and  History  of  some  Common  Garden  Vegetables, — The  history 
of  some  of  our  fruits  and  vegetables  is,  in  many  respects,  extremely  curious. 

"  Tlie  artichoke,  we  find,  was  so  highly  esteemed  in  Rome,  that  an  arbi- 
tary  law  was  enacted  to  prevent  commoners  from  eating  it." 

This  statement  shows  the  importance  of  calling  all  plants  by  their  botanical 
or  scientific  name,  since  we  can  not  tell  whether  the  writer  means  the 
HeUanthiis  tuherosus  (Jerusalem  artichoke),  which  is  a  plant  of  the  sun- 
flower species,  or  the  artichoke  which  somewhat  resembles  a  thistle,  the 
Cynara  scolymus,  which  grows  the  edible  part  at  the  top  instead  of  the 
bottom. 


466  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V- 

The  plant  used  for  flavoring,  called  lasil,  -vvliich  now  stands  so  liigh  that  a 
London  alderman  would  spurn  a  basin  of  turtle  made  without  it,  was,  200 
years  before  Christ,  condemned  by  Chrysippus  as  an  enemy  to  the  sight  and 
a  robber  of  the  wits.  Pliny  says  they  sowed  the  seeds  with  maledictions 
and  ill  words,  believing  that  the  more  it  was  cursed  the  better  it  would 
prosper. 

Lettuce  appears,  from  an  anecdote  related  by  Herodotus,  to  liave  been 
served  at  the  royal  tables  of  the  Persian  kings,  five  or  six  hundred  yeai-s 
before  the  Christian  era,  but  they  only  knew  one  sort,  which  was  a  black 
variety.  Tliis  esculent  has  been  greatly  improved  by  cultivation  as  well  as 
cabbage.  We  can  remember  when  a  head  of  lettuce  would  have  been  a 
great  curiosity,  and  the  heads  of  cabbage  fifty  years  ago  were  very  unlike 
merchantable  cabbage-iieads  of  the  present  day. 

Mint  appears  to  have  beea  used  formerly  for  other  purposes  besides 
making  mint-juleps,  which  produce  a  disease  whicli,  in  ancient  times,  mint 
was  used  to  cure ;  for  Pliny  says,  at  a  consultation  of  physicians  in  his 
chamber,  it  was  decided  that  a  chaplet  of  pennyroyal  was  better  for  gid- 
diness aud  swimming  in  the  head  than  one  of  roses. 

According  to  Ovid,  mint  was  used  by  the  ancients  to  perfume  their  table.=, 
by  rubbing  the  leaves  upon  them  before  serving  the  supper;  and  mxish- 
rooms,  both  edible  and  poisonous,  were  known  to  the  ancients.  They  were 
considered,  when  good,  a  great  dainty  with  the  voluptuous  Romans ;  and 
one  of  the  poisonous  sorts  was  used  by  Agrippina  to  destroy  her  husband 
Tiberius  Claudius. 

Mustard,  it  will  be  recollected  by  Bible-readers,  was  cultivated  in  Syria 
at  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  one  of  his  beautiful  parables 
as  being  the  least  seed  tliat  was  sown  ki  the  field. 

Garlic  and  onioiis  must  have  been  in  liigh  favor  as  food  at  a  very  early 
day,  since  it  appears  that  the  Egyptians  worshiped  garlic,  and  were  said  to 
■wish  that  they  might  enjoy  it  in  Paradise ;  though  the  Greeks  held  it  in 
such  abhorrence,  tliat  they  regarded  those  who  ate  it  as  profane.  The  Ro- 
mans gave  it  to  their  laborers  and  soldiers  to  strengthen  them,  and  to  their 
game-cocks  previously  to  fighting  them;  and  the  Israelites,  while  in  the 
M-ilderucss,  lamented  the  deprivation  of  these  stimulating  roots,  to  which 
they  had  become  so  accustomed  in  Egypt.  In  this  country,  onions  are  eaten 
by  all  classes,  and  in  Kew  York  city,  we  have  noticed,  are  greatly  esteemed 
in  winter  by  the  very  poorest  classes,  particularly  the  dissijiated.  Thoy  are 
not  generally  considered  uidiealthy,  though  no  dyspeptic  should  ever  touch 
garlic  or  onions  in  any  shape,  particularly  raw. 

Parsn€2)S  were  held  in  high  esteem  by  tlic  Emperor  Tiberius,  who  im- 
ported them  annually  into  Rome  from  Germany,  probably  because  they 
grew  much  better  in  tliat  colder  climate,  as  they  are  greatly  improved  here 
by  remaining  in  the  ground  to  freeze  during  winter. 

Parsneps  contain  a  large  proportion  of  sugar;  beer  is  made  from  them  in 
the  north  of  Ireland,  and  wine,  closely  approaching  the  malmsey  of  Madeira, 


.  -..c.  2J.]  ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY"  OF  GARDEN  PLANTS.  467 

is  made  from  the  roots.  Marmalade,  made  with  parsneps  and  a  small 
quantity  of  sugar,  is  said  to  excite  appetite,  and  to  be  a  very  good  food  for 
convalescents. 

Parsley  was  cultivated,  as  it  is  now  in  gardens,  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  and 
appears  to  have  been  highly  esteemed  as  a  seasoning  of  food. 

Badishes  were  so  highly  esteemed  by  the  Greeks,  that  they  made  them 
of  gold  to  offer  at  the  shrine  of  Apollo.  If  these  were  made  of  the  size  that 
radishes  are  represented  as  growing  in  those  days,  we  certainly  should  prefer 
the  counterfeits  to  the  real ;  for  it  is  stated  that  they  grew  to  the  weight  of 
forty  or  fifty  pounds.  Probably  they  were  an  entirely  different  article  from 
our  radishes,  and  perhaps  were  a  culinary  vegetable. 

Beets  were  made  for  the  same  purpose  of  silver,  which  shows  the  com- 
parative estimation  in  ^hich  they  were  held.  "With  us  it  is  quite  the 
reverse. 

Turnips,  too,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  highly  esteemed,  since  Apollo 
only  got  wooden  turnips,  while  he  got  gold  radishes  and  silver  beets.  This 
was  somewhat  owing  to  climate,  undoubtedly,  for  we  have  observed  that 
turnips  are  not  esteemed  in  the  cotton  States,  except  for  the  tops  to  be  used 
as  greens. 

Thyme  was  planted  in  Greece,  and  thence  imported  into  the  Roman 
Stater,  on  account  of  its  value  as  pasture  for  the  honey-bees. 

Water-C7'ess  was  esteemed  as  a  stimulating  article  of  diet,  as  well  in  olden 
time  as  at  present,  and  was  often  eaten  with  salad  to  counteract  its  eifects, 
,  which  were  thought  to  be  chilly.     An  old  writer  says : 

"  Water-cress  is  one  of  the  most  wholesome  of  our  salad-herbs,  and  one  of 
the  oldest  in  use.  Its  qualities  are  warm  and  stimulating,  the  reverse  of 
nearly  all  other  raw  vegetables.  Xenophon  recommended  it  to  the  Persians, 
and  the  Romans  gave  it  to  those  whose  minds  were  deranged.  Hence  the 
Greek  proverb:  'Eat  cress,  and  have  more  wit.'  It  is  an  excellent  anti- 
scorbutic ;  and  a  salad  so  easily  produced,  and  so  important  to  the  health  of 
townspeople,  can  not  be  too  highly  recommended.  The  daily  supply  at 
Covent  Garden,  London,  is  about  G,000  bunches,  but  it  is  said  if  twice  as 
many  more  bunches  were  brought  in  they  would  bo  all  sold." 

Cahlage  appears  fo  have  been  used  for  food  from  a  very  early  period, 
and  few  vegetables  have  undergone  greater  improvements,  from  the  original 
sea-kale  to  the  lai'ge  drum-head  cabbage,  some  of  which  have  heads  almost 
as  solid  as  turnips,  and  of  twenty  pounds  weight.  Germany,  of  all  other 
countries,  grows  cabbage  for  food  most  abundantly.  It  is  considered  a 
necessity  for  every  family  to  have  a  barrel  or  more  of  sour-kraut,  which  is 
made  by  cutting  tlie  cabbage-heads  into  small  shreds,  with  sharp  knives  or  a 
machine,  which  is  packed  in  barrels  with  a  little  salt,  and  sometimes  a  flavor 
of  spice,  and  in  this  way  it  keeps  (we  can  not  say  sweet)  in  an  eatable  con- 
dition all  winter,  and  is  usually  stewed  and  eaten  with  vinegar,  in  place  of 
other  vegetables,  with  meat. 

Asparagus  is  another  sea-plant,  very  much  improved  by  cultivation.    Tiie 


468  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FEDITS.  [Chap.  V. 

first  time  we  hear  of  this  vegetable  is  in  the  time  of  Cato  the  Elder,  two 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  Tlie  Emperor  Augustus  was  very  partial  to  it; 
and  at  Ravenna  it  grew  to  sucli  a  size  that  three  he.ads  weighed  a  pound. 
Mr.  Grayson,  of  Mortlake,  near  London,  has  produced  one  hundred  heads 
that  weiglied  forty-two  pounds,  perhaps  the  largest  ever  known  in  Great 
Britain ;  and  hundreds  of  acres  around  the  metropolis  are  devoted  to  its 
cultivation.  The  small  heads  are  sometimes  cut  into  pieces  and  boiled,  as  a 
substitute  for  green  peas.  Medicinally,  it  is  considered  diuretic,  and  is  said 
to  promote  the  appetite.  It  is  considered  antiscorbutic,  and  very  good  in 
dropsical  cases,  but  is  avoided  by  those  having  tiie  gout.  The  most  extra- 
ordinary virtue  is  that  ascribed  to  it  by  Antoine  Mizold,  who  says:  "If  the 
root  is  put  upon  a  tooth  that  aches  violently,  it  causes  it  to  come  out  without 
pain."  Our  modern  dentists  will,  we  are  sure,  thank  us  for  this  information, 
if  it  is  true. 

Asparagus  and  cabbage  are  both  benefited  by  the  use  of  salt  for  manure. 
For  asparagus,  there  is  no  danger  of  using  too  much  salt.  It  may  be  used 
in  a  crude  state,  or  dissolved,  or  in  compost. 

Carrots,  Ave  are  told,  originated,  or  at  least,  were  first  cultivated  for  food, 
in  Holland.  They  are  not  only  nutritious,  but  the  pectic  acid  which  they 
contain  has  the  effect  to  gelatinize  other  food,  hence  they  are  used  in  soups, 
making  them  richer.  There  is  no  root  grown  by  farmers  of  quite  as  much 
value  for  stock  as  carrots.  They  are  A'ery  nutritious  food  for  our  tables, 
simply  boiled,  and  only  require  a  little  practice  to  be  much  liked.  The 
Avhite  carrot  is  sometimes  boiled,  and  mashed,  and  used  in  bread.  The 
foliage  of  carrots  is  truly  beautiful,  and  we  read  that,  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  it  was  common  for  ladies  to  use  the  fresh,  green  leaves  as  orna- 
ments of  their  head-dresses. 

Potatoes  have  a  history  so  wrapped  in  obscurity,  that  no  one  can  tell  for 
a  certainty  where  they  originated.  Tiieir  adoption,  as  a  general  article  of 
food,  dates  back  only  to  a  comparatively  recent  ])eriod ;  that  is,  since  the 
settlement  of  America,  yet  they  are  now  considered  an  indispensable  article 
upon  almost  all  the  tables  of  rich  and  poor  in  all  countries  where  tiie 
potato  flourishes,  as  it  does  in  the  northern  United  States  and  England  and 
Ireland. 

The  potato-plant  {Solanuni  titberos^im)  is  said  to  belong  to  a  family 
of  poisonous  plants,  and  an  extract,  powerfully  narcotic,  may  be  made 
from  the  leaves  and  stalks,  and  a  weak  spirit  is  often  distilled  from 
the  roots;  and  a  pretty  good  starch  is  made,  both  in  a  domestic  Avay 
and  in  large  manufactories,  from  potatoes,  Avith  Avhich  sago  is  often 
adulterated. 

Potatoes  make  good  yeiist,  and  they  are  often  used  for  making  sizing; 
and  the  water  in  Avhich  potatoes  are  boiled  is  good  to  wash  any  fabrics  in 
that  are  liable  to  fade. 

Excellent  as  potatoes  arc  for  food,  sad  experience  has  proved  that  it  will 
not  do  for  any  nation  to  rely  upon  them.     This  reliance  brouglit  famine, 


Seo.  29.]  HISTORY  OF  GARDEN  PLANTS.  469 

misery,  starvation,  and  death  to  Ireland,  and  disappointment  to  a  great  many 
who  have  lost  entire  crops  from  the  potato-disease. 

Salad-plants  have  long  been  cultivated  and  eaten  by  the  rich  as  a  luxury, 
and  by  the  poor  as  a  necessity,  or  rather,  in  many  cases,  more  as  an  agree- 
able economic  article  of  food.  In  all  cities  and  large  manufacturing  towns, 
the  laboring  class  are  every  year  becoming  greater  consumers  of  lettuces, 
radishes,  and  celer}^,  and  find  benefit  from  tiieir  use.  This  kind  of  food  is 
grown  to  great  perfection,  and  is  very  largely  consumed  in  France,  Belgium, 
and  Holland— more  so  than  in  this  country. 

Salsifi/  is  a  plant  that  should  be  known  more  extensively  tlian  it  is,  be- 
cause it  afibrds  an  excellent  article  of  food.  Its  roots  grow  like  parsneps, 
and  the  cultivation  is  similar,  but  they  have  quite  a  ditferent  flavor,  and  on 
account  of  a  real,  though  slight,  resemblance  in  smell  and  taste  to  oysters, 
it  is  often  called  vegetable  oyster-plant. 

The  greatest  resemblance  to  oysters  is,  when  the  roots,  which  have  stood 
all  winter  in  the  ground,  are  dug  in  the  early  spring,  boiled  and  mashed  and 
mixed  with  butter,  and  cooked  and  served  hot,  like  oyster  batter-cakes. 

Okra  is  another  valuable  food-plant  not  much  known  and  cultivated,  ex- 
cept in  market  gardens  in  the  Northern  States,  though  it  is  considered  an 
article  of  prime  necessity  at  the  South,  being  largely  used  by  black  and 
white.  The  negroes  make  a  vcr^-  favorite  dish  with  okra  and  bacon,  called 
gumbo,  and  we  have  eaten  gumbo  in  New  York,  but  it  is  very  rare.  The 
principal  use  of  okra  here  is  in  soups.  The  seed-pods  are  the  part  used, 
cither  green  or  dry.  They  give  the  soup  a  mucilaginous  character.  The 
bark  of  the  okra  plant  is  very  fibrous — as  much  so  as  hemp,  and  more 
tough. 

Sweet  corn  (see  541),  as  it  is  now  grown  in  a  great  majority  of  the  gardens, 
affords  one  of  the  cheapest  and  richest  luxuries  that  America  enjoys.  In 
the  latitude  of  this  city  it  is  fit  to  eat  in  Jul}',  and  continues  in  condition  for 
the  table,  with  a  little  extra  attention,  till  late  in  October.  There  are 
-several  varieties,  some  of  which  are  noted  for  keeping  fresh  very  late  in  the 
season.  There  is  no  dish  more  universally  liked  than  sweet  corn  while  in 
the  green  or  milky  state,  and  every  family  who  have  the  means  of  growing 
it  should  provide  for  a  succession  of  crops  during  the  season,  so  as  never  to 
be  without  it,  because  no  food  can  be  produced  cheaper,  and  none  is  more 
nutritious,  palatable,  and  wholesome. 

We  might  go  on  to  great  length  with  this  history  and  description  of  garden 
plants,  and  at  last  should  hardly  know  where  to  stop  without  breaking  off 
abruptly  ;  so  we  do  it  here,  to  go  more  into  particulars  of  garden  cultivation 
of  proper  vegetables,  plants,  fruits,,  and  flowers. 


470 


THE  GAKDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS. 


[CUAP.   V. 


SECTION  XXX.-GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES. 

'TJR  plan  of  treating  ligbtly  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects will  not  warrant  lis  in  giviii<;  a  complete 
"Young  Gardeners  Assistant."  That  can  be 
■uglit  in  a  separate  volume,  and  it  is  a  valuable  book, 
it  we  shall  give  a  little  information  about  all  the 
incipal  kinds  of  culinary  vegetables  usually  cultivat- 
by  farmers,  or  which  should  be  cultivated  by  them, 
which  we  trust  will  be  found  useful.  In  treating  upon 
some  of  the  same  things  under  field-culture,  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  "  Tlie  Farm  and  Its  Crops,"  we  shall  i>robably 
give  some  further  information,  which  may  bo  useful  to 
those  who  only  plant  a  garden.  And  so  will  what  we  say 
here  be  useful  to  those  who  wish  to  grow  vegetables  upon 
a  large,  as  well  as  upon  a  small,  scale. 
520.  The  Brassica  Family— Propagatiag  and  Saving  Seed.— This  family  of 
plants,  which  includes  all  that  are  near  enough  related  to  tlio  cabbage  to 
hybridize  with  it,  is  the  most  universally  cultivated  of  any  variety  of  culi- 
nary vegetables.  In  planting  out  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  turnips  for 
seed,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  set  each  kind  by  itself,  at  considerable 
distances  apart,  to  prevent  hybridization,  and  no  seedsman  must  keep  l)ee3, 
for  they  are  the  greatest  hybridizers  in  nature,  carrying  the  pollen  from  one 
blossom  to  another,  and  mixing  the  two  together  indiscriminately.  All  tlie 
diflerent  varieties  of  cabbage,  such  as  Flat  Dutcli,  Savoy,  Drumhead,  mi.x 
very  readily  and  spoil  each  variety,  or  else  by  one  chance  in  a  score  of 
millions,  produce  a  new  variety  which  may  be  Avortli  cultivation.  As  a 
general  rule,  however,  all  farmers  who  raise  their  own  seed  should  try  to 
keep  the  varieties  separate.  This  may  be  done  in  most  cases  by  setting  out 
the  seed-stalks  in  diiferent  fields.  It  is  not  necessary  to  confine  them  to  the 
garden.  Where  tliere  is  any  great  inconvenience  about  keeping  the  sorts 
apart,  yon  had  better  plant  only  one  sort  for  seed,  and  buy  seed  for  all 
otlier  sorts  you  may  wish  to  cultivate.  Do  not  try  to  grow  your  own  seed, 
if  it  will  cost  you  twice  as  much  as  it  would  to  buy  a  small  paper  of  a  pro- 
fessional seedsman.  The  principal  advantage  in  growing  your  own  seed  is 
to  select  carefully  the  very  best  and  throw  away  all  others,  and  unless  you 
do  that,  you  had  bettor  not  grow  any.  To  grow  good  cabbage  and  turnip 
seed,  select  the  very  best  roofs  to  plant,  and  then  select  the  best  seed 
branches. 

A  correspondent  wants  to  know  if  turnip  seed,  harvcstca  from   roots 
that  were  left  out  over  winter,  will  produce  good  turnips  if  sown  for  a 


Sec.  30.J  GARDEN  CULIKARY  VEGETABLES.  471 

crop.     "  My  neighbors,"  says  the  writer,  "  tell  me  it  will  not  produce  tur- 
nips, but  charlock." 

Wc  do  not  believe  that  it  will  change  in  a  single  season,  but  we  do  know 
of  one  instance  where  such  seed  was  sown,  and  it  produced  turnijj-tops  and 
seed,  but  few  bulbs  of  any  value  ;  and  we  believe  that  if  the  seed  of  these 
bulbless  plants  had  been  sown  again  and  again,  the  whole  semblance  of 
turnips  except  the  tops  would  have  been  lost.  And  this  being  the  fact,  why 
may  we  not  believe  that  the  reverse  will  be  the  case,  where  the  most  perfect 
bulbs  are  selected  for  propagation  ? 

521.  Cultivation  and  Value  of  the  Turnip  Crop. — The  value  of  the  ruta- 
baga turnip  for  stock-feeding  (see  880)  seems  to  be  almost  universally  con- 
ceded, while  the  counnon  flat  turnip  appears  to  be  under  a  cloud  of  preju- 
dice ia  this  country.  We  have,  however,  strong  faith,  from  pei"sonal  expe- 
rience, in  its  value  as  winter  food  for  horned  cattle  and  sheep.  There  is 
great  diiFerence  in  the  value  of  the  several  varieties.  One  of  the  best  is  the 
Red  Strap,  which  grows  well  up  out  of  the  ground,  and  all  the  upper  part  of 
the  bulb  is  of  a  rich  plum  red.  This  sort,  if  sown  upon  good  land,  grows 
rapidly  and  solid,  and  such  turnips  always  keep  tlie  best  and  afford  the 
most  nutriment  when  fed  to  stock,  and  every  vacant  spot  in  the  garden 
may  thus  be  profitably  occupied. 

For  garden  culture,  turnips  should  be  sown  at  three  periods :  first,  as 
early  as  the  ground  is  dry  and  warm  enough  for  the  seed  to  vegetate  ; 
second,  about  the  first  of  June ;  and  the  third,  after  the  peas  have  ripened, 
and  in  all  other  vacant  spots  from  which  a  first  crop  has  been  removed.  If 
seed  is  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  October,  or,  according  to  latitude,  as 
late  as  it  will  grow  bulbs  the  size  of  pigeons'  eggs,  and  these  are  covered 
over  with  a  mulch  of  coarse  manure,  straw,  or  leaves,  and  the  mulch  raked 
off  very  early  in  the  spring,  you  will  get  a  fine  crop  of  sprouts  for  early 
greens,  and  sometimes  the  bulbs  will  grow  again  so  as  to  be  good  eating. 
Remember,  never  save  seed  from  such  roots. 

522.  Protection  of  Turnips  from  Insects.— The  young  plants  are  liable  to 
sufter  from  the  attack  of  certain  insects,  especially  the  turnip  flea,  or  beetle 
— called  in  England  "  the  fly."  As  a  protection  against  such  enemies,  we 
recommend  the  following  recipe  :  Mix  one  tablespoonful  of  sulphur  with  a 
pint  of  blood-warm  water  to  half  a  pound  of  seed ;  let  it  soak  a  few  min- 
utes, then  pour  off  the  water  and  mix  the  seed  with  ashes  or  plaster. 
Whether  this  would  afford  any  protection  against  grasshoppers,  could  be 
determined  by  trial. 

There  has  been  lately  offered  in  market  a  new  preparation  of  "  attenuated 
coal-tar,"  that  is,  coal-tar  mixed  with  a  dryer,  making  a  granulated  sub- 
stance resembling  gunpowder,  which  is  said  by  those  who  have  used  it  to 
bo  a  good  preventive  of  insects.  We  know  that  the  scent  of  coal-tar  is  of- 
fensive to  most  of  the  farm-pest  family.  A  board-fence  painted  with  coal- 
tar  appears  to  act  as  a  protector  of  fruits  trained  alongside  of  it.  Coal-tar 
mixed  with  di-ied  loam  in  the  form  of  a  powder  should  be  tried  as  a  pre- 


472  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITvS  FRniTS.  [Ciiap.  V. 


ventive  of  insects  on  the  young  turnips.  In  this  form  tlic  expense  would  l<e 
very  friiiing.  It  may  answer  for  all  other  garden  plants  just  as  well  as  tin- 
more  expensive  preparations  sold  for  the  same  purposes. 

523.  The  Kohl-Rabi— Its  Character  and  Use. — This  relative  of  the  turnip 
and  cabbage  is  comparatively  a  new  garden  plant,  but  one  much  approved 
by  all  who  are  acquainted  with  it,  and  extensively  grown  for  the  New  York 
markets.  It  appears  to  be  a  cross  between  the  cabbage  and  turnip,  growing 
with  a  bulb  like  the  latter,  which  has  the  outward  appearance  of  a  cabbage- 
stalk,  with  leaves  like  ruta  baga.  These  bulbs,  cooked,  have  more  of  the 
flavor  and  general  character  of  cabbage  than  turnips.  Those  who  a;o  not 
acquainted  with  them  should  procure  seed  and  give  them  a  trial.  Tiioy  are 
largely  grown  in  England  as  a  field-crop  for  6to"Ck,  the  seed  being  phmted 
by  drills,  four  pounds  per  acre,  and  produce  twenty-five  tuns.  For  garden 
culture,  pursue  exactly  the  same  course  as  with  cabbage. 

524.  Cabbage  Cultivation,  and  Value  as  Food.— Almost  every  family  cul- 
tivates cabbage  in  the  garden  as  an  article  of  food,  for  which  purpose  we 
look  upon  it  as  of  very  little  account.  TTe  know  it  is  relished  by  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  laboring  class,  and  that  class  alone  should  eat  it,  as  it  is, 
particularly  when  cooked,  one  of  the  most  indigestible  articles  of  food  ever 
taken  into  the  human  stomach.  Eaten  raw,  in  small  quantities,  it  is  more 
digestible,  and  serves  very  well  as  a  relish  in  place  of  other  green  food  at 
seasons  when  the  garden  does  not  afford  a  supply. 

"We  recommend  the  cultivation  of  cabbage  in  all  gardens,  even  where  tlic 
Aimily  do  not  care  to  grow  it  for  the  table,  because  a  plant  can  be  stuck  in 
here  and  there  to  fill  up  waste  places,  and  if  the  plants  are  not  wanted  by 
the  family  when  grown,  the  cows  will  be  very  glad  of  them  after  the  grass 
is  frosted  in  autumn.  If  cabbage  is  wanted  for  very  early  use,  the  plants 
must  be  started  in  cold  frames  in  autumn,  and  kept  covered  up  all  Avinter. 
Such  plants  are  much  more  hardy  than  hot-bed  plants  started  in  spring. 
Seed  may  be  sown,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm  enough,  in  garden  beds, 
for  earl^-  cabbage,  but  for  such  as  are  wanted  for  winter  use,  seed  sown  late 
in  May  or  June,  or  even  in  July,  will  be  early  enough  to  set  where  peas  and 
early  potatoes  have  been  harvested.  Cabbage  requires  a  strong  soil,  and  will 
bear  heavy  manuring,  except  with  hog-pen  manure.  That,  it  is  pretty  well 
settled,  causes  the  disease  known  as  "  club-foot"  in  cabbage.  This  whole 
order  of  plants  delights  in  bone-dust  as  a  fertilizer  and  bones  prepared  as 
superphosphates  are  still  better. 

The  distance  between  the  plants  when  set  out  varies  from  one  and  a  naif 
to  three  feet.  A  moist,  cloudy  day  is  the  best  time  for  transplanting,  and 
it  is  well  to  dip  the  roots  before  planting  in  a  composition  of  black  mold 
and  a  little  soot,  made  into  thin  mud  with  the  addition  of  liquid  manure. 

Cabbages  may  be  headed  in  winter  by  setting  them  with  their  roots  in 
good  rich  earth,  just  as  they  grew,  and  covering  the  tops  so  that  they  will  not 
freeze.  This  may  be  done  with  a  roof  of  boards,  hay,  or  dirt,  or  brush  and 
rails  and  straw  covered  witlx  dirt,  with  little  air-holes.     Cabbage  grown  in 


Sec.  30.]  ^  GAKDEN   CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  473 


this  way  is  blanched,  sweet,  and  tender,  and  will  pay  much  more  than  the 
cost  of  thus  arranging  the  late  stalks  which  failed  to  form  heads  in  the  fall. 
The  work  should  be  done  just  before  the  ground  freezes,  and  at  first  only 
slightly  cover  the  tops. 

The  heads  can  be  kept  very  sound  and  clean,  and  convenient  for  daily  use 
in  winter,  by  packing  them  in  wet  moss  in  barrels  or  boxes,  which  should 
be  kept  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is  just  above  the  freezing-point. 

The  easiest  way  that  we  ever  put  up  cabbages  for  winter  use  was  as  fol- 
lows: Lay  two  common  fence  rails,  or  two  poles  on  the  ground,  side  by 
side,  about  six  inches  apart,  and  aS  you  pull  up  the  cabbages,  lay  tiieui 
down,  with  the  heads  resting  upon  the  poles  and  the  roots  on  the  ground  on 
each  side,  at  right  angles  with  the  poles.  If  you  take  off  the  loose  leaves 
for  feed,  lay  a  tliiu  coat  of  straw  over  the  heads,  and  then  throw  up  the  dirt 
frona  each  side,  so  as  to  cover  the  heads  about  six  inches  deep,  and  form  a 
smooth  mound,  shaped  like  a  winrow  of  hay. 

Of  the  kinds  of  cabbage,  we  recommend  the  "  Bergen,"  for  its  large  size 
and  value  for  fodder.  The  "  Fawn-colored  Savoy"  is  more  delicate  for  the 
table.  "  Red  cabbage"  grows  with  very  hard,  small  heads,  and  is  esteemed 
for  pickling.  It  is  not  as  sweet  or  palatable  as  other  sorts  to  our  taste.  A 
kind  called  "Thousand-headed"  is  much  grown  in  some  gardens  for  eating 
green.  It  is  a  coarse  variety.  The  "Green  Curled  Kale"  is  also  grown  for 
greens.  It  does  not  head.  So  is  the  kind  called  "  Brussels  Sprouts."  Tlio 
earliest  variety  of  cabbage  is  the  "Early  York,"  or  "Early  Wakefield." 
Three  other  early  varieties  are  called,  "Early  Sugarloaf,"  "Early  Drum- 
head or  Battersea,"  and  "  Early  London." 

A  new  variety,  lately  introduced,  is  called  "  Stonemason."  It  originated 
with  J.  J.  II.  Gregory,  of  Marblehead,  Mass.  It  grows  a  large,  rich  head 
on  a  very  short  stump.  Tlie  "Marblehead  Mammoth"  is  another  new 
variety,  introduced  by  Mr.  Gregory,  which  grows  heads  that  weigh  thirty 
pounds  each.  Tliere  is  a  new  kind  called  "Pomerain,"  which  grows  heads 
shaped  like  the  Eed  Dutch,  that  is,  conical,  though  much  larger,  and  re- 
markably solid. 

525.  Cauliflower  is  a  delicate  vegetable  of  the  brassica  family,  the  edible 
part  being  the  flower-buds,  before  they  shoot  up  to  seed.  Cultivators  have 
succeeded  in  forming  these  into  a  very  compact  mass  of  several  pounds' 
weight.  This  is  done,  first,  by  using  seed  of  the  very  best  variety  and  culti- 
vating in  very  rich  ground ;  and  second,  by  carefully  tying  up  the  leaves 
around  the  heads,  to  make  it  grow  compactly.  A  heavy,  moist,  fresh  loani 
is  the  best  soil  for  cabbages  and  cauliflowers. 

The  way  the  Dutch  obtain  cauliflowers,  famous  for  size  and  delicacy,  is  as 
follows : 

"In  tlie  autumn  they  dig  deep  some  gi'ound  that  has  not  been  manured; 
at  the  beginning  of  May  they  sow  the  large  English  cauliflower  upon  a  bed 
of  manure,  and  cover  it  with  straw  mats  at  night.  "When  the  young  plants 
are  three  or  four  inches  high,  they  harrow  the  ground  that  had  been  pre- 


474:  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

pared  the  autumn  before,  and  with  a  wooden  dibble,  eighteen  inches  long^ 
they  make  holes  about  ten  inches  deep,  at  proper  distances  apart,  and  en- 
large thcni  by  working  the  dibble  round  till  the  hole  at  the  top  is  about 
three  incheo  in  diameter.  They  immediately  fill  these  holes  with  water,  and 
repeat  this  three  times  the  same  day.  In  the  evening  they  fill  them  witli 
sheep-dung,  leaving  onh-  room  enough  for  the  young  plant,  which  tiiey  very 
carefully  remove  from  the  bed  of  manure  and  place  in  the  hole  with  a  little 
earth.  Directly  afterwards  they  give  them  a  good  watering,  and  as  soon  as 
the  sun  begins  to  dry  them,  water  them  again.  Furthermore,  as  the  plants 
grow,  they  dig  round  them,  and  earth  them  up  in  rows.  When  the  head  is 
forming,  they  pinch  ofl'  some  of  the  lower  leaves  of  the  plant,  and  use  them 
to  cover  the  young  head." 

52G.  Broccoli  is  nearly  allied  to  cauliflower,  and  though  inferior  in  quality 
is  much  cultivated.  One  of  the  secrets  of  growing  cabbage  is  frequent  hoe- 
ing, and  in  case  of  drought,  watering.  The  ground  can  not  be  stirred  too 
frequently,  and  it  is  well  to  hoc  when  the  dew  is  on,  if  you  are  a  little  care- 
ful about  getting  dirt  on  the  plants. 

Although  cauliflowers  are  a  little  more  diflicult  to  grow  than  cabbages, 
wo  have  no  doubt  they  are  much  more  nutritious  and  digestible  as  food. 
"\Vc  have  said  more  about  the  cultivation  of  the  brassica  famil}-  in  gardens 
than  we  shall  of  any  other,  because  the  various  sorts  may  be  grown  in  a 
great  measure  as  a  second  crop,  or  to  fill  up  waste  ]>laces,  and  therefore  it  is 
economical,  because  it  affords  such  a  great  quantity  of  food. 

527.  Carrots,  Beets,  I'arsneps,  Salsify,  aud  Uorseradish. — All  these  plants 
require  one  grand  feature  in  their  cultivation,  and  one  which  many  farmers 
neglect.  It  is  a  perfect  trenching  of  the  earth,  not  less  than  two  feet  deep, 
and  far  better  if  it  is  three  feet.  Tiicy  all  succeed  best  on  a  rather  light 
loam,  not  too  sandy,  which  was  manured  the  previous  year  with  old  manure. 
If  desirable  to  continue  planting  tlie  same  plat  with  these  roots,  let  them 
come  in  rotation,  and  use  no  manure  that  is  not  in  a  very  pulverulent  con- 
dition. Guano,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  hundred  pounds  per  acre  ;  super- 
phosphate, at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  pounds  per  acre ;  lime,  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  bushels  per  acre ;  unleached  ashes,  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  twenty  bushels 
per  acre,  are  all  good  fertilizers  for  root  crops.  All  these  roots  arc  apt  to 
grow  pronged  and  ill-shapen  in  fresh-manured  ground,  as  they  always  do  in 
ground  badly  spaded  or  plowed,  unless  prepared  by  the  very  best  kind  of 
surface  and  subsoil  plowing. 

52S.  Carrots,  for  early  use,  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry. 
For  winter  use,  tlie  last  of  Ma}-  or  first  of  June  in  the  latitude  of  New 
York.  They  are  best  preserved  for  winter  use  in  dry  sand.  The  best  early 
variety  is  Early  Horn  ;  the  best  for  winter,  or  stock,  is  the  Improved  Long 
Orange,  though  some  prefer  the  Altringham.  The  large,  white,  Belgian 
carrot  has  been  cultivated  here,  but  the  yellow  is  still  the  favorite. 

520.  Beets  should  be  sown  very  early  for  greens.  The  Early  Flat  Bas- 
sano"  or  Early  Blood  Turnip-Beet  will  produce  food  soonest;  but  for  win- 


Sec.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  475 

ter,  we  prefer  the  Long  Blood  Beet  or  Smooth  Long  Dark-red.  The  last 
should  not  be  sown  till  near  the  first  of  June.  If  it  matures  early,  the 
top  part,  wjiich  grows  out  of  ground,  is  very  woody.  Always  soak  beet- 
seed  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  roll  it  in  plaster,  ashes,  dust,  or  meal,  to 
dry  it  for  handling  while  planting.  An  ounce  of  seed  will  plant  a  row  one 
hundred  feet  long. 

530.  Parsueps  should  be  sown  early,  and  may  be  left  where  they  grow 
till  the  ground  is  wanted  for  a  second  crop.  The  soil  must  be  trenched 
and  rich,  or  manured  deep  below  the  surface,  to  grow  good  parsneps.  An 
ounce  of  seed  sows  a  row  two  hundred  feet  long — five  pounds  an  acre. 
The  Long  Smooth  is  the  best  variety.  Parsneps  are  excellent  food  for 
stock. 

531.  Salsify,  or  Oyster  Plant,  should  be  sown  early  in  spring;  an  ounce 
of  seed  to  a  row  thirty  feet  long.  Like  parsneps,  they  are  improved  by 
standing  all  winter  where  they  grew. 

Horseradish,  is  a  plant  of  the  genus  Cachlearia,  which  is  a  sort  of  scurvy- 
grass,  and  is  unknown  to,  or,  at  least,  uncultivated  by  many  farmers.  Its 
sharp,  pungent  root  is  very  agreeable  to  most  persons  as  a  seasoning  to 
meats,  and  it  is  considered  a  healthy  excitant  of  appetite.  It  is  easily 
grown  from  cuttings  in  any  deep,  rich  soil,  even  a  mucky  one  that  is  quite 
wet.  It  is  best  after  standing  out  all  winter.  In  the  vicinity  of  cities  it  is 
extensively  grown  as  a  market  crop,  and  is  very  profitable.  For  family  use 
a  few  plants  will  suffice. 

532.  Ouion  CuIturCt — There  are  three  principal  sorts  of  onions  grown  from 
seed  produced  on  the  top — the  red,  yellow,  and  white.  There  is  a  kind 
called  Early  Red,  and  the  large  Wetliersfield  Red  ;  the  latter  grows  the  lar- 
gest, and  is  best  for  field  culture.  The  Danvers  yellow  variety  is  mild  fla- 
vored, early,  and  keeps  well,  and  is  preferred,  where  best  known,  to  the 
Yellow  Dutch,  which  is  known  in  some  places  as  Strasburg  or  Silver-skin. 
The  White  Portugal  onion  is  the  mildest,  and  good  to  grow  for  family 
use,  but  requires  great  care  to  keep  it  over  winter.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  scarcely  any  but  top  onions  are  grown.  This  kind  produces 
miniature  onions  on  the  top  of  the  stalk,  which  are  set  to  grow  b^dbs  for 
use.  Onions  require  a  rich  sandy  loam,  highly  manured  with  thoroughly 
rotted  compost,  deeply  and  finely  worked  and  rolled,  and  the  seed  sown,  one 
ounce  to  a  row  fifteen  feet  long,  in  drills  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  the 
plants  left  standing  four  inches  apart.  Unlike  most  other  things,  onions  do 
best  upon  the  same  plat  year  after  year.  "Wood  ashes,  applied  as  top- 
dressing,  make  one  of  the  best  fertilizers  that  can  be  given  to  an  onion  bed. 
To  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  onion  maggot,  which  of  late  years  has  proved 
so  destructive,  it  is  recommended  to  sow  poppies  with  the  onion. 

533.  Peas— Choice  Kinds  aud  Cultivation. — The  following  are  the  best  early 
peas  in  their  order:  Daniel  O'Rourke;  Early  Princess;  Early  Emperor; 
Prince  Albert ;  Early  Kent.  The  following  are  dwarf  varieties  :  Tom 
Thumb ;  Bishop's  Early  Dwarf,  quite  prolific  and  early ;  Bishop's  New  Long 


476 


THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS. 


[CnAP.  V. 


Podded,  productive  and  good  quality  ;  Dwarf-blnc  Imperial,  highly  recom- 
mended as  a  summer  pea.  The  following  are  larger  sorts,  and  are  highly 
recommended  :  Champion  of  England  ;  Fairbeard's  Nonpareil  ;  Champion 
of  Scotland;  Eugenie;  Kapoleon  ;  Missouri  Marrowfat ;  Large  White  Mar- 
rowfat, a  late  sort;  Biackeyed  Marrowfat,  an  excellent  kind,  worthy  of  gen- 
eral cultivation  ;  British  Queen,  very  prolific,  long  podded,  and  fine  fla- 
vored ;  to  which  add  the  sugar  pea,  with  edible  pods. 

Judging  from  the  little  attention  paid  by  many  farmers  to  the  cultivation 
of  garden  peas,  we  suppose  thcj  look  upon  them  as  luxuries,  only  to  be  in- 
dulgod  in  by  a  few,  except  in  very  small  quantities.  In  this  they  are  quite 
in  error.  There  is  nothing  grown  that  is  more  nutritious  and  wholesome,  and 
much  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  their  cultivation,  so  as  to  have  a  full 
daily  supply,  early  and  late.  The  first  planting  should  be  made  just  as  soon 
as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  spring,  upon  ground  well  manured  the  year 
before,  or  else  with  very  fine  old  compost  or  guano  in  the  hill,  but  not  in 
contact  with  the  seed.  In  small  gardens,  or  where  ground  is  scarce  for  early 
crops,  plant  potatoes  and  peas  together.  Land  can  not  be  too  rich  for  peas, 
but  if  it  is  the  richest  of  crude  manure,  more  vines  than  seed  will  grow. 
Ashes  and  plaster  upon  peas  while  growing,  when  a  few  inches  high,  will 
help  them  remarkably.  Plant  in  double  rows,  a  foot  apart,  so  as  to  set 
bushes  between.  The  largest  sorts  require  four  to  six  feet  between  the  lines, 
and  we  have  found  it  advantageous  to  put  them  wide  apart  and  jdant  a  row 
of  potatoes  between.  You  want  a  pint  of  seed  of  the  dwart"  sorts,  in  a 
double  row,  fifty  or  sixty  feet  long.  The  large  growing  sort  will  take  a  pint 
to  a  hundred  feet. 

Pea-bugs  injure  l)ut  do  not  destroy  the  germination  of  seed  peas.  It  is 
recommended  to  keep  them  in  sealed  bottles,  and  if  a  j^iece  of  gum  cam- 
phor as  large  as  a  pea  is  put  in,  it  will  destroy  all  bug  life.  One  writer 
recommends  planting  peas  five  inches  deep  early  in  the  spring  to  prevent 
the  weevil.  He  plants  beets  at  the  same  time  between  the  rows  of  peas. 
Another  writer  recommends  fall  ])lanting,  or  any  time  during  winter  when 
there  is  no  frost  in  the  ground. 

534.  Deans  for  the  Gardeu — Good  Sorts. — We  recommend  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  cultivation  of  garden  beans,  because  they  furnish  such  good, 
cheap,  palatable  food.  The  following  half  dozen  sorts  are  the  best  that  we 
can  name  of  the  dwarf  or  bush  variety,  which  give  edible  pods,  called  snap 
or  string  beans  : 

The  Early  Valentine  grows  excellent,  long,  tender  pods.  Early  Yellow 
Six-weeks  is  very  productive.  Early  Mohawk  is  not  only  prolific,  but  hardy. 
The  Earlj'  China  is  an  old  favorite  ;  it  is  a  white  bean,  with  red  eye.  The 
Thousand-to-One  sort  is  also  an  old  and  very  popular  kind.  As  young 
bean-plants  are  easily  killed  by  frost,  you  must  not  plant  them  till  that 
danger  is  past  and  the  ground  is  light  and  warm.  A  pint  of  seed  will  plant 
a  drill  eighty  feet  long.  Cover  lightly  without  manure,  and  never  hoe  when 
the  vines  arc  wet,  but  stir  the  soil  very  often,  aud  use  plaster  and  ashes. 


Sec.  30.]  GARDEN   CULINARY   VEGETABLES.  477 

Of  pole-beans,  the  Early  Dutch  Case-knife  takes  the  lead.  It  is  earlv, 
I^rolific,  and  good  green  or  dry.  The  pods  are  sometimes  eaten,  hut  can  not 
be  recommended.  The  pods  of  all  the  Cranberry  beans  are  good.  The 
"  Horticultural  Cranberry  or  "Wren's  Egg"  grows  in  beautifully  red-striped 
pods,  is  of  a  light  red  and  cream  color,  speckled,  of  medium  size,  and  very 
good,  both  in  the  pods  and  shelled.  The  "White,  or  Marrowfat  Cranberry, 
is  very  tender  and  nice,  but  is  a  shy  bearer.  The  old  Red  Cranberry  is  more 
prolific  and  hardy,  but  the  pods  are  less  tender,  and  beans  not  so  delicate  in 
flavor,  but  it  is  a  valuable  sort  to  rely  upon.  The  beans  grow  of  good  size, 
roundish,  and  deep-red  color. 

535.  Lima  Beans  are  a  distinct  order  of  plants  from  the  others,  and  more 
difficult  to  cultivate,  as  they  require  a  longer  season  of  warm  weather,  and 
if  planted  before  the  ground  is  warm,  are  apt  to  rot,  and  each  seed  requires 
to  be  liaudled  separately  and  put  in  the  ground  with  the  eye,  downward  to 
insure  their  coming  up. 

The  best  manure  for  Lima  beans  is  superphosphate  of  lime.  They  grow  in 
long,  flat,  rough  pods,  and  the  vines  are  such  great  climbers,  that  they  would 
go  to  the  top  of  poles  thirty  feet  high.  Tlie  best  way  is  to  use  jioles  live  or 
six  feet  high,  and  pinch  back  the  vines,  or  train  them  horizontally.  To  get 
an  early  start,  set  each  bean  in  a  piece  of  sod  two  inches  square,  and  place 
these  sods  in  a  shallow  box  in  the  kitchen,  and  keep  them  well  watered  till 
it  will  answer  to  set  the  beans  out  around  the  poles. 

536.  Califorsia  Beans. — A  variety  of  beans  new  to  the  Atlantic  States,  in- 
troduced from  California,  has  been  highly  recommended.  A  letter,  written 
by  L.  Norris,  Windsor,  Ashtabula  County,  O.,  says  of  it : 

"  This  bean  is  of  medium  size,  of  a  peach-blow  color,  and  very  prolific. 
It  requires  only  one,  or  at  most  two  plants  in  each  hill,  as  it  produces  many 
lateral  vines.  It  is  a  short  runner,  only  from  tliree  to  four  feet  in  higlit.  I 
find  by  planting  them  with  corn,  one  bean  in  each  hill  answers  the  purpose 
well.  By  cooking  these  beans  in  the  following  way,  they  constitute  a 
savory  dish,  and  need  only  to  be  tasted  to  be  appreciated  :  Having  cleaned 
the  beans,  put  them  in  cold  water  ;  add  a  little  salt,  and  boil  uutiT  done,  but 
not  so  much  as  to  have  the  beans  crack  open.  Have  ready  a  frying-pan, 
with  some  lard,  whicii  heat  until  it  nearly  boils;  then  take  the  beans  out 
with  a  skimmer  and  put  them  into  the  frying-pan  and  fry  them  until  they 
absorb  nearly  all  the  fat ;  then  add  about  a  pint  of  the  bean  liquor  (of  which 
you  must  reserve  a  plenty) ;  tlien  boil,  or  rather  fry,  a  few  minutes,  stirring 
it  gently;  but  be  sure  the  liquor  docs  not  all  boil  away,  as  it  is  this  wliich 
gives  the  beans  such  a  delicious  flavor.     They  are  now  ready  for  the  taljJe." 

537.  Flowering  Beans  are  grown  almost  exclusively  for  ornament,  and  are 
known  as  '"Scarlet  runners"  or  ""White  runners,"  being  great  climbers,  and 
profuse  in  beautiful  flowers,  and  not  very  prolific  bearers.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  these  beans  are  not  edible  ;  they  are  so,  but  not  of  such  delicate 
flavor  as  to  be  recommended  for  that  purpose ;  they  are  \evy  ornamental, 
and  may  be  planted  to  climb  a  pole  in  a  showy  spot  in  the  garden,  or  near 


4:78  THE  GARDEIT  AND  ITS  FRTJITS.  [Cuap.  V. 

the  house  trained  to  trellises,  or  climbing  strings  up  the  house  side,  around 
windows,  or  along  a  piazza  front. 

53S.  Asparagus.— But  few  farmers  have  this  delicious,  early  spring  vege- 
table in  perfection,  because  they  do  not  know  how  to  cultivate  it  properly. 
It  is  a  perennial  plant,  which,  if  once  well  set,  produces  its  crop  of  tender, 
ricli  shoots,  year  after  year,  with  very  little  annual  cultivation.  It  may  be 
started  from  seeds  or  roots,  which  should  be  set  in  a  deeply-trenched  bed, 
well  drained,  and  made  just  as  rich  as  rich  can  be,  and  heavily  salted. 
Every  autumn,  cut  off  the  tops,  and  cover  the  bed  with  a  thick  coat  of 
manure,  salted ;  and  iil  the  spring,  fork  up  the  ground  lightly,  before  the 
sprouts  start,  mixing  in  the  manure,  and  if  any  of  it  is  unrotted,  lay  it  as  a 
mulch  between  the  rows.  Lime  and  ashes  are  both  excellent  for  surface- 
dressings.  There  are  three  varieties  of  asparagus — the  Large  Green  Purple 
Top,  or  Giant;  the  Improved  Ghent;  and  Common  Green — though  some 
contend  that  the  dififereuce  is  more  in  cultivation  than  anytliing  else.  The 
common  kind  is  certainly  improved  in  size  by  high  cultivation. 

In  May,  18G0,  a  Mr.  Fecks,  of  Oyster  Bay,  L.  I.,  exhil)ited,  to  the 
American  Institute  Farmers'  Club,  specimens  of  a  giant  asparagus,  grown 
at  Oyster  Bay,  originated  from  seed  at  Matinicock,  L.  I.,  the  bed  of  wliich 
is  now  over  thirty  years  old.  Some  of  .the  stalks  were  near]}'  an  inch  in 
diameter.  lie  stated  "that  he  had  about  four  acres,  which  he  called  only  a 
'  small  patch,'  because  other  ])ersons  had  more  than  twice  as  much,  and  he 
had  been  told  that  one  man  near  Jamaica  has  seventy  acres.  His  beds  are 
made  upon  good  potato-land,  plowed  deep,  and  highly  manured  with  stable 
or  hog-pen  manure.  At  one  year  from  seed,  the  plants  are  set  in  rows  four 
feet  apart,  and  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  AVe  trench  four- 
teen inches  deep,  with  manure  at  bottom,  which  is  covered  with  three  inches 
of  soil,  and  the  roots  set,  and  the  trench  filled  gradually  during  the  summer. 
In  cultivation,  we  plow  oft'  the  earth  and  put  manure  in  the  furrows  aljund- 
antly.  My  bed  is  so  near  the  level  of  salt  water  that  the  tide  rises  upon  it 
at  very  high  water,  and  the  yield  is  $300  an  acre.  We  do  not  cut  it  much, 
if  any,  the  first  two  years.  We  put  fifty  loads  of  manure  per  acre,  and  five 
hundred  pounds  of  guano.  '  Some  growers  use  1,500  pounds  of  guano  per 
acre.  The  bunches  of  sixteen  stalks  weigh  four  pounds.  Tlie  best  asparagus 
is  that  which  grows  above  ground.  The  white  is  always  tough.  We  some- 
times have  bunches  with  eight  inches  of  tender  green." 

It  is  a  mistaken  notion  to  cut  or  try  to  cat  the  white  part  of  asparagus 
stalks.  None  but  the  tender  green  part  is  fit  to  cat.  An  article  now  be- 
fore us  has  the  following  sensible  remarks  upon  this  subject.  The  writer 
says : 

"The  stalk  is  generally  cut  about  four  inches  long,  often  not  more  than 
two  or  three  inches,  and  from  one  third  to  one  half  the  length  is  white, 
showing  it  grew  below  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  this  part  is  always  tougli  and 
bitter,  and  unfit  to  eat.  In  truth,  it  is  never  eaten,  so  that  fully  one  half  of 
the  vreight  of  a  bunch  of  asparagus,  purchased  in  the  market,  is  a  dead  loss. 


Sec.  30.]  GAEDEN  CULINAEY  VEGETABLES.  479 

If  the  stalk  be  cut  four  inches  long,  and  two  inches  below  the  earth's  surface, 
about  one  inch  and  a  half  of  the  top  part  is  fit  for  nse — -no  more.  Aspara- 
gus should  never  be  cut  till  it  is  five  or  six  inches  out  of  the  ground.  I 
often  let  it  grow  ten  or  twelve  inches  high.  "When  five  or  si.x  inches  high, 
it  should  be  cut  about  a  half  inch  above  the  ground  ;  but  when  ten  or  twelve 
inches  high,  it  should  be  cut  si.x  or  seven  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
earth ;  or,  if  it  be  cut  near  the  ground,  all  the  bottom  part  sliould  be 
rejected. 

"After  cutting  it,  take  a  sharp  knife,  and  commencing  at  the  lower  end, 
feel  your  way  along  toward  the  top,  till  you  come  to  where  it  is  perfectly 
tender,  then  cut  it  off,  throwing  away  the  lower  part. 

"  It  is  only  the  green,  tender  part  that  is  above  the  ground  that  is  sweet, 
healthy,  and  nutritious,  or  fit  to  cook  and  eat.  The  white,  tough,  and  bitter 
part,  that  grows  below  the  earth's  surface,  is  not  half  as  good  as  corn- 
stalks, and  should  not  be  allowed  to  be  sold  in  any  market  in  the  civilized 
world. 

"  For  private  families,  asparagus-beds  should  be  made  at  consideraljlc  ex- 
pense, and  with  mucli  care.  Four  or  five  dollars  will  make  a  bed  that  will 
amjily  supply,  for  many  years  in  succession,  a  family  of  eight  or  ten  per- 
sons, if  properly  taken  care  of.  To  make  a  first-rate  bed  for  that  number  in 
a  familj',  make  it  about  five  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet  long.  Dig  out  the 
ground  two  and  a  half  feet  deep,  and  fill  iip  with  chips,  sawdust,  tan,  or 
sticks  of  wood,  packed  close  together,  five  or  six  inches  from  the  Ijottom. 
Then  put  in  five  or  six  inches  of  the  strongest  stable  manure,  and  fill  up  to 
the  top  with  manure  and  dirt,  about  half  and-half. 

"  The  bed  is  now  fit  to  plant.  Put  your  roots  about  ten  inches  apart,  each 
way,  over  the  entire  bed,  and  then  cover  them  about  three  inches  deep  with 
the  richest  soil  to  be  had,  and  sow  evenly  over  the  whole  a  peck  of  common 
salt  and  a  peck  of  ashes,  mixed  together.  Asparagus  is  a  marine-plant,  re- 
quiring salt  and  alkalies  for  fertilizers,  which  should  be  supjilied  every 
spring  to  make  the  plants  flourish. 

"  Keep  the  beds  clean  of  weeds  and  well  manured,  and  for  this  quantity 
of  ground  you  will  have  a  rich  and  abundant  supply  for  eight  or  ten  in 
a  family,  every  day,  if  desired,  from  about  the  first  of  April  till  the  last  of 
June.  The  yield  will  be  ten  times  as  much  as  could  be  obtained  from  the 
same  number  of  square  feet  planted  in  peas  or  beans.  There  is  not,  among 
all  the  green  vegetables  brought  to  market,  another  so  productive,  palatable, 
nutritious,  and  healthy  as  this  plant. 

"Where  it  is  raised  for  market,  a  warm,  rich,  vegetable  mold  should  be 
selected.     A  sandy  loam  is  better  than  clay." 

539.  felery. — This  is  another  good  vegetable  for  early  spring,  when  there 
is  a  longing  for  something  green  or  fresh  from  the  garden,  which  is  but  little 
known  to  farmers  in  general.  It  is  a  hardy  biennial,  grown  from  seed  sown 
in  the  spring,  which  will  produce  seed  the  second  year.  For  the  table,  the 
stalks  only  are  used,  and  generally  raw,  though  good  cooked,  and  to  make 


480  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

thein  tender  and  palatable,  are  grown  in  a  pecnliar  M'ay,  which  blanches  and 
makes  tliem  crisp,  tender,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  being  aromatic  and 
slightly  pungent,  SM'eet,  and  agreeable  to  all  who  are  accustomed  to  eating 
them.  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation,  some  of  the  best  of  whicii 
arc  named  as  follows :  White  Solid,  Seymour's  Superb  "White,  Cole's  Crystal 
VChitc,  Cole's  Superb  Eed,  Dwarf  White  French,  Incomparable;  this  is  a 
dwarf  sort,  of  a  short,  stiff,  close  habit,  growing  crisp,  solid,  and  white,  and 
keeps  juicy  and  perfect  longer  than  some  other  sorts.  Laing's  Mammoth 
Eed  is  the  largest  sort,  and  is  highly  esteemed  in  England,  but  not  as  much 
so  here  as  Nonesuch,  whicli  is  said  to  possess  an  excellent  flavor,  and  keep 
well  in  spring  without  seeding.  Mead's  Improved  White  is  a  new  American 
variety,  getting  into  good  repute.  Celery-seed  should  be  planted  early  in 
spring,  and  covered  shallow  in  rich,  mellow  soil,  beating  the  earth  down  com- 
l>:R'tly  over  the  seeds  with  the  back  of  a  spade.  When  the  plants  are  three 
inciies  high,  thin  them  out  to  four  inches  apart,  and  keep  them  clear  of  weeds 
till  six  inches  high,  and  then  transplant  into  trenches  about  a  foot  deep,  first 
tilling  them  half  full  of  fine  manure,  well  mixed  with  soil,  and  set  the 
plants  six  inches  apart,  first  shortening  roots  and  tops.  As  they  increase  in 
size,  draw  in  the  sides  of  the  trench,  and  continue  to  earth  up,  keeping  the 
stalks  and  leaves  all  drawn  close  together,  so  the  tops  only  show  a  few  inches 
above  the  ridge.  There  is  no  better  fertilizer  than  salt  for  this  plant. 
Sprinkle  the  ground  each  time  before  earthing  up,  and  take  care  each  time 
to  hold  the  stalks  together,  so  that  no  dirt  will  fall  into  the  center  of  the 
bunch.  An  ounce  of  celery-seed  will  produce  some  five  thousand  plants. 
Both  in  the  plant-bed  and  in  the  trenches,  celery  will  drink  up  a  great  deal 
of  water  or  liquid  manure.  Some  recommend  keeping  the  plants  in  the 
trenches  constantly  saturated  with  water,  tinctured  with  guano,  or  strong 
manure  and  salt.  If  kept  constantly  moist,  the  earthing-up  process  may  be 
deferred  till  late  in  the  fall.     One  says : 

"  Late  in  autumn  the  whole  bed  is  covered  with  forest  leaves,  a  foot  or 
foot  and  a  half  thick,  with  a  few  cornstalks  to  prevent  their  blowing  away. 
From  this  bed  the  celery  may  be  readily  obtained  at  any  time,  fresh,  sweet, 
and  crisp,  during  tiie  winter." 

Another  covers  the  ridge  with  coarse  manure,  so  it  will  not  freeze ;  and 
another  takes  up  the  plants,  and  packs  them  in  an  upright  position  in  a. 
trench  three  feet  wide,  and  covers  the  whole  with  coarse  manure.  This  is 
only  necessary  where  the  plants  are  required  in  winter  for  market  purposes. 
For  family  use,  a  few  can  be  kept  in  wet  moss,  while  the  ground  remains 
frozen.  As  a  general  rule,  we  believe  the  blacker  the  earth  that  celery  is 
"•lown  in,  the  whiter  will  it  blanch.  Some  jiersons  blanch  with  boards,  set 
up  against  the  plants,  covered  with  charcoal-dust.  A  writer  in  the  Garrhn- 
crs  Chronicle,  London,  recommends  the  use  of  sawdust,  which  he  finds  an- 
swers the  purpose  better  than  any  other  material,  especially  for  late  crops 
to  be  kept  during  the  winter.     He  says: 

"  Having  had  some  trouble  in  keeping  late  celery  from  rotting,  where  the 


Sec.  so.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  481 

soil  was  very  retentive  and  damp,  and  the  plants  earthed  up  in  the  nsual 
manner,  I  nsed  sawdust,  and  found  that  it  answered  perfectly.  Last  winter 
all  the  late  celery  was  earthed  up  with  sawdust,  and  it  kept  quite  sound  till 
April,  and  no  slugs  or  insects  attacked  it  underground,  the  heads  being  very 
solid,  clear,  and  crisp,  and  well  flavored.  I  had  some  doubts  that  the  saw- 
dust from  resinous  trees  might  give  the  celery  a  disagreeable  flavor,  but  on 
trial  I  found  this  not  to  be  the  case.  Before  the  late  severe  frost  occurred  in 
October  I  had  just  finished  the  earthing  np  of  all  the  late  celery  with  sawdust, 
and  I  find  it  is  now  wonderfully  fresh,  the  frost  not  having  penetrated  far 
through  the  surface  to  the  hearts." 

Another  correspondent  recommends  charred  earth  in  preference  to  saw- 
dust, "as  it  will  not  only  answer  the  purpose  as  well,  but  will  allow  the 
rain-water  to  percolate  more  freely  to  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  be  of  in- 
finite service  to  a  soil  of  a  damp,  retentive  nature."  The  sawdust,  he  thinks, 
will  induce  an  injurious  growth  of  fungi  in  the  soil. 

540.  ('hiccory. — This  is  a  garden  plant,  scarcely  known  to  American 
farmers,  though  extensively  grown  in  England,  and  within  the  last  ten 
years  it  has  become  a  favorite  article  of  growth  and  consumption.  It  grows 
somewhat  like  carrots,  and  its  cultivation  is  similar,  and  its  principal  use  is 
to  furnish  a  substitute  for  cofl"ee,  or  an  article  to  mix  with  it,  as  it  is  to  a 
great  extent  with  all  that  is  sold  in  a  burnt  and  ground  state  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reducing  the  price,  or  if  sold  at  the  pi-ice  of  pure  coffee,  giving  the 
manufacturer  a  larger  profit. 

The  carrot-like  roots  of  the  chiccory  are  washed,  scraped,  and  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  kiln-dried,  and  then  roasted  and  ground  like  coflee.  To 
give  the  chiccory  an  oily  appearance  like  coffee,  lard  is  put  in  the  roaster  at 
the  rate  of  two  pounds  to  a  hundred  of  dried  roots.  It  is  colored  with  Ve- 
netian red,  or  logwood  and  mahogany  dust,  where  the  cliiccory  is  to  be  sold 
nearly  pure  for  "  pure  coffee." 

Although  not  much  grown  here,  we  believe  some  coffee  roasters  in  New 
York  know  its  value  to  them,  and  import  it  in  considerable  quantities.  No 
doubt  it  may  be  profitably  cultivated,  not  only  for  sale  or  use  as  a  substi- 
tute for  coffee,  but  for  a  good  forage  crop  in  the  tops.  Sow  it  in  April  in 
drills  a  foot  apart  for  hand  hoeing,  just  as  you  should  carrots,  on  rich,  deep 
soil,  on  such  ground  as  would  produce  a  good  carrot  crop,  and  harvest  in 
autumn.  Some  grow  the  leaves  blanched,  to  use  as  a  salad,  by  taking  up 
the  roots  in  autumn  and  trimming  off  the  tops,  and  setting  the  roots  in  sand 
in  a  dark  cellar,  when  young  blanched  leaves  start  out.  The  roots  live  over 
winter  like  parsneps,  but,  like  them,  are  tough  and  stringy  the  second  year. 
Tlie  leaves  resemble  dandelion,  and  tops  and  roots  have  a  delicate  bitter 
taste,  and  are  slightly  aromatic.  For  a  forage  crop,  the  tops  grow  very 
rapidly  and  thick,  and  may  be  cut  four  or  five  times.  The  roots,  too,  are 
very  good  for  stock.  We  recommend  its  cultivation  in  gardens,  in  a  small 
way,  until  its  value  is  well  tested. 

541.  Corn  in  the  Garden. — There  are  several  varieties  of  sweet  com  suitable 


482  THE  GAKDEJT  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

for  early  and  late  use.  "We  will  mention  a  few,  and  advise  all  farmers  to 
select  such  an  assortment  as  will  serve  to  give  them  ears  fit  for  the  tahlo 
through  the  longest  season  possible.  The  earliest  may  he  started  in  hot- 
beds, and  transplanted  as  well  as  any  other  plants,  or  it  may  be  jilantcd,  as 
we  have  recommended  for  early  beans,  in  square  bits  of  sod,  or  in  small 
pots  kept  in  the  house,  where  it  is  warm  and  constantly  moist.  Smith's 
Early  White  is  a  dwarf  variety,  which  may  be  planted  for  the  first  yield  in 
hills  only  two  and  a  half  feet  apart.  Darling's  Extra  Early  sweet  corn  is 
thought  by  some  to  produce  ears  the  earliest  of  any  variety  ;  and  the  Early 
lied  Cob  is  also  a  very  early  sort,  growing  short  ears,  eight  or  ten  rowed, 
which  fill  well  out  to  the  end.  The  Early  Tuscarora  is  a  large  variety,  and 
matures  early,  but  not  as  much  so  as  the  dwarf  sorts.  It  is  eight  rowed, 
Avith  broad,  white  grains,  and  remains  fit  for  boiling  a  long  time.  This  sort 
requires  a  very  rich  soil.  For  the  main  crop,  the  kind  known  as  Lai-ge 
Sweet  is  perhaps  the  most  productive ;  and  for  very  late  eating,  StoweU's 
Evergreen  or  Burr's  Mammoth  Sweet  sliould  be  planted  in  rich  hills,  three 
and  a  half  or  four  feet  apart,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July.  "We  have  seen 
it  yield  well,  planted  late  in  August,  by  protecting  the  hills  with  stalks  of 
the  early  sorts  tied  around  them.  It  is  also  kept  good  till  December  by 
cutting  or  pulling  up  the  hills  and  setting  them  in  a  dry  cellar  or  out- 
l)uilding.  Both  of  these  late  sorts  grow  ears  with  twelve  to  eighteen  rows, 
large  grains  on  white  cobs,  and  very  bushy  stalks.  Tiiere  should  be  a 
])lanting  of  corn  for  family  use  every  fortnight  from  April  to  August. 

"Where  land  is  scarce,  we  recommend  planting  corn  and  potatoes  in  the 
same  hill.  The  corn  will  be  just  as  good  as  though  no  potatoes  were  there, 
and  if  the  stalks  of  the  corn  are  cut  away  as  soon  as  the  ears  arc  mature 
enough  to  boil,  the  yield  of  potatoes  will  be  a  fair  one — in  our  experience 
just  as  good  as  hills  alongside  without  corn. 

bi2.  Early  Gardcu  Potatoes> — It  is  quite  important  to  farmers  to  know 
what  are  the  earliest  sorts  of  potatoes,  since  they  are  the  most  staple  tood 
article  grown  as  garden  vegetables,  and  we  therefore  name  some  of  the  most 
approved  varieties.  We  have  always  found  the  nutmeg  potatoes  the  earliest 
of  any,  but  objectionable  on  account  of  their  general  small  size,  and  because 
ihey  do  not  yield  well.  There  is  a  sort  called  '"Mammoth  Nutmegs,"'  which 
grow  larger  and  yield  better.  The  Nutmegs  have  a  very  smooth  skin,  light 
yellow,  with  white  flesh,  and  keep  well,  but  are  good  for  nothing  for  winter 
use.  The  Early  June  is  a  good  potato,  and  more  productive.  The  Extra 
Early  White  is  said  to  be  productive,  and  capable  of  producing  a  very  early 
crop.  The  Early  Wendell  and  Early  Carpenter  are  both  spoken  of  by  those 
who  grow  them  as  the  best  early  variety  known.  We  have  been  well  satis- 
fied with  the  Buckeye  as  an  early  growing  potato,  but  it  did  not  keep  well 
with  us.  The  Dykeman  is  not  as  early  as  some  others,  but  answers  first-rate 
to  mature  a  week  or  two  later.  Either  of  these  may  be  grown  to  great  ad- 
vantage in  the  garden,  and  we  recommend  that  all  of  them  should  be  tried, 
and  proved  which  is  best  for  each  particular  locality. 


Sec.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINAPwY  VEGETABLES.  483 

543.  Cucurbita — GourdSi — The  family  of  cucurbita,  embracing  everything 
from  gourds  to  cucumbers,  appears  in  an  almost  countless  variety  of  forms, 
under  some  of  which  it  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  garden.  In  our 
youthful  days,  almost  every  family  raised  a  few  gourds,  and  very  conve- 
nient things  they  were,  not  only  for  water  dippers,  but  holders  of  a  great 
many  little  articles.  We  used  them  for  storehouses  of  small  seeds.  At  the 
South,  and  in  some  of  the  new  portions  of  the  "West,  gourds  are  still  grown 
to  a  considerable  extent,  and  when  we  traveled  through  most  Of  the  South- 
western States  between  1840  and  1850,  we  should  have  thought  something 
was  lacking  if  we  had  not  found  a  pail  and  one  or  more  drinking-gourds  at 
some  convenient  spot  about  the  house — generally  on  the  front  piazza,  where 
every  traveler  could  help  himself  to  a  drink  of  water.  Often,  too,  on  visit- 
ing the  springs  by  the  roadside  or  in  the  plantations,  we  have  f  )und  the  in- 
dispensable gourd  hanging  to  a  tree.  They  are  grown  of  all  sizes,  from  a 
gill  to  a  gallon ;  and  one  kind  that  grows  without  the  elongation  for  a 
handle  we  have  seen  of  the  capacity  of  half  a  bushel,  and  the  shell  so  hard 
that  they  would  last  many  years  for  dry  storage.  In  Texas,  a  variety  with 
a  depression  in  the  middle,  and  bulb  of  equal  size  at  each  end,  is  frequently 
used  to  carry  water  on  horseback,  it  is  so  convenient  to  lash  to  the  saddle. 
A  little  drinking-gourd,  as  hard  as  wood,  and  almost  white,  holding  about 
a  third  of  a  pint,  was  given  us  by  a  lady  in  Mississippi,  which  accompanied 
us  during  many  tliousand  miles  of  journeying,  and  out  of  which  we  had 
many  a  sweet  drink  of  water  from  i-oadside  springs.  No  one  thought  it 
worth  while  to  steal  a  gourd  from  the  wagon,  while  a  tumbler,  tin  cup,  or 
earthen  mug  would  probably  have  disappeared  the  first  night.  We  heartily 
commend  this  good  old  fashion  of  growing  gourds  to  the  attention  of  all 
farmers.  It  will  save  many  a  dollar  used  up  in  tin  cups  and  dippers,  and 
costly,  fragile  glass  and  earthenware. 

544.  CucumberSi — These  rarely  fail  if  planted  in  hills  Tnadc  as  rich  as  it  is 
possible  to  make  them,  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  leaving  only  two  or  three 
plants  to  run  to  vines  from  each  hill,  and  sometimes  that  is  too  many.  The 
ground  must  be  kept  free  of  weeds  in  all  the  stages  of  growth  of  vines,  to 
insure  a  good  crop.  A  very  good  way  to  raise  a  few  early  cucumbers  for 
family  use  is  to  fill  a  barrel  or  larger  cask  with  hog-pen  or  other  rich  ma- 
nure, covered  with  sand,  and  set  it  in  the  grass-plat,  near  the  house,  where  it 
can  be  watered  every  day — no  matter  how  often.  We  have  seen  a  good  lot 
of  cucumbers  grown  by  earthing  over  the  ash-leach  and  letting  the  vines 
hang  over  the  sides.  This  also  requires  frequent  watering,  for  that  is  the 
great  source  of  all  great  garden  productions.  Without  it,  high  manuring  is 
worthless. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  variety  is  one  lately  introduced,  called  the  Early 
Eussiau.  It  is  prolific,  and  matures  for  the  table  ten  days  sooner  than  the 
Early  Cluster,  or  Early  Frame,  or  Short  Green.  Tiie  Early  White-spined 
sort  is  considered  best  for  the  table.  It  is  larger  than  the  other  early  sorts, 
straight,  smooth,  and  dark  green.     For  pickles,  there  are  several  good  sorts : 


484  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

the  Long  Green  Prickly ;  Long  Green  Turkey ;  Stockwood  Eidgc  ;  and 
Carter's  Long  Ridge. 

For  early  use,  cucumbers  may  be  planted  in  sods  inverted  in  a  box  that 
can  be  taken  in  and  out  of  tlie  house,  according  to  weather,  until  it  is  warm 
enough  to  set  them  in  place.  You  can  not  make  the  hills  for  cucumbers 
too  rich.  Some  market  gardeners  divide  the  hills  in  quarters,  and  plant  one 
fourth  at  a  time,  a  week  apart ;  'so  that  if  one  planting  fiiils,  another  Avill 
succeed.  The  plants  should  be  hoed  frequently,  and  the  bugs  watched  care- 
fully. Seed  improves  by  age  ;  an  ounce  will  plant  a  hundred  hills;  though 
as  they  are  planted  on  Long  Island  for  market,  an  ounce  would  be  needed 
for  a  dozen  hills.  The  market  gardeners  put  in  such  a  quantity  of  seed, 
that  the  bugs  are  not  able  to  eat  all  until  some  get  too  big  for  them. 

645.  Miisk-Melous  should  not  be  planted  till  the  earth  gets  warm,  and 
then  in  hills  dug  deep  and  made  rich  with  Avell-rotted  manure.  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  pinch  out  the  bud  of  the  main  shoot  as  soon  as  half  a  dozen 
rough  leaves  are  formed,  as  that  causes  lateral  branches,  and  makes  the  fruit 
set  earlier.  Light,  dry,  sandy  loam  made  rich,  and  a  dry,  hot  atmosphere, 
if  the  plants  are  kept  moist,  will  grow  fine  melons.  We  think  the  Green 
citron,  a  small,  rough  green  skin,  roundish  form,  the  best  sort.  Tlie  Pine- 
apple and  Jenny  Lind  are  similar,  and  excellent.  The  Nutmeg  melon 
grows  larger,  with  rough  skin  and  greenish  flesh,  aromatic  and  sweet. 
Skillman's  Fine  Netted  looks  as  though  the  green  melon  was  bagged  in  a 
brown  net,  and  is  a  very  fine  melon,  and  ripens  earl}-.  Tlie  Christiana  is  a 
yellow-fleshed  sort  that  ripens  very  early.     It  is  a  Massachusetts  seedling. 

54(5.  Water-NeloBS,  though  grown  in  all  the  Northern  States,  never  come 
to  such  jierfection  of  excellence  as  they  do  in  warmer  climates.  Here  they 
should  be  planted  in  Maj'  in  light,  dry  ground,  and  they  often  do  best  upon  al- 
most pure  beds  of  sand,  having  hills  prepared  by  digging  out  large  holes  and 
filling  them  with  manure,  and  covering  it  with  soil.  If  the  plants  arc  wa- 
tered with  a  solution  of  two  pounds  of  Peruvian  guano  in  a  barrel  of  water, 
their  vigor  will  be  much  increased.  It  is  a  great  object  to  get  them  forward 
as  fast  as  possible.  A  very  successful  grower  of  water-melons  upon  the  gra- 
nitic soil  of  AVestchester  County,  N.  Y.,  says  : 

"I  dig  a  hole  three  feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep  or  more,  and  fill  it  with 
cow-yard  manure  early  in  the  season* — say  1st  of  May,  and  cover  this  with 
light  soil,  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  before  planting  the  seeds.  For  musk- 
melons  I  manure  with  well-decomposed  manure,  sown  broadcast  and  worked 
into  the  soil.  I  would  also  work  in  a  little  of  tliis  fine  manure  in  the  top 
of  the  water-melon  hills." 

The  vines  fruit  better  if  the  leading  shoots  are  frequently  pinched  back. 
"Water-melon  hills  should  be  ten  feet  apart  in  rich,  sandy  loam  or  artificially 
enriched  sand.  Six  or  eight  seeds  to  a  hill,  not  over  an  inch  deep,  in  fine, 
black  soil,  over  any  amount  of  rich  manure,  will  produce  vigorotis  vines. 
The  varieties  of  water-melons  are  almost  innumerable.  Tlie  Mountain 
Sweet  and  Black  Spanish  are  our  favorites.     Cut-worms  and  bugs  are  the 


Seo.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  485 

greatest  pests  of  all  vines,  and  the  best  of  the  many  remedies  in  our  opinion 
is  the  cheapest,  which  is  simply  inclosing  the  hill  as  soon  as  planted  with  a 
board  box  six  or  eight  inclies  high,  drawing  the  earth  up  a  little  around  the 
outside.  It  has  been  found  unnecessary  to  cover  the  top  with  thin  muslin 
or  flakes  of  cotton  batting,  except  for  tiie  purpose  of  keeping  the  earth 
warmer.  These  boxes  should  be  made  about  a  foot  squai'c,  and  tapering 
enough  to  admit  packing  them  in  nests  to  stow  away  as  soon  as  the  plants 
are  large  enough  to  allow  of  removing  their  wooden  walled  protection. 
Other  seeds  may  be  protected  by  such  boxes  against  scratching  hens,  as  they 
will  seldom,  if  ever,  get  inside  to  do  mischief;  and  so  long  as  hens  do  not  de- 
stroy seeds  or  plants,  or  fruit  in  a  garden,  they  are  useful,  for  they  eat  up 
thousands  of  worms  and  bugs. 

Other  melons  should  lie  planted  and  treated  as  we  have  said  of  water- 
melons ;  and  of  all  the  various  sorts  of  musk-melons,  the  small  green  melon 
that  looks  as  though  covered  with  a  fine  flaxen  netting  is  the  best,  to  our 
taste,  though  we  have  great  hopes  that  the  new  Persian  melon,  that  grows 
as  big  as  the  old  musk-melon,  will  prove  as  rich  as  its  first  fruits  indicate. 

Great  care  is  necessary  to  save  melon  seed  pure.  Vines  of  cucumbers 
and  melons  never  should  grow  near  to  each  other.  Let  the  truth  be  re- 
membered, that  the  varieties  of  all  this  family  will  mix,  and  that  seedlings 
seldom  improve  cither  sort,  and  that  the  best  always  suifer  by  the  contact. 

Bees  are  great  mixers  of  the  pollen  of  flowers,  and  they  can  only  be  j)re- 
vented  by  getting  up  earlier  in  the  morning  than  the  bees.  Select  a  number 
of  female  blossoms  which  have  opened  during  the  night.  They  may  be 
known  by  growing  on  the  end  of  the  young  squash,  melon,  etc.,  while  the 
male  blossoms  ("  false  blows,"  as  they  are  often  called)  have  no  fruit.  Scat- 
ter the  pollen  of  the  male  blossoms  upon  the  stamens  of  the  female  ones,  and 
carefully  cover  the  latter  with  millinet,  or  anything  which  will  protect  them 
from  the  visits  of  the  bees.  A  piece  of  cotton  cloth,  or  even  a  squash  leaf, 
kept  in  place  by  a  few  clods  of  earth,  will  answer  a  good  purpose.  "When 
the  blossom  withers,  the  covering  may  be  removed,  and  the  fruit  marked  by 
a  colored  string  tied  loosely  around  the  vine. 

547.  Melons  Started  in  the  House. — It  is  recommended  by  one  who  has 
met  with  success,  to  fill  some  small  open  baskets  with  earth  and  start  the 
plants  in  them  b}'  artificial  heat.  Suitable  baskets  to  hold  a  pint  may  be 
made  for  half  a  cent  each  of  bark  or  willow  twigs,  or  split  stuflf,  or  even 
shavings,  or  old,  worthless  strawberry  baskets  may  be  used.  Perhaps  straw 
baskets  would  answer,  and  be  very  cheaply  made.  Anything  that  will 
hold  the  dirt  until  the  plants  are  large  enougli  to  set  out,  will  answer  the 
purpose,  and  then  the  baskets  and  all  the  contents  are  planted  in  the  hills. 
The  object  in  using  baskets  is  not  to  disturb  the  roots  of  the  plants,  as  they 
are  very  tender,  and  do  not  bear  transplanting.  Any  other  tender  plant 
may  be  grown  in  the  same  way. 

548.  The  Apple-Pic  Melon. — L.  Norris,  of  "Windsor,  Ashtabula  County, 
O.,  says:  "The  apple-pie  melon,  with  good  cultivation,  will  attain  to  40  or 


486  TBE  GARDEK  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

50  lbs.  each,  and  if  gathered  carefully  wlien  rii^e,  and  kci)t  in  a  dry,  cool 
place,  will  keep  sound  a  year,  and  will  always  prove  a  good  substitute  for 
fruit  for  pies  or  sweetmeats.  To  use,  peel  off  the  skin,  take  out  the  pulp,  cut 
fine,  and  stew  three  or  four  hours,  when  the  substance  will  resemble  stewed 
green  apples  ;  to  which  add  sugar  and  lemon-juice,  and  it  will  make  pies 
that  can  not  easily  he  told  from  those  of  apples." 

Another  cultivator  says :  "  This  melon  attains  a  largo  size  ;  I  have  grown 
specimens  the  past  season,  eighteen  inches  in  length,  weighing  from  30  to 
40  lbs.  They  are  cylindrical  in  form  ;  color,  when  ripe,  a  golden  tint,  very 
solid,  and  flesh  close-grained  ;  color  of  seeds,  a  dark  green  or  blue ;  ripens 
in  September,  and  will  keep  sound  and  good,  it  is  said,  for  two  years,  but 
we  have  not  as  yet  tested  their  keeping  qualities.  They  prove  hardy  and 
of  easy  culture,  and  I  consider  this  melon  a  valuable  acquisition.  We  have 
tested  the  quality  of  them  for  pies,  and  find  them  very  delicious.  To  pre- 
pare one  for  cooking,  peel  and  cut  up  the  melon  small,  taking  out  the  seeds 
and  soft  pulp.  Put  the  pieces  in  a  preserving  kettle  with  just  enough 
water  to  keep  them  from  burm"ng,  and  stew  over  a  tolerably  hi-isk  fire  for 
three  or  four  hours,  or  until  the  whole  is  reduced  to  a  soft,  pulpy  mass,  free 
from  lumps,  and  thoroughly  done.  You  have  then  a  substance  resembling 
green  apples  stewed,  and  by  adding  a  little  sugar  and  lemon-juico  to  it,  and 
making  it  with  crust  in  the  usual  M'ay,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  it  from  a  fresh 
apple-pic.  If  you  desire  a  pic  like  pumpkin  or  custard  of  the  melons,  stew 
as  above  directed,  but  omit  the  lemons,  and  bring  the  pulpy  mass  to  the 
proper  richness  and  consistency  by  the  addition  of  sugar,  milk,  and  eggs. 
Little  of  either  of  these  ingredients  will  be  found  necessary — only  sufficient 
to  give  the  melon  color  and  flavor.'* 

549.  Squashes— Summer  aud  Winter  Varieties.— The  varieties  of  squashes 
are  so  numerous,  that  almost  every  neighborhoo<l  has  some  favorite.  The 
most  universal  one  is  the  Boston  Marrow,  and  next  the  Hubbard  squash ;  the 
last  the  best,  but  being  a  newer  variety,  has  only  become  generally  known 
within  a  few  yeai-s.  They  are  both  medium-sized,  and  are  extremely  rich 
food  for  winter  use,  simply  boiled  and  eaten  as  a  table  vegetable,  as  a 
substitute  for  sweet  potatoes,  or  for  pics  and  other  cookeries.  The  form  of 
the  first  is  ovate,  pointed,  with  thin,  salmon-colored  rind,  and  flesh  of  deep 
orange  color  and  fine-grained  ;  keeping  all  winter.  Aver:ige  weight,  six 
to  eight  pounds.  The  Hubbard  is  a  better  substitute  for  sweet  potatoes 
than  the  other.  It  has  a  hard  shell,  aud  is  an  excellent  kind  to  keep 
through  the  winter.  It  grows  about  the  same  size  as  the  Marrow,  and  is 
immensely  prolific.  The  Lima  Cocoanut  is  a  variety  much  esteenietl  bj' 
some  as  a  winter  squash  ;  it  grows  large,  oblong,  of  a  bluish  color,  very  fine- 
grained, and  sweet.  The  Honolulu,  a  new  variety,  is  said  to  excel  all  others 
in  productiveness,  fine  flavor,  and  good  keeping  qualities.  A  large,  almost 
Aviiite  squash,  which  we  have  grown  several  years,  we  like  full  as  well  as 
either  of  the  above  for  pics,  and  it  is  more  hardy,  and  sure  to  produce  a 
good  crop  in  all  situations.     The  flesh  is  sweet  and  rich,  but  not  as  fine- 


Sf.c.  30.]  GARDEN   CULINARY   VEGETABLES.  487 

gi-ained  as  the  others,  but  it  grows  three  or  four  times  larger,  with  a  smooth, 
polished  skin,  the  color  of  white  wax.  In  size  of  fruit  and  vines,  it  is  more 
like  pumpkins  than  ordinary  squashes.  Among  all  new  varieties,  we  should 
nt)t  forget  tlie  old  Crookneck.  It  is  a  squash  of  good  eating  and  keeping 
i|nality,  and  not  so  delicate  in  its  growth  as  some  others.  There  is  also  a 
crook-necked  summer  squash,  which  is  considered  bj  those  who  have  grown 
it,  the  largest,  the  very  best  of  all  the  summer  varieties.  It  is  early,  pro- 
ductive, and  one  of  the  kind  called  bush,  or  non-running  sorts.  Its  color 
is  yellow,  and  has  a  warty  skin,  and  hard  shell  when  ripe.  The  Early 
White,  scolloped,  a  bush  variety,  we  have  grown  with  satisfaction  as  to  its 
eating  qualities,  though  we  thought  it  a  shy  bearer.  The  hills  for  squashes 
should  be  highly  manured  with  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  compost,  but 
not  with  anything  very  putrescent,  which  will  give  off  ammonia  and  kill 
the  3'oung  plants,  which  are  very  tender.  The  seeds  must  not  be  planted 
while  there  is  any  danger  of  frost,  as  a  very  slight  degree  of  cold  will  kill 
the  vines  while  new.  The  use  of  salt  in  manui-e  must  be  avoided  with  all 
the  cHcurlita  family,  but  plaster  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  both  as  a 
fertilizer  and  bug  preventive. 

550.  Egg-Plants. — These  garden  plants  are  not  as  much  grown  in  I^orthern 
gardens  as  in  Southe.rn  ones,  because  they  can  rarely  be  brought  forward 
early  enough  in  the  spring  without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  as  the  young 
plants  are  very  tender.  If  you  have  no  hot-bed,  sow  the  seed  as  early  as 
possible  in  a  sheltered,  warm,  dry  situation,  and  protect  the  young  plants 
with  hand-glasses  or  boxes,  or  some  covering  in  cold  nights,  until  they  are 
three  or  four  inches  high  ;  and  when  the  weather  has  become  steadily  warm, 
transplant  them  into  very  rich,  mellow  soil,  setting  the  plants  two  and  a 
half  feet  apart.  A  fourth  ounce  of  seed  will  produce  more  plants  than  any 
family  wants.  The  earliest  variety  is  called  Long  Purple,  and  grows  a 
plum-colored  fruit  of  several  pounds'  M-eight,  M'hich  those  who  are  accustomed 
to  eating  it,  call  delicious.  There  is  a  sort,  called  Large  Oval  Purple,  that 
grows  larger  than  the  above,  and  is  perhaps  preferable  for  general  culture. 
The  early  and  late  sorts  may  be  distinguished  while  growing  by  the  stems. 
The  earliest  grows  smooth  and  the  others  prickly.  There  are  two  sorts 
grown  for  garden  ornament — one  red  and  the  other  white— of  much  smaller 
size  than  the  sorts  generally  grown  for  cooking. 

551.  Salad-PIauts — Lettuce. — Lettuce  is  the  principal  salad-plant  cultivated 
among  farmers,  and  so  far  as  our  observation  extends,  the  poorest  varieties 
arc  most  in  use,  and  rarely  made  to  produce  semi-solid  heads,  such  as  we 
often  see  in  the  city  market,  almost  large  enough  to  be  mistaken  for  cab- 
bages. The  best  sort  for  early  spring  use,  sown  in  open  ground,  or  for  hot- 
bed forcing,  is  the  Early  Curled  Silesia,  because  it  makes  a  strong  growth 
of  yellowish-green  tender  leaves,  which  are  very  good  eating  as  soon  as  they 
are  large  enough  to  pick,  and  will  afterwards  form  loose  heads.  Do  not  pull 
up  the  young  roots,  but  pick  off  the  leaves,  or  clip  them  from  the  roots  with 
a  pair  of  scissors,  and  others  will  soon  grow.     The  Early  Tennis  Ball  is 


488  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRCTTS.  [Cn.vp.  V. 

esteemed  one  of  the  best  varieties  which  form  heads.  Recollect  that  soino 
sorts  of  lettuce  M'ill  not  head,  witli  all  your  care,  but  t!ie  leaves  may  be  niaiK- 
more  tender  by  tying  them  up,  so  that  tliey  will  grow  blanched.  One  of  tlio 
best  sorts  of  non-heading  lettuce  is  the  Ice  Cos,  the  loaves  of  which  aVi- 
brittle,  growing  long,  narrow,  and  dark-green,  and  of  somewhat  an  icy  ap- 
pearance. 

Tliere  are  also  four  otlier  sorts  of  Cos  lettuce — the  Paris  Green,  Paris 
"White,  Florence  or  Golden,  and  Spotted  Cos — each  of  which  you  will 
be  told  is  best  by  the  person  who  grows  it,  and  no  other.  The  hardiest  sort 
is  the  Brown  Dutch,  which  may  be  started  in  autumn,  and  slightly  protected 
so  as  to  endure  winter,  and  grow  early  in  spring.  It  will  form  a  loose  head, 
but  is  not  generally  grown  for  heads,  but  for  the  early  young  leaves ;  the  other 
sorts  being  preferable  to  it  for  heading.  One  of  the  largest  yarieties  is  called 
Large  India ;  it  is  less  curled  tiian  the  Silesia,  and  the  leaves  are  whiter, 
slightly  edged  with  pink.  This  kind  endures  the  summer  heats  well,  and 
forms  large,  round  heads,  M-hich  cut  solid  and  crisp.  There  are  several 
other  sorts,  but  what  we  have  said  of  these  is  enough  to  show  that  there  is  n 
great  variety  in  this  family  of  garden  plants. 

To  grow  good  lettuce,  the  utmost  care  must  be  used  in  preparing  the 
ground.  The  soil  should  be  made  as  fine  as  the  seed,  and  as  rich  as  good 
garden  mold  can  be.  The  seed  should  be  sown  every  fortnight  from  Feb- 
ruary to  June,  to  get  a  succession  of  young  plants.  The  ground  must  be 
kept  loose  between  the  rows,  and  it  pays  well  to  water  with  guano  in  a  weak 
solution. 

An  ounce  of  lettuce  seed  will  grow  plants  enough  for  half  a  dozen  families. 
It  would  require  a  bed  about  ten  by  twelve  feet  to  sow  an  ounce  of  seed, 
and  it  would  produce  some  5,000  plants. 

552.  mustard  is  often  grown  for  salad,  the  white  or  yellow  seed  variety 
being  very  good  for  that  purpose.  It  should  be  sown  in  the  fall,  or  it  may 
be  started  in  spring,  in  a  hot-bed  or  warm  southern  exposure,  in  rows 
six  inches  apart,  and  no  matter  how  thick  in  tlie  rows,  as  it  is  to 
be  cut  when  two  inches  higli.  The  black  seed  kind  is  often  sown  for 
greens,  as  well  as  to  grow  seed  for  use  or  sale.  It  ripens  seed  in  July  or 
August. 

553.  Kastiirtiunii — This  is  another  salad  plant,  when  very  young,  though 
generally  grown  for  its  fruit,  which  is  used  for  pickling.  The  pods  are 
gathered  before  they  ripen  for  this  purpose,  and  some  use  tiie  flower-buds, 
esteeming  them  as  good  as  capers.  The  orange-colored  flowers  are  also  used 
for  garnishing  dishes.  For  salad,  sow  the  dwarf  variety  early  in  spring,  in 
drills  an  inch  deep,  along  borders  of  beds,  so  that  what  is  not  cut  for  salad 
may  grow  for  ornament. 

55-i.  Garden-Cress. — This  is  a  favorite  salad  plant,  and  in  this  character 
only  the  seminal  plants  are  used.  It  is  very  hardy  and  prolitic,  and  may 
be  sowed  once  a  week,  from  the  opening  of  the  ground  in  spring  until  tlic 
close  of  the  season.     Old  rich  garden  soil  is  the  most  congenial  to  it,  but 


Sec.  30]  GARDEN   CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  489 

any  lands  of  fine  textnre  will,  if  properly  pulverized  and   enriched  with 
putrescent  manure,  produce  a  good  crop. 

Do  not  mistake  this  for  the  plant  more  known  as  peppergrass  than  it  is 
as  cress.  The  article  we  allude  to  grows  annually  from  seed  or  from  roots, 
forming  compact  bunches  of  twenty  or  thirty  stalks,  which  grow  a  foot  high, 
and  bear  smooth  succulent  leaves  and  an  upright  stem  full  of  seed-pods,  some- 
thing like  turnip.  It  is  very  apt  to  seed  itself,  and  may  become  ti-ouble- 
some  if  care  is  not  taken  with  it.  It  is  so  hardy  that  it  keeps  partially 
green  all  winter,  under  a  very  slight  covering,  and  its  greatest  value  is,  tliat 
it  affords  something  green  very  early  in  spring. 

555.  Water-Cress  {Sisymhrium  nasturtium)  can  be  easily  grown  from 
seeds  or  roots,  wherever  there  is  a  stream  or  spring  in  the  ground  near  the 
house.  It  grows  best  in  situations  wiiere  the  roots  are  always  in  M'ater,  and 
in  winter  the  whole  plant  is  overflowed,  and  it  particularly  delights  in  pure 
water,  clear  and  cold,  such  as  runs  in  the  little  spring-brooks.  If  you  hap- 
pen to  have  one  that  does  not  freeze,  you  may  have  water-cress  at  any  time 
during  winter.  It  is  started  by  sowing  the  seeds  or  setting  the  plants  in  a 
suitable  spot  for  its  growtli.  After  it  once  gets  fixed  as  a  habitant  of  any 
place,  it  requires  no  care  in  its  cultivation. 

556.  Eudive,  a  plant  of  the  chiccory  species,  is  often  cultivated  for  a 
winter  salad,  though  more  used  in  stews  and  for  garnishing  tables.  The 
Green  Curled  is  the  hardiest  sort,  growing  beautifully  curled  leaves,  dark- 
green,  which  are  tender  and  crisp  when  young,  and  much  esteemed  as  salad 
Lty  some  persons,  and  are  considered  wholesome.  The  French  use  the  Bata- 
vian  Endive  in  stews  and  soups.  It  is  a  broad-leaf  sort,  which  grows  not 
much  cui'led.  This,  when  very  young,  is  eaten  as  salad,  but  is  not  as  good  as 
either  the  Green  or  White  Curled.  The  seed  is  sown  late  in  the  spring,  or  even 
middle  of  summer,  for  fall  use,  and  the  leaves  are  blanched  for  use  by  tying 
the  outer  leaves  over  the  inner  ones.  An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  a  bed  eight 
by  ten  feet. 

557.  Turnip-Sprouts,  grown  under  a  straw  mulch,  are  blanched  and  tender, 
and  make  a  delicate,  sweet  salad,  and  may  be  had  early  in  the  spring  with 
a  little  care. 

558.  Okra> — Under  the  head  of  "History  of  Some  Common  Garden 
Vegetables"  we  have  told  the  uses  of  this  plant.  Its  consumption  has  in- 
creased so  much  in  New  York  since  its  introduction  a  few  years  since,  that 
one  market  gardener  of  our  acquaintance  grew  seven  acres  of  it  last  year 
(1860),  part  of  the  crop  selling  green  and  part  dried.  There  is  no  plant 
grown  in  the  garden  that  afibrds  cheaper  food  than  okra.  The  pods,  in  soup, 
make  it  mucilaginous  and  nutritious.  There  is  a  dwarf  okra  plant  which 
does  not  grow  more  than  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  is  very  prolific  of 
branches  and  pods,  that  for  this  latitude  will  be  a  valuable  improvement 
over  tlie  large  kind,  which  grows  five  or  six  feet  long.  Ripe  okra  seeds  are 
sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  are 
as  good  as  the  seeds  of  asparagus. 


490  THE  GARDEN  AilD  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

Okra  6ecd  slioiild  not  be  planted  till  tlic  ground  has  become  warm  in 
spring,  and  may  then  be  treated  much  like  Indian-corn  in  all  its  cidtiration, 
and  grows  well  in  soil  suitable  for  corn. 

559.  TomatoeSi — The  r;ipidity  with  which  this  vegetable  has  been  brought 
into  almost  universal  use  is  well-nigh  beyond  belief.  It  is  quite  within  the 
memory  of  middle-aged  people  that  it  was  grown  only  because  its  fruit  was  • 
ornamental,  and  by  many  supposed  to  be  poisonous.  Its  common  name  in  New 
Engliind  was  "  Love  Apple,"  though  no  one  loved  it.  Kow  there  are  not 
many  families  that  do  not  esteem  tomatoes  as  much  as  any  garden  vegetable, 
and  gardeners  are  constantly  making  efl'orts  to  produce  new  varieties  of  im- 
j^*5roved  qualit}'.  Let  no  one  suppose  he  has  got  the  best  sort  until  he  has 
*tried  several  others.  Tliere  is  more  ditfcrcnce  in  the  quality  and  value  for 
food  of  tomatoes  than  there  is  in  potatoes.  "We  will  name  a  few  of  the  best. 
We  have  grown  a  very  large  yellow  tomato,  which  we  prefer  over  all  otliers, 
because  it  is  less  acid,  and  the  meat  appears  to  have  more  of  the  food  prin- 
ci2)le  in  it  than  any  of  the  red  ones,  unless  it  is  one  called  Fejee  Island 
Tomato,  which  we  think  identical  with  one  called  "  Perljpcted,"  and  said  to 
have  been  introduced  by  C.  Edwards  Lester.  It  is  a  very  large  red  sort, 
and  very  good  eating,  and  a  little  finer  grained  than  one  called  the  Large 
Mammoth  Red.  The  poorest  tomato  in  existence  is  the  one  almost  univer- 
sally grown  for  the  Xcw  York  market.  It  is  of  medium  size,  smooih.  round- 
ish, with  a  tough  skin,  and  sour,  hard  meat,  frequently  very  hollow,  partially 
filled  with  seeds  and  sour  Avater,  and  being  generally  gathered  in  a  green 
state,  is  no  more  fit  to  eat  than  the  vines  it  grows  upon.  It  is  grown  be- 
cause it  bears  transportation  better  than  the  good  sorts,  and  it  will  sell  to 
people  who  do  not  know  how  to  appreciate  a  good  tomato.  As  a  general 
rule,  to  select  good  sorts  of  tomatocg  for  cultivation  for  family  use,  choose 
those  which  grow  nnevcn-shaped  ratlier  than  smooth,  such  as  you  can  pull 
apart  without  cutting,  the  lobes  separating  with  a  glistening  fracture.  It"  you 
wish  to  have  some  ripen  earlier  than  the  large  sorts,  you  may  choose  a  round, 
smooth,  medium  size,  called  Early  Apple  Tomato.  For  pickles  and  pre- 
serves there  is  a  sort  known  as  pear  or  fig  tomatoes,  being  about  the  size  and 
shape  of  figs.  There  is  a  small  yellow  sort,  grown  for  preserving,  and  so  is 
the  sort  which  grows  about  the  size  of  potato-balls,  and  as  round  and  smooth. 
A  distinct  variety,  called  "Winter  Cherries  (see  675),  grows  with  a  liusk 
about  the  size  of  large  cherries,  and  is  much  liked  by  some  to  cat  out  of 
hand.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  difForent  sorts  of  tomatoes  from 
mixing,  else,  if  you  have  a  choice  kind,  you  will  be  apt  to  lose  it,  as  the  in- 
clination is  to  run  down  rather  than  up  the  scale  of  improvement. 

The  cultivation  is  very  simple.  In  warm  latitudes  they  arc  selfpropagat- 
ing.  In  this  latitude,  where  the  family  has  no  hot-bed,  the  seed  should  bo 
sown  for  early  use  in  boxes  or  jwts,  in  February  and  March.  Tiic  seeds  sown 
in  boxes,  if  kept  in  a  warm  roon*!,  in  the  light  of  a  window,  will  grow  healthy 
plants,  which,  when  two  inches  high,  may  be  pricked  out  and  set  single  in 
pots,  and  carefully  nursed  till  all  danger  of  frost  is  over,  in  some  warm, 


Sec.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  491 

sheltered  situation,  where  they  can  grow  out-doors.  To  hasten  the  first 
fruit,  pinch  off  all  shoots  above  tlie  first  formed  ones  as  soon  as  the  tomatoes 
are  the  size  of  cherries.  Afterwards  cut  ofl:'  most  of  the  leaves,  to  let  the 
sun  have  its  full  force  npon  the  fruit ;  you  will  thus  get  a  small  crop  soveial 
weeks  ahead  of  the  ripening  when  planted  out  at  the  ordinary  time  and  left 
to  the  natural  course  of  growtli.  To  have  really  good  tomatoes,  fit  to  be 
eaten  in  a  raw  state,  M'hich  certainly  is  the  most  delicious  form  in  which 
they  can  be  eaten,  you  nuist  have  a  good  sort,  and  grow  them  on  good  land, 
and  select  the  first  fruit,  and  trim  the  vines  so  that  the  sun  shines  npon  it, 
and  let  it  become  fully  ripened  before  it  is  gathered.  It  should  always 
be  eaten  while  fresh  to  get  its  full  value.  Then  it  is  both  palatable  and 
wholesome. 

If  the  seed  be  sown  in  May,  in  good  rich  soil,  of  a  warm  nature,  with  a 
sufliciency  of  old,  well-rotted  manure,  there  will  rarely  be  any  danger  of 
failure.  When  the  vines  begin  to  show  leaves,  tliey  should  be  provided 
with  a  trellis,  or  tied  to  stakes  fixed  in  the  soil,  to  keep  the  fruit  from  being 
injured  by  coming  in  contact  Avith  the  dirt. 

There  is,  however,  a  new  sort  lately  introduced,  called  "  Tomato  ch  Lilys'^ 
in  France,  and  with  us,  the  Upright  or  Tree-Tomato,  that  requires  no  sup- 
port. Its  stem  is  two  feet  high  or  more,  and  so  remarkably  strong  and  stifi', 
that  they  are  nearly  self-supporting — a  highly  commendable  quality.  It 
branches  less  than  the  common  Great  Ked  Tomato,  is  less  leafy,  does  not 
want  so  much  pinching,  does  not  bear  so  freely,  but  its  fruit  is  larger  and 
more  regularly  formed. 

Medicinally,  the  tomato  is  in  high  repute.  Dr.  Bennett,  a  professor  of 
medicine  of  good  standing,  has  published  the  following  opinion  of  its  good 
qualities : 

"1.  That  the  tomato  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  deobstruents  of  the  Ma- 
teria Mcdica,  and  that  in  all  those  aflfections  of  the  liver  and  other  organs, 
M'here  calomel  is  indicated,  it  is  probably  the  most  effective  and  least  harm- 
ful remedial  agent  known  in  the  profession. 

"2.  That  a  chemical  extract  will  be  obtained  from  it  which  will  alto- 
gether supersede  the  use  of  calomel  in  the  cure  of  disease. 

"  3.  That  he  has  successfully  treated  serious  diarrhea  with  this  article  alone. 

"  4.  That  when  used  as  an  article  of  diet,  it  is  almost  a  sovereign  remedy 
for  dyspepsia  or  indigestion. 

"  5.  That  persons  removing  from  the  East  or  ISTorth  to  the  South  or  "West, 
should  by  all  means  make  use  of  it  as  an  aliment,  as  it  would  in  tiiat  event 
save  them  from  the  danger  attendant  upon  those  violent  bilious  attacks  to 
which  almost  all  unacclimated  persons  are  liable. 

"  6.  That  the  citizens  in  ordinary  should  make  use  of  it  either  raw,  cooked, 
or  in  the  form  of  a  catsup,  with  their  daily  food,  as  it  is  the  most  healthy 
article  in  the  Materia  Alt nie7if aria." 

Prof.  Eafinesque,  of  France,  says:  "It  is  everywhere  deemed  a  very 
healthy  vegetable,  and  an  invaluable  article  of  food." 


492  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

Dunglison  says:  "It  may  be  loukcd  upon  as  one  of  the  most  wliolesonic 
and  valuable  esculents  that  belon_:^  to  the  vegetable  kingdom." 

A  writer  in  {\\c  Fan ncr^s  lii- gist cr  says:  "It  has  been  tried  l)y  several 
persons  with  decided  success.  They  were  afflicted  with  chronic  cough,  the 
primary  cause  of  which,  in  one  case,  was  supposed  to  be  a  diseased  liver;  in 
another,  diseased  lungs.  It  mitigates,  and  sometimes  effectually  checks,  a 
fit  of  coughing." 

The  method  most  commonly  adopted  in  preparing  this  fruit  for  daily  use 
is  to  cut  them  in  slices,  and  serve  with  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar,  as  you  do 
cucumbers. 

To  stew  tomatoes,  remove  them  ripe  from  the  vines,  slice  up,  and  put  them 
in  a  pot  over  the  stove  or  fire,  without  water.  Stew  them  slowly,  and  when 
done,  put  in  a  small  piece  of  good  butler,  and  eat  them  as  you  do  apple- 
sauce. Some  add  a  little  flour-bread,  finely  crumbed,  or  a  couple  of  crackers 
pulverized,  to  a  quart  of  the  stew. 

560.  Radisbes. — Almost  every  family  grows  radishes,  but  every  one  does 
not  grow  them  to  perfection.  The  radish  appears  to  have  originated  from 
China,  where  it  is  still  grown  to  much  higher  perfection  than  in  any  country 
of  its  adoption,  and  is  largely  used  as  an  article  of  food  throughout  the  year, 
one  variety  being  grown  especially  for  winter  use.  Although  not  a  very 
nourishing  sort  of  food,  it  is  a  very  palatable  condiment,  and  very  ac- 
ceptable upon  all  tables  in  the  spring  season.  The  tops  are  frequently 
used  when  quite  new  as  a  salad,  and  the  green  seed-pods  make  nice  small 
l)ickles.  To  grow  good  radishes,  your  ground  must  be  rich  from  manur- 
ing in  previous  years,  or  by  guano  in  solution,  or  superphosphate,  while 
the  plants  are  growing,  and  not  by  fresh  putrescent  manures.  Kadishes  are 
only  good  when  the  growth  is  rapid.  To  have  this  they  must  have  a  good 
soil  and  frequent  waterings,  either  naturally  or  artificially. 

For  early  use,  sow  on  mildly  hot  beds,  or  in  bo.xes  in-doors,  and  after- 
ward in  sheltered  places,  and  water  frequently,  thinning  out  the  weakest 
plants.  Put  in  a  few  seed  every  ten  days,  as  long  as  you  want  to  continue 
the  production,  in  drills  ten  inches  apart,  or  with  other  seeds  of  slower 
growth,  to  mark  the  rows.  An  ounce  of  seed  will  plant  a  bed  ten  feet 
square.  One  of  the  best  early  sorts  is  known  by  the  long  name  of  Early 
Short-topped  Long  Scarlet.  It  grows  half  out  of  ground,  and  very  crisp. 
The  Olive  shaped  radish,  lately  introduced  from  France,  is  an  early  and  fa- 
vorite sort.  It  resembles  the  scarlet  turnip  radish  ;  is  rose-colored,  oblong  ; 
top  quite  small,  and  if  grown  rapidly,  is  crisp  and  sweet.  For  our  use,  we 
l)rofer  turnip  radishes  to  the  long  sorts.  For  winter  use,  the  Siianish,  or 
lilack  radish,  or  a  sort  called  Rose-colored  China,  is  sown  in  the  fall,  and 
gathered  before  ff^ezing,  and  packed  in  sand  in  a  dry  cellar. 

501.  Rhubarb,  or  I'ie-Plant.— This  valuable  garden  vegetable  is  easily 
grown,  and  affords  the  first  thing  in  spring  for  pies  and  tarts.  It  is  best  to 
get  roots  for  a  start,  as  it  is  not  always  true  to  the  kind  from  seed. 

Autumn  is  the  best  time  to  make  a  rhubarb  or  pie-plant  bed,  and  the 


Sec  30.]  GARDEN   CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  493 

roots  may  be  put  in  at  any  time  wlien  the  weather  will  admit.  The  great 
secret  of  success  is  to  get  a  deep,  rich  bed  to  begin  with.  It  can  not  be  too 
deep  or  too  rich.  We  would  dig  it  five  feet  deep  for  family  use,  and  fill  one 
foot  with  cobble-stone,  if  we  could,  or  with  broken  brick,  timber,  and  brush, 
so  arranged  as  to  give  a  good  drainage.  Then  fill  up  with  sods,  chip 
manure,  wood's  mold,  good  soil,  and  well-composted  manure  in  a  homo- 
geneous mass,  casting  away  the  subsoil.  Such  a  made  bed  will  last  as  long 
as  its  maker  will,  and  if  ten  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet  long,  set  with  three 
rows  of  roots,  two  feet  apart  in  the  row,  it  will  furnish  the  largest  family 
with  more  than  they  can  use,  so  that  some  of  their  indolent  neighbors  can 
get  a  portion.  Except  when  grown  for  market,  we  would  not  select  the 
largest  variety  of  i-luibarb.  Seedling  plants  may  be  cut  after  the  first  year 
to  a  small  extent.  It  is  good  to  mulch  the  bed  summer  and  winter.  Seed 
stalks  must  be  kept  carefully  cut  away  as  fast  as  they  appear,  and  the  bed 
must  be  richly  manured  every  fall. 

Some  of  the  sorts  in  highest  repute  are  the  Victoria,  Linnffius,  Royal  Al- 
bert, Scarlet  Nonpareil,  and  Mammoth.  The  largest  sort  is  known  as  Ga- 
boon's Seedling.  It  is  better  esteemed  for  wine-making  than  eating.  Fif- 
teen hundred  gallons  an  acre  have  been  made  from  this  sort,  grown  upon 
well-drained,  rich,  loamy  land  in  Wisconsin.  The  stalks  are  cut  in  lengths  of 
two  or  three  inches,  and  ground  and  pressed  in  a  cider-mill,  one  hundred 
pounds  of  stalks  yielding  ten  gallons  of  juice,  which  is  mixed  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  and  about  three  and  a  half  pounds  of  refined  sugar  to 
each  gallon  of  the  mixture.  This,  if  treated  like  other  small  fruit  wines, 
gives  a  palatable  beverage,  salable,  and  very  profitable  to  the  grower  and 
manufacturer. 

562.  Savory  and  IMediciual  Garden  Plants. — There  is  a  variety  of  plants 
which  every  farmer's  family  should  grow  in  the  garden,  'which  are  useful  in 
the  kitchen,  nursery,  or  sick  chamber,  a  few  of  which  we  will  name. 

Iloarliound. — This  plant  {MarrxiVium  vulgare)  is  called  hoar  on  account 
of  the  white,  downy  growth  upon  the  leaves  and  branches,  which  resembles 
hoar  frost.  The  plant  is  in  high  repute  as  a  remedy  for  colds  and  coughs. 
It  is  not  a  native  of  America,  but  was  introduced  by  the  first  settlers  as  a 
valuable  medicinal  plant,  and  from  the  garden  it  has  spread  to  the  road- 
side and  fields  in  every  favorable  location,  as  it  propagates  readily  from 
the  seed. 

A  good  many  other  medicinal  plants  were  introduced  in  the  same  way  as 
hoarhound  by  the  New  England  pilgrims.  Among  them  we  may  name 
lavender,  from  which  spirits  of  lavender  and  oil  of  spike  are  made,  although 
another  plant  (Z.  spica)  gives  the  name.  Comfry  is  another  of  the  old-time 
medicines  that  our  ancestors  made  use  of  in  eases  of  inflamed  throat  and  ii- 
testines,  and  for  emollient  poultices  and  salves. 

Pejppermiyit  and  Spearmint  are  pretty  well  known  and  generally  esteemed. 
One,  if  not  both,  come  from  Europe,  and  have  been  largely  cultivated  in  this 
country  for  the  oil  which,  when  diluted,  or  "  cut"  with  alcohol,  forming 


494  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

essence  of  pepperiiiint,  is  esteemed  as  a  remedy  for  flatulence.  Until  the  dis- 
tillers of  peppermint  took  to  cheating  by  mixing  oil  of  turpentine  with  their 
product,  which  spoiled  the  trade,  the  growing  of  peppermint  was  a  good 
liiisincss  in  some  of  the  New  England  States  ;  but  since  it  has  been  so  much 
injured  by  fraud,  it  is  not  worth  while  for  farmers  to  engage  in  its  field 
culture  at  the  present  price  of  the  oil,  though  it  should  be  grown  in  gardens 
for  family  use. 

As  a  crop,  this  plant  can  be  grown  upon  any  moist,  rich  soil ;  that  which 
will  produce  good  corn  will  grow  peppermint.  The  land  should  be  plowed 
deep,  and  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  use  the  subsoil  lifter,  and  the 
crop  must  be  cultivated  while  the  plants  are  small  to  keep  the  weeds  down, 
and  therefore  should  be  planted  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart.  Spring  is 
the  best  time  to  set  out  a  new  plantation  by  offshoots  or  subdivision  of  old 
roots.  The  yield  will  be  small  the  first  year,  and  upon  some  land,  after  two 
or  three  years,  it  gets  so  full  of  grass  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  turn  the 
whole  sod  over  and  let  the  mint  grow  up  agaiu,  which  it  will  do,  and  the 
process  of  turning  under  enriches  the  land.  The  mint  is  cut  for  distillation 
when  in  blossom,  and  we  think  yields  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  oil 
per  acre. 

Wormwood  is  another  imported  plant,  and  is  a  very  hardy  perennial. 
Its  leaves,  bruised  and  wet  with  vinegar,  are  esteemed  a  valuable  applica- 
tion to  sprains  and  bruises,  and  its  bitter  properties  used  to  be  esteemed  as 
a  tonic. 

Balm,  Saffron,  Hyssop,  Lavender,  Fennel,  Bene,  and  liosemary  are  all  use- 
ful medicinal  herbs  to  cultivate  in  gardens,  and  the  following  are  grown 
for  various  uses  in  cookery :  Anise,  Sweet  Basil,  Carraway,  Coriander,  Dill, 
Fennel,  Sweet  Marjoram,  Summer  Savory,  Thyme,  and  Sa</e.  Tlie  last  is 
considered  almost  a  necessit^^  in  some  families,  and  is  grown  upon  perennial 
roots.  It  is  better,  we  think,  to  plant  seed  every  year,  and  not  keep  the  roots  ■ 
over  two  years.  All  of  the  above-named  herbs  are  grown  by  gardeners  near 
cities  to  sell  in  market. 

Parsley  is  another  agreeable,  savory  herb,  much  used  as  a  garnish  of 
meats  on  the  table  and  seasoning  of  soups.  It  is  easily  grown  in  good  gar- 
den mold.  It  is  sometimes  planted  as  a  fringe  for  beds  or  walks  in  tiie 
garden.  It  is  grown  in  some  phxces  for  the  roots,  which  arc  like  small 
carrots,  to  feed  to  cattle.  An  ounce  of  seed  is  enough  for  a  row  two  hun- 
dred feet  long. 

Peppers  should  always  be  grown  in  sufficient  quantity  for  seasoning  all 
soups  and  stews,  as  such  is  far  healthier  than  pepper  that  we  import. 

Tlie  Long  Cayenne  is  a  very  pungent  sort,  and  grows  up  dwarf-stalks. 
The  Ciierry  pepper  is  also  a  good  dwarf  sort.  For  pods  to  jiickle  green, 
grow  the  squash  pepper,  which  has  a  tomato-shajied  pod,  rather  mild,  and 
very  productive.  The  Sweet  Mountain  grows  in  a  similar  form,  but  much 
larger.  The  Sweet  Spanish  is  the  mildest  of  all  for  pickling  or  to  eat  green 
as  a  salad. 


Sec.  30.]  GARDEN   CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  495 

Peppers  sliould  be  sown  early  in  light,  warm  soil  in  a  seed-bed,  and  trans- 
planted and  manured  with  guano  Avater  or  hen-dung  in  solution. 

5(33.  Jerusalem  Artichokes. — This  plant,  the  Hdianthus  tuieros^ci,  slionld 
have  a  small  corner  in  every  garden,  or  somewhere  conveiiient  about  the 
farmer}-,  as  it  affords  very  agreeable  food  early  in  the  spring,  when  some- 
thing is  longed  for  fresh  from  the  earth.  It  is  one  of  the  best  antiscorbutics 
known.  It  also  affords  a  great  crop  of  good  pig  feed.  One  man  in  Ohio 
estimates  the  yield  at  the  rate  of  1,700  bushels  an  acre.  We  recommend 
this  plant  as  altogether  preferable  for  cultivation  over  the  Chinese  yam, 
Dioscorea  hatatas,  about  which  so  much  has  been  written  and  said.  All 
that  is  necessary  to  be  known  about  that  plant  we  give  in  the  next  par- 
agraph. 

564.  The  Chinese  Yam. — ^This  new  esculent  has  certainly  been  tested  long 
enough  in  this  country  to  determine  its  true  value  for  cultivation.  That  it 
is  palatable  and  nutritious,  when  properly  cooked,  no  one  doubts.  That  it 
would  ever  he  adopted  as  a  substitute  for  the  common  potato  {Solanmn 
iuherosuni),  or  of  the  sweet  potato  {Convolvulus  batatas),  among  those  who 
grow  those  roots  as  a  sale  crop,  we  have  never  believed,  but  have  hoped  that 
it  might  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  our  family  of  food- producing  plants ; 
but  as  yet  we  have  not  the  evidence  that  this  will  be  the  case. 

The  London  Gardeners'  Chronicle  of  September,  1858,  says  of  the  Clii- 
nese  yam  {Dioscorea  batatas)  that — 

"  Many  excellent  results  were  obtained  last  year  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  gardeners  begin  to  understand  the  nature  of  this  strange  jjro- 
diiclion,  which,  although  provided  for  the  food  of  man,  naturally  grows  in 
the  ground  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  pull  it  uj).  It 
is  now,  too,  agreed  that  the  quality  of  the  root,  when  properly  cooked,  is 
excellent. 

"  "When  first  introduced  to  Europe  by  the  French,  this  esculent  was  re- 
garded as  a  mere  curiositj',  and  maltreated  accordingly ;  but  eventually 
such  information  concerning  it  was  obtained  from  M.  de  Montiguy,  French 
consul  at  Shanghae,  as  led  to  its  receiving  the  attention  due  to  a  root  which 
might  some  day  be  found  good  to  eat. 

"The  herbage  of  the  Chinese  yam  is  singularly  like  that  of  Tamus  com- 
munis,  the  common  black  bryony  of  this  country,  consisting  of  long,  weak, 
angular,  wiry,  annual  stems,  covered  with  heart-shaped  shining  leaves.  It 
ordinarily  begins  to  push  its  roots  as  soon  as  the  ground  temperature 
rises  to  about  50  degrees,  which,  near  London,  corresponds  with  the  begin- 
ning of  May.  Shortly  afterward  the  shoots  appear  and  soon  spread  over 
the  surface,  not,  however,  with  much  vigor  at  first,  nor,  indeed,  till  the 
month  of  August.  The  plant  is  evidently  occupied  for  some  weeks  in 
making  these  true  roots  and  preparing  for  the  singular  development  of  that 
false  i-oot,  which  is  the  yam  itself — the  part  to  be  eaten.  "When  the  roots 
and  stems  have  attained  the  necessary  vigor,  which  seems  to  be  when  the 
ground  has  become  heated  up  to  60  degrees,  or  thereabouts,  in  August,  there 


496  THE  GARDEX  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

appears  among  the  roots  a  soft,  fleshy  horn,  whieli  directs  itself  perpendicu- 
hirly  downward,  and  growing  with  considerable  rapidity,  soon  becomes  a 
club-shaped  l>ody,  tiic  small  end  of  which  is  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Tliis  manner  of  growth  is  exactly  like  that  of  the  arrow-root  plant  {Maranta 
arundinacea),  and  continues  until  the  end  of  October,  when  the  yam  is 
completed,  and  under  proper  treatment  will  have  attained  the  length  of  from 
15  to  24  inches,  weighing  about  one  pound.  In  France,  specimens  liave 
been  dug  uj)  weighing  two  and  a  half  pounds,  and  measuring  a  yard  in 
length.  In  its  perfect  state  it  resembles  a  very  long  trumpet  gourd  or  a 
largo  parsnep,  with  the  crown  downward.  The  tail,  which  forms  one  third 
of  the  length,  is  cut  off  and  divided  Into  inch  lengths  for  propagation  ;  the 
thicker  part  is  eaten.  In  the  course  of  i;s  downward  growth,  the  power  of 
development  is  so  great  that  the  thick  end  will  force  its  w.iy  into  hard  clay, 
and  even  bury  stones  or  fragments  of  pottery  in  its  substance  if  its  progress 
id  sufficiently  opposed.     All  obstacles  ought  to  be  carefully  removed. 

The  best  results  in  the  cultivation  of  this  yam  have  been  obtained  where 
tlio  temperature  was  highest,  and  the  first  object  of  the  gardener  should  be  to 
obtain  all  the  heat  the  sun  can  give  him  in  soil  three  feet  deejJ. 

The  plant  should  be  grown  in  ridges,  made  to  run  east  and  west,  and  rise 
eighteen  inches  above  the  level,  in  earth  ti'cnched  three  feet  deep.  The  yam 
will  not  be  M'orth  growing  in  poor  or  worn-out  land,  nor  among  stones. 

There  is  no  doubt  of  one  beneficial  result  from  the  attempt  to  cultivate 
this  root,  if  the  above  directions  are  conaplied  with.  If  it  docs  not  produce 
a  profitable  crop  of  yams,  it  will  fit  the  ground  most  admirably  for  any  o;her 
crop;  and  any  man  who  has  ever  planted,  grown,  and  gathered  them,  and 
afterward  planted  any  other  crop  upon  the  same  ground,  must  be  convinced 
of  the  advantage  of  deep  cultivation,  since  the  yams  can  not  be  extracted 
without  digging  two  or  throe  feet  deep,  which,  even  without  manure,  is  a 
most  excellent  preparation  for  beets,  carrots,  parsncps,  or  anything  else  ever 
grown  upon  the  farm,  orchards  included. 

.565.  Sweet  Potatoes. — The  first  step  in  the  cultivation  of  sweet  potatoes  is 
to  know  how  to  sprout  them,  as  they  are  grown  from  sets,  not  IVoni  tubers 
planted  in  the  hill.  J.  W.  Tenbrook,  of  RockviUe,  Ind.,  published  the  fol- 
lowing directions,  which  we  copy  and  approve. 

"Arrangements  should  be  made  early  in  the  winter  to  have  frames  and 
covers  made  and  seed  potatoes,  manure,  and  all  necessary  material  for  the 
hot-beds  ready  in  due  time. 

"The  potatoes  should  be  kejit  in  a  warm,  dry  room,  until  they  are  placed 
in  the  hot-bed,  which  must  be  warm,  as  they  will  not  bear  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  40  degrees  without  injury. 

"The  location  of  the  beds  should  be  near  a  street  or  public  road,  on  dry 
ground,  with  a  southern  inclination,  and  convenient  to  pond  or  branch 
water. 

"The  best  material  for  a  hot  bed  is  fresh  horse-stable  manure  that  has  not 
been  rotted ;  and  if  mixed  with  one  fourth  to  one  half  its  bulk  of  either 


Sso.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  497 

sawdust,  fresh  leaves,  tan-bark,  or  straw,  the  heat  would  he  more  mild  and 
durable,  and  less  liable  to  scald  the  potatoes. 

"  About  the  first  or  second  week  of  April,  in  this  latitude,  haul  the 
materials  for  the  bed,  and  mix  them  together  in  a  ridge  where  the  bed  is  to 
be  made,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  hot,  shake  it  thoroughly,  mixing  the  cold  and 
hot,  wet  and  dry  portions  together,  forming  a  bed  on  the  top  of  tlie  ground, 
running  east  and  west,  which,  when  settled  with  the  fork — not  trampled — 
should  be  fourteen  inches  high,  more  or  less,  as  there  is  a  greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  manure  used,  and  six  inches  wider  on  all  sides  than  tlie  frame  to 
be  placed  over  it. 

"  Ilot-bed  frames  should  be  made  of  two-inch  oak  plank,  framed  together 
at  the  ends  with  keys,  so  as  to  be  easily  taken  apart  and  stored  when  not  in  nse. 
They  should  not  be  over  twenty  feet  in  length,  nor  exceed  four  in  width.  The 
front,  or  south  side,  should  be  eiglit  inches  high ;  the  north,  from  eight  to 
twenty,  according  to  the  slope  of  the  ground  on  which  the  bed  stands,  as  the 
top  of  the  frame  should  have  a  pitch  of  eight  to  twelve  inches  to  receive  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  to  shed  off  the  rain  freely.  Temporary  beds  are  made 
by  setting  slabs  or  plank  on  edge,  and  tilling  in  the  manure ;  but  such 
beds  are  diflicult  to  cover,  and  if  used,  the  potatoes  should  not  be  laid  within 
six  inches  of  the  sides.     [See  598.] 

"  Cover  the  beds  five  inches  deep  with  the  mellow  earth,  on  which  set  the 
frames  and  proceed  to  lay  the  potatoes  two  Indies  apart,  with  the  top  end 
of  the  potato  towai'd  the  planks,  and  inure  them  to  the  open  air.  Glass- 
covered  hot-beds  cause  the  plants  to  spring  up  tender  and  weak,  and  such 
plants  do  not  grow,  when  set  out  in  the  hill,  like  those  raised  in  open  beds. 

"  The  best  covei-s  are  made  of  strong  oiled  muslin,  tacked  on  lath,  so  that 
they  can  be  rolled  up  conveniently.  These  covers  will  admit  the  light,  shed 
ofl:'  the  rain,  and  be  cheaper  in  the  end  than  other  covering,  and  eufiiciently 
warm  except  in  extremely  cold  weather,  when  straw  or  some  warm  covering 
should  be  thrown  over  them.  Trampled  straAV,  or  mats  made  of  rye  straw, 
answer  in  the  absence  of  better  covering. 

"  The  beds  should  be  watered  in  the  evening  with  a  suitable  watering-pot, 
to  keep  the  earth  in  a  good  growing  condition.  If  spring  or  well  water  is 
used,  it  should  stand  in  the  sun  or  be  warmed  before  using.  After  the  plants 
are  xip,  they  should,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  be  kept  tolerably  moist,  to  en- 
courage the  growth  of  good  strong  roots,  and  light  warm  showers  would  be 
better  than  watering,  but  cold  and  heavy  rains  must  be  guarded  against,  as 
they  would  soak  into  the  beds  and  ruin  them. 

"  Ditches  should  be  formed  around  the  beds,  and  the  earth  thrown  up  to 
keep  the  water  from  running  under  and  chilling  them. 

"  When  the  plants  are  three  inches  high,  and  well  rooted,  they  are  ready 
to  pull,  which  is  performed  by  taking  hold  of  the  plants  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  one  hand,  while  the  potato  is  held  firmly  in  its  place  with 
the  other.  Careless  drawing,  by  inexperienced  persons,  frequently  destroys 
half  the  profits  of  their  beds. 


498  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Coap.  V. 

"When  plants  are  to  be  sent  a  distance,  tlicj  should  Le  sot  in  shalhiw 
boxes,  with  tlieir  roots  in  M-et  earth  or  moss,  but  they  must  not  be  packed  in 
wet  weather,  nor  have  their  leaves  wet,  or  tliey  will  rot  immediately. 
Plants  may  be  taken  off  the  beds  and  preserved  in  a  cave  or  cellar  for  a 
week  or  more,  with  their  roots  packed  in  damp  moss  or  earth,  if  not  jiacked 
too  close. 

"If  by  bedding  too  early,  or  crowding,  the  plants  should  gi-ow  long  and 
slender,  they  may  be  cut  down  to  two  or  three  inches  in  length ;  but  this 
should  be  avoided  by  giving  plenty  of  room  and  air,  and  by  working  the 
earrh  in  among  the  roots  -with  the  fingers  as  it  is  lifted  up  by  the  plants,  and 
settling  it  by  watering." 

The  best  ground  to  grow  a  crop  of  sweet  potatoes  upon  is  sand,  enriched 
with  very  well-rotted  manure,  leaf-mold,  tine  compost,  guauo,  or  superphos- 
phate. The  hills  are  rounded  up  like  mounds,  a  foot  or  more  higli.  All 
who  live  upon  sandy  land,  south  of  latitude  41  degrees,  can  grow  a  few 
sweet  potatoes  in  the  garden,  if  not  as  a  field  crop.  They  are  best  preserved 
by  packing  in  cut  straw,  in  barrels,  set  in  a  stove-heated  room,  where  the 
thermometer  never  will  sink  below  40  degrees,  and  rarely  rise  above  CO  de- 
grees.    See  438. 

5C0.  Hot  Water  for  Seeds< — There  are  many  seeds  Avhicli  may  be  greatly 
quickened  in  their  vegetating  powers  by  tlic  use  of  hot  water.  Onion-seed, 
lor  instance,  may  be  made  to  sprout  upon  the  instant  by  pouring  boiling 
water  upon  it.  You  need  not  fear  killing  it.  Put  some  in  a  saucer,  and 
pour  on  water  from  a  tea-kettle,  and  after  a  half  minute  i)our  it  off  again, 
and  you  may  see  the  sprouts  shooting  out  the  next  minute ;  and  if  then 
planted,  while  hot  and  moist,  in  pulverulent  earth,  closely  packed  upon 
them,  you  will  get  them  forward  two  or  three  weeks  earlier.  The  same  ef- 
fect will  be  produced  upon  all  black,  hard-shelled  seed,  such  as  onion, 
asparagus,  sunflower,  water-melon,  apple,  and  many  others.  Locust-seed 
should  be  thoroughly  scalded  in  boiling-hot  lye,  or  several  repetitions  of  hot 
water. 

567.  Cranberries  in  the  GardcOi — Cranberries  have  been  so  long  looked 
upon  as  wild  plants  of  swamps,  that  it  is  difficult  for  people  to  realize  that 
they  can  be  grown  in  gardens  as  well  as  strawberries,  which  are  naturally  a 
wild  field  growth. 

Cranberries  do  naturally  grow  in  swamps,  but  they  may  be  made  to  grow 
artificially  in  good  loamy  garden  soil,  or  that  which  is  naturally  a  little 
mucky,  such  as  is  the  most  suitable  for  potatoes,  if  deeply  worked.  The 
bcbt  soil, -however,  for  cranberries,  is  almost  pure  sand,  with  water  naturally 
b'.anding,  or  percolating  through  it,  within  loss  than  two  feet  of  the  surface. 
A  bed  occupying  one  rod  and  two  fifths,  in  the  garden  of  Charles  B.  Phelps, 
Colebrook,  Conn.,  planted  in  June,  1857,  yielded  three  bushels  in  ISGO. 
The  vines  were  taken  from  a  natural  bed,  and  set  in  small  tufts,  one  foot 
apart  in  the  rows,  which  were  two  feet  apart,  and  these  ■were  kept  clear  of 
weeds  until  the  whole  ground  became  matted  w'ith  vines.     The  bed  then 


Sko.  30.]  GARDEN  CULINARY  VEGETABLES.  499 


Avill  continue  longer  in  bearing  than  any  bed  of  strawberries,  witlioiit  cn- 
ricbing  the  soil. 

The  cranberry  is  a  seini-aqnatic  slender  evergreen,  content  to  occupy  that 
part  of  a  farm  which  is  too  low  and  too  wet  to  be  used  for  any  other  pur- 
])ose,  and  is  satisfied  to  feed  on  water,  and  the  slightly  alluvial  deposits 
afforded  by  the  adjacent  highlands,  and  does  not,  like  some  overgrown 
annual  plants,  make  heavy  drafts  upon  the  soil. 

For  field  culture  of  cranberries,  all  that  we  have  said  hero  will  be  almost 
equally  applicable,  but  the  subject  is  treated  more  at  large  in  No.  700. 

568.  Number  of  Trees,  Plants,  or  Rows  to  au  Acre.— The  following  tables 
will  aid  any  one  in  determining  how  many  trees  or  plants  he  can  grow 
upon  one  acre,  which  contains  43,500  superficial  feet : 

No.  of  feet  apart  No.  of  Plants. 

1   43,500 

IJ  19,300 

2  10,890 

2i 0,809 

3  4,840 

4  2,722 

5  1,742 

0  1,210 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  rows,  of  difterent  widths,  in  a 
square  acre,  and  number  of  plants  an  acre  contains-: 


No.  of  Plants. 

537 

12   302 

15  193 

18   134 

21   98 

24  75 


}.  of  feet  apart 

2 

2J  '.'.'.'.'. 

3" 

No.  of  rows, 

...105 

....   85 

....  70 

....   00 

....   52 

....   46 

....  42 

38 

12  in.  apart. 

....22,050 

....17,850 

....14,700 

....12,000 

....10.920.... 
....   9,600   ... 

Plants 

15  in.  apart. 

17,040 

14,260 

11,700 

10,080 

n  a  row. 

18  in.  apart. 
....14,700.... 
....11900 

24  in.  apart 

11,025 

8,925 

....  9,800 

7,350 

f  ::::: 

4.} 

8,400 

6,300 

8.730 

...    .  7,728  ... 

7.280 

G,440 

5,400 

4,830 

5     ..... 

....   8,820.... 

7,050 

....  5,880 

4,410 

5.^  

. .    .  7  980 

0,384 

5,880 

5,040 

....  5,-320 

....  4.900 

4  200 

3,990 

3,075 

.      ..  3,150 

0'   

7     

....  35 

30 

....  7.350 

6  300 

8     

....  26 

....  23 

....  21 

....  5,400 

4,830 

4  308 

.   3  040   .    . . 

....  2,730 

9     

.     3  864 

3,220.... 

....  2.940 

2,415 

10     

....  4.410.... 

3.528 

2.205 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  measure  an  acre  thirteen  rods  each  way ;  that 
gives  au  e.xeess  of  nine  rods.  At  the  South,  it  is  common  to  measure  seventy 
yards  each  way  for  an  acre,  which  is  an  excess  of  540  yards.  In  calculating 
the  number  of  plants  j)cr  acre,  set  four  feet  apart — for  instance,  cabbages — 
it  is  common  to  say  ten  thousand  per  acre.  This  allows  nearly  nine  hundred 
missing  plants.     In  garden  work  these  rules  will  always  be  useful. 


500 


THE  GARDEN"  AND  ITS  FRUITS. 


[CnAP.  V. 


SECTION  XXXI.- 


-THE  FLOWRR-GARDEN-VARIETIES  AND  CULTIVA- 
TION OF  FLOWERS. 


-IRST,  let  us  talk  a  little  about  the  mor.il 
influence  of  flower  culture.  "We  are  just  as 
well  satisfied  of  the  beneficial  moral  efl'ects  of 
flower  cultivation,  as  we  are  that  the  efi'ects  of  their 
beauty  upon  the  senses  of  nearly  all  beholders  is 
pleasing.  A  mother  who  loves  flowers  is  apt  to  infuse 
the  same  feeling  into  her  children.  A  love  of  flowers  is 
a  love  of  the  beautiful ;  a  love  of  the  beautiful  is  a  love 
of  the  good ;  and  so  step  by  step  the  cliild  walks  in  the 
pleasant  paths  of  love,  till  its  mind  becomes  thoroughly 
imbued  with  all  the  sentiments  of  moral  goodness.  There 
is  no  spot  on  the  farm  that  grows  such  a  "  paying  crop" 
as  the  little  parterre  near  tlie  dwelling,  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  flowers.  If  it  does  not  pay  in  golden  coin, 
it  does  in  all  that  makes  life  worth  staying  here  for.  What  golden  hours 
of  joy  are  spent  by  the  family  in  the  flower-garden !  What  blessed  influ- 
ences such  hours  have  upon  the  character  of  children  !  If  you  doubt  the 
moral  influence  of  flowers, "look  about  you,  and  study  the  character  of  those 
v.Iio  cultivate  them  in  contrast  with  those  who  do  not.  We  have  long  since 
i -jltled  the  question  of  the  beneficial  influences  of  flowers  upon  all  families, 
:  lid  therefore  devote  a  little  space  to  give,  upon  this  subject,  some  very  use- 
ful information. 

569.  Suitable  Soil  for  a  FIowcr-Gardcu. — Upon  the  subject  of  soil,  mc 
copy  from  the  catalogue  of  Benjamin  K.  Bliss,  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  one  of 
tlie  most  successful  cultivators  and  sellers  of  flower  seeds  in  the  United 
States,  the  following  sensible  observations : 

"The  soil  best  adapted  to  flowering-plants  generally  is  a  light  friable 
loam,  containing  a  moderate  amount  of  vegetable  matter,  and  suflicient 
sand  to  render  it  porous ;  but  as  it  rarely  happens  that  the-  amateur  has 
much  choice  of  soil,  it  is  fortunate  that  most  of  them  will  succeed  in  any 
but  such  as  is  of  an  extremely  dry,  sandy,  or  calcareous  nature,  or  of  a  stiff, 
lu'avy,  retentive  character.  In  the  former,  the  plants  are  sure  to  be  starved, 
and  in  the  latter,  if  they  ever  fairly  take  root,  there  is  generally  an  undue 
development  of  the  foliage  at  the  expense  of  the  flowers.  In  soils  of  this 
description  much  may  be  done  by  thoroughly  breaking  up  the  superficial 
crust,  0-,  as  it  is  technicall}'^  termed,  '  trenching'  it  at  least  one  spade  deep, 
digging  in  sharp  sand  or  road-scrapings,  and  if  tlie  operation  be  performed 
in  autumn,  so  that  the  loosened  soil  is  thoroughly  exposed  during  the  winter 
to  the  disintegrating  influences  of  frost  and  other  atmospheric  agencies,  the 
advantage  will  be  greatly  increased. 


Seo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN.  501 

"  In  soil  of  an  opposite  cliaracter,  i.  c,  sandy  or  calcareous,  the  remedy 
will  obviously  consist  in  the  addition  of  loam,  iu  conjunction  with  decayed 
leaves  or  old  rotten  manure ;  or  where  expense  is  no  object,  the  surface  may 
bo  entirely  removed  to  the  depth  of  eiglit  or  ten  inches,  and  its  place  sup- 
plied with  the  best  loamy  compost  at  hand.  The  use  of  strong  crude  manure 
of  an  animal  nature  should  be  avoided.  In  ordinarily  good  soil  an  annual 
light  dressing  of  leaf-mold,  decayed  turf,  or  thoroughly  rotten  manure,  in 
quantities  proportioned  to  the  requirements  of  the  soil,  dug  to  the  dejith  of 
a  few  inches,  will  be  all  that  is  requisite.  These  should  be  applied  in  spring, 
only  just  previous  to  sowing  the  seeds,  or  much  of  the  benefit  resulting  from 
their  application  will  be  lost,  tliough  a  single  digging  may  be  advantageously 
given  in  autumn.  In  preparing  the  beds,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  arc 
so  arranged  that  the  ground  may  be  a  little  elevated  in  the  middle,  that  the 
water  may  run  off  and  the  plants  show  to  a  better  advantage. 

"It  is  particularly  requisite  that  seeds  should  not  be  sown  too  deep, 
whence  arises  most  of  the  failures  of  inexperienced  gardeners.  The  depth 
at  which  seeds  are  sown  will  vary  with  their  size ;  large  seeds,  such  as  those 
of  the  Lupins,  Sweet  Pea,  or  Marvel  of  Pern,  may  be  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  deep;  other  varieties  from  an  eighth  to  a  half-inch  deep,  according  to 
the  size  or  nature  of  the  seed.  Some  that  are  very  small  require  to  be  sown 
on  tlie  actual  surface,  a  slight  pressure  being  tlien  sufficient  to  imbed  them  to 
a  proper  depth.  For  the  majority  of  the  seeds  a  very  thin  covering  s\iffices ; 
if  sowed  too  deep,  they  are  longer  in  germinating,  and  the  small  ones  are 
liable  to  decay.  It  sometimes  insures  a  more  even  distribution  of  very  small 
seeds,  such  as  tliose  of  Campanula,  Digitalis,  etc.,  if  they  are  intimately 
mixed  before  sowing  with  a  little  fine,  dry  soil,  the  mixture  being  sown  in 
the  same  way  as  the  seeds.  Woolly  seeds,  which  adhere  to  each  otJier,  like 
the  Globe  Amaranthus,  etc.,  should  be  rubbed  witli  a  little  fine  sand,  which 
will  generally  separate  them.  In  all  cases,  the  more  thinly  the  seeds  are 
strewn  the  better;  when  too  thickly  sown,  the  seedlings  become  elon- 
gated and  sickly,  an  evil  which  no  subsequent  thinning  out  will  entirely 
remedy. 

"  If  the  soil  be  dry  and  the  weather  sunny,  it  will  be  necessary  to  water 
the  seeds  slightly  from  a  very  fine  rose  watering-pot.  Kain-water  is  prefer- 
able. In  the  absence  of  rain,  this  application  must  be  repeated  every  day 
or  two,  for  it  is  important  to  observe  that,  when  once  the  seeds  have  begun 
to  swell,  they  are  peculiarly  susceptible  to  injury  from  drouth,  and  will  speed- 
ily perish  unless  the  soil  be  maintained  in  a  moist  condition  ;  to  a  neglect 
of  this  important  precaution,  many  failures  are  solely  attributable.  On  the 
other  hand,  an  excess  of  moisture  previous  to  germination  will  often  cause 
the  seed  to  decay,  especially  in  cold  seasons ;  early  in  the  spring,  therefore, 
the  water-pot  must  be  used  with  judgment,  and  never  late  iu  the  day,  when 
frosts  threaten." 

We  have  found  the  practice  of  warming  water  in  the  sun  or  by  fire-lieat 
very  nmch  preferable  to  the  use  of  cold  water.    As  it  requires  the  very  finest 


502  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

preparation  of  soil,  we  recommend  all  who  sow  the  most  delicate  llower- 
seeds  to  sift  the  earth  through  a  sieve  fine  enough  for  corn-meal. 

570.  How  to  Make  a  Flower-Bfd. — The  following  extract,  from  a  paper 
read  before  the  Farmers'  Club,  tells  how  the  author  made  a  flower-bed  upon 
a  very  hard,  rough  spot . 

"  I  do  not  expect  to  tell  a  professed  gardeuer,  nor  an  amateur  who  already 
knows  how,  anything  new ;  but  I  wish  to  tell  some  who  do  not  know,  how 
to  make  a  flower-bed.  At  least  I  will  tell  how  I  make  one.  and  leave  it  to 
others  to  follow  suit  or  not,  just  as  they  can  aSbrd.  I  received,  May  10th,  a 
package  of  choice  flower-seeds,  and  a  dozen  bulbs  of  Gladiolus.  As  the  old 
flower-beds  had  already  been  appropriated,  new  ones  must  be  made  ;  and  as 
there  is  always  a  right  place  relative  to  the  house  and  other  things,  the  right 
place  in  the  present  instance  fell  in  a  very  bad  place — on  a  spot  of  sod  just 
beneath  the  window  that  gives  light  to  my  writing-desk  and  book-case. 
Here  I  marked  out  the  forms  of  my  beds  in  shapes  to  suit  the  ground,  and 
not  like  any  diagram  laid  down  in  the  books.  I  first  took  out  a  spading,  as 
deep  as  I  could  drive  the  spading-fork,  breaking  up  the  turf  and  the  remains 
of  a  mortar-bed  left  last  autumn  by  the  masons.  This  first  spading  and  the 
loose  earth  left  I  threw  one  side,  and  the  next  spade- deep  the  other  side. 
Then  I  took  out  another  spade-deep  and  carted  it  away,  and  all  the  stones,  and 
that  not  a  few,  and  then  broke  up  another  course  still  deeper,  and  then  threw 
back  the  second  spading,  and  then  the  first,  forking  it  all  over  loose  and 
mellow.  Next  I  put  in  a  heavy  charge  of  rich  manure,  and  over  that 
garden-mold  and  leaf-mold,  mixing  all  up  and  raking  fine.  Next  I  put  a 
coat  of  sand,  and  then  rich  garden-mold,  old  rotted  sods,  and  leaf-mold, 
mixed  and  sifted.  Now  the  bed  was  ready  for  the  seeds,  and  after  being 
marked  off  to  suit  the  fancy  of  her  who  docs  the  planting,  they  were  covered 
I  by  sifting  earth  over  them,  and  watered.  It  is  true  this  was  a  laborious  job, 
j  but  once  done,  it  is  done  forever.  Here  is  a  bed  of  earth,  rich  and  mellow 
as  an  ash-heap,  more  than  thirty  inches  deep.  Math  a  subsoil  of  coarse  sand, 
gravel,  and  decayed  granite  rock,  tliat  gives  good  drainage.  It  will  require 
only  an  annual  dressing  of  compost,  and  a  light  forking  and  raking,  to  keep 
it  in  order  to  produce  the  most  lovely  ornament  that  ever  added  beauty  to  a 
farm-house — a  beautiful  bed  of  flowers.  Early  this  spring — almost  as  soon 
as  the  snow  was  away— there  came,  first  the  little  crocuses,  and  these  were 
followed  by  the  hyacinths,  and  tulips,  and  dielytra  spectabilis — beauty 
uiiou  beauty,  enough  to  pav  richly  for  all  the  labor  of  making  a  flower- 
bed. 

"AVhat  man  with  a  head  a  whit  better  than  a  pumpkin  or  a  cabbage-head 
would  devote  his  whole  soul  to  food  vegetables,  and  refuse  liis  family  the 
gratification  and  cheap  happiness  of  a  flower-bed  ? 

"What  woman  with  a  soul  above  soft-soap  and  scrubbing-brushes,  that 
would  live  in  a  country  home  and  not  insist  upon  'woman's  riglit'  to  have 
a  flower-bed — ah  !  to  have  her  house  surrounded  with  flowers,  blooming  from 
spring  till  snow  comes  again?" 


Seo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN.  503 

571.  fultivatton  of  Hardy  Annuals. — Hardy  annuals  are  those  plants  that 
flower  and  ripen  their  fruits  and  perish  in  one  season,  hut  many  of  them 
may  be  sown  in  autumn  to  flower  early  the  next  year.  Hardy  annuals 
;::o\v  without  artificial  heat,  and  come  to  perfection  in  the  open  grounds ; 
hut  what  are  known  as  half  hardy  plants  need  pushing  a  little,  except  in 
very  favorable  localities.  Tender  and  small  seeded  varieties  sometimes  fail, 
not  on  account  of  the  bad  growing  properties  of  the  seeds,  but  solely  from 
bad  management.  Delicate  seeds,  like  the  Calceolaria,  or  Chinese  primrose, 
must  not  be  sown  in  the  open  ground.  One  party  complained  that  some 
line  seeds  failed  to  grow  which  were  sown  from  one  to  two  inches  deep — 
literally  buried.  The  most  inexperienced  in  gardening  matters  can  sow  sweet 
peas,  but  it  requires  a  practiced  hand  to  look  after  such  delicate  seeds  as 
Calceolaria,  Cineraria,  Fuchsia,  and  such  like. 

Many  persons  think  that  when  they  make  a  hole  in  the  soil  with  a  trowel, 
and  throw  in  such  small  seed  as  Mignonette,  that  it  should  be  sure  to  grow  ; 
and  if  it  does  not,  they  lay  the  blame  upon  the  seed,  when  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten  the  fault  is  in  sowing  too  deep.  The  proper  depth  for  planting  flower 
seeds  is  but  little  more  than  their  diameter,  though  Lupine  and  Sweet  Peas 
may  be  planted  one  inch  deep ;  but  such  small  seeds  as  Portuhica  and  Mig- 
nonette require  to  be  sown  almost  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Some  seed 
are  diflicult  to  germinate.  Cypress  seed  requii-e  to  be  soaked  in  warm  wa- 
ter about  one  hour.  The  seeds  of  the  Globe  Amaranthus  are  covered  witii 
a  thick  woolly  substance,  which  greatly  retards  germination,  and  if  planted 
without  soaking,  few,  if  any,  will  come  up.  The  most  convenient  method 
of  sowing  annuals  is  to  take  a  round-pointed  stick,  with  which  draw  a  circle 
six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  an  inch 
deep,  according  to  tlie  size  of  the  seed  to  be  sown,  placing  a  label  with  the 
name  in  the  center.  The  labels  ought  to  be  five  or  six  inches  long,  painted 
white,  and  marked  witli  a  lead  pencil  before  the  paint  gets  dry  ;  in  this  waj' 
the  name  will  last  a  long  time.  Larkspurs,  and  many  of  the  hardy  annuals, 
when  sown  late  in  autumn,  lie  dormant  all  winter,  thereby  making  much 
stronger  plants,  and  flowering  earlier  than  those  sown  in  spring.  The 
dwarf  Kocket  Larkspurs,  when  sown  on  the  edges  of  the  borders,  present  a 
beautiful  sight  with  their  various  colors ;  the  seed  requires  to  be  sown  in 
October,  and  protected  by  a  slight  covering  of  straw  during  winter.  Phlox 
Drummondii  are  of  all  shades  and  colors  ;  they  delight  in  a  moist  and 
shaded  situation ;  seed  sown  one  eighth  of  an  inch  deep  in  May,  blooms  from 
June  until  October. 

572.  List  of  Choice  Annuals.— The  following  choice  list  of  hardy  annuals 
was  made  by  Thomas  Cavanach,  a  practical,  sensible  floriculturist  in  Brook- 
lyn, ]Sr.  Y.  It  is  -worthy  of  the  attention  of  all  who  desire  to  beautify  their 
homestead. 

JVemophila  Insignis,  or  Blue  Love  Grove.— ^eeA.  sown  in  May,  blooms 
in  July  ;  likes  a  rich  soil  and  moist  situation  ;  suitable  for  vases. 

Abronia    Vmlellata.—h.  very  pretty  annual,  with  long   trailing   stems. 


504:  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

bearing  beautiful  lilac  and  wliitc  flowers  ;  vci-y  fragrant  suitable  for  vases ; 
seed  may  be  sown  early  in  April,  flowering  in  June. 

Aster  Chincnsis,  or  China  Aster. — This  beautiful  annnal  comprises  over 
twenty-five  diflferent  varieties.  Truffaut's,  for  general  cultivation,  is  the  best, 
on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  flowers  and  variety  of  their  colors ;  seeds 
sown  in  the  open  ground  in  May,  in  rich  soil.  All  single  or  semi-doublo 
flowers  should  be  pulled  up  and  thrown  away. 

Calliopsis,  or  Coreopsis. — This  is  a  very  showy  annual — fourteen  dilforent 
varieties ;  flowers,  bright  yellow,  mottled  with  a  rich  velvety  crimson, 
highly  ornamental ;  seed  may  be  sown  in  October  or  early  in  April;  easily 
transplanted. 

Balsam,  or  Lady's  Slipper. — A  well-known  tender  annual.  The  ca- 
mclia-flowercd  contains  twelve  varieties,  of  all  shades  and  colors,  variously 
striped  and  mottled.  Seed  sown  in  the  open  ground  in  the  hitter  part  of 
May.  To  have  them  early,  seed  should  be  sown  in  pots  in  the  house  in 
April,  and  transplanted  to  the  garden  Avhen  four  inches  high.  Plant  singly, 
pulling  up  all  semi-double  or  single  flowers. 

Cuphea  Platycentra.—K.  very  pretty  annual  or  green-house  jicrennial, 
with  scarlet  .and  purple  flowers,  suitable  for  vases;  flowering  all  summer, 
and  in  winter,  if  taken  up  in  autumn  and  kept  in  the  house  ;  sown  in  pots 
in  the  house  in  April.     Plants  may  be  procured  from  any  florist  for  a  trifle. 

Cypress  Vine. — A  splendid  running  vine,  delicate  foliage,  bright  crimson 
flowers,  of  a  star  shape  ;  Alba,  pure  white.  Seed  sown  in  the  latUn-  part 
of  May  ;  likes  a  rich  soil.  A  very  ornamental  pyramid  may  be  made  by 
setting  a  straight  pole  in  the  ground  six  or  eight  feet  high,  surrounded  by  a 
hoop  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  fiistened  to  the  ground  with  three  j^tegs; 
run  strings  from  the  top  of  the  pole  to  the  hoop.  Sow  the  seed  outside  of 
the  hoop.     It  may  also  be  trained  over  arches  or  vases. 

Lathyrus  Odoratus,  or  Sweet  Pea. — One'of  the  prettiest  and  most  fragrant 
of  tho  popular  annuals  which  ornament  the  flower-garden.  The  sweet  pea 
grows  four  or  five  feet  high  in  rich  soil.  The  plants  should  be  tied  to  a  stake 
or  an  old  tree.     Sow  the  seed  in  April ;  flowers  in  July. 

Ageratum  Mexicanum. — A  half  hardy  annual,  with  light  blue  flowers. 
Seed  sown  in  May  ;  flowers  in  July,  blooming  profusely  until  killed  by  tho 
frost. 

Alyssmn  Maritimu77i,  or  Sweet  Alyssiim. — This  is  a  hardy  annual,  growing 
one  ibot  high  ;  flowers  white ;  very  fragrant.  Seed  may  be  sown  in  autumn 
or  early  in  spring. 

Cacalia,  or  Scarlet  Tassel  Floxcer.  —  A  very  pretty  annual,  with  scarlet 
and  orange  tassel-shaped  flowers.  Seed  sown  first  of  May  ;  blooms  IVoni 
July  until  October. 

L'schschoUzia  California,  or  California  Gold  Flower. — Flowers  bright 
yellow,  very  showy.  This,  witli  slight  protection  during  winter,  will  flower 
the  seco7id  season;  blooms  from  June  until  October. 

Clarkia  Klegans. — A  hardy  annual,  very  showy.     Seed  sown  in  Sciitem- 


Seo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN.  505 

ber  flowers  nuich  better  than  when  sown  in  spring.  For  spring  sowing, 
plant  early  in  April,  in  poor  soil. 

Mirabilis  Jalapa — commonly  called  Fonr-o'clock,  from  its  habit  of 
o]K'iiing  its  flowers  about  that  time  in  the  afternoon.  Mirahilisxi  a  Latin 
word  for  wonderful.  The  roots  of  this  plant,  when  dried,  form  the  principal 
constituent  of  the  jalap  of  druggists.  It  is  generally  considered  an  annual ; 
it  has  a  large  tuberous  root  which,  if  taken  up  in  October,  and  stored  in  a 
dry  cellai',  will  flower  the  second  season.  Seed  sown  in  April ;  flowers 
in  June. 

Scahiosa,  or  IfowTiing  Bride — A  variety  of  colors,  from  a  jet  black  to  a 
deep  lilac.     Seed  sown  in  May ;  blooms  in  the  latter  part  of  June. 

Zinnia  Elegans. — One  of  the  most  showy  annuals  in  cultivation  ;  flowers, 
brilliant  scarlet,  white,  orange,  and  light  purple.  The  new  double-flowered 
Zinnia  forms  a  beantifid  addition  to  this  class  of  annual  flowers.  Tiie  flowers 
resemble  the  double  French  marigold;  they  will  bear  transplanting.  Seed 
sown  in  May  ;  blooms  in  July. 

Clintonia  Elegans. — A  beautiful,  tender  annual,  covered  with  deep-blue 
flowers  ;  grows  about  six  inches  high.  Seed  sown  in  May,  in  light,  rich  soil ; 
blooms  in  July  and  August. 

Gomphrena  Glohosa.,  or  Globe  Amaranihus. — Five  diiferent  colors;  the 
seeds  are  rather  diflicult  to  vegetate;  they  require  to  be  soaked  in  warm 
water.  The  flowers,  if  gathered  and  kept  in  a  dry  jjlace,  will  retain  their 
color  for  several  years.     Seed  sown  in  May. 

Mignonette  is  one  of  the  sweetest  of  the  annuals.  Thousands  of  pots  of  it 
are  sold  annually  in  the  markets  of  Paris  and  London.  It  has  been  found 
growing  upon  the  walls  of  ruins  near  Paris,  springing  from  every  crevice 
where  the  seed  could  germinate,  and  scenting  the  air  with  its  fragrance. 
The  mignonette  is  of  very  easy  culture ;  in  rich  soil  it  grows  luxuriantly,  but 
with  poor  flowers,  that  have  little  or  no  fragrance  ;  but  in  poor  soil  the  flow- 
ers will  be  large  and  very  fragrant.  When  once  the  seeds  are  planted,  it 
will  retain  possession  of  the  soil,  springing  up  year  after  year.  Seed  sown 
in  May  almost  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Among  the  curious  annuals  is  the  2Iimosa,  or  Sensitive  Plant.  Seed 
sown  in  the  open  ground  in  May,  in  rich  soil.  This  singular  plant,  at  the 
slightest  touch,  closes  its  leaves. 

"  Weak  with  nice  sense  the  chaste  mimosa  stands, 
From  each  rude  touch  withdraws  her  tender  hands." 

3[eseinbryanthemum,  or  lee  Plant. — This  curious  plant  has  thick  leaves, 
which  have  the  appearance  of  being  covered  with  ice;  very  ornamental  for 
vases.     Seed  sown  in  May. 

Loasa  Acanthifolia. — A  running  vine,  covered  with  curious  yellow  flow- 
ers ;  the  stem  and  leaves  arc  covered  with  hairs  or  small  bristles,  which, 
upon  being  touched,  leave  a  stinging  sensation  similar  to  nettles.  Seed 
sown  in  May. 

Coix  Lachryma,  or  JoVs  Tears. — A  kind  of  ornamental  grass.    It  is  called 


606  TDK  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

Job's  tears  on  account  of  its  shining,  pearly  seed,  which,  by  a  considerable 
stretch  of  the  imagination,  may  bo  likened  to  a  falling  tear.  Seed  sown  in 
May  half  an  inch  deep. 

The  Avcna,  or  Animated  Oat,  is  a  curiosity.  "When  the  seeds  have  fallen 
off,  their  strong  beard  is  so  sensitive  to  the  various  changes  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, that  they  are  continually  in  motion,  like  some  insect  crawling  on  the 
ground.     Seed  sown  in  April. 

Anagallis,  or  Pimpenul. — A  dwarf-trailing  plant,  with  blue  and  pink 
flowers.  The  anagallis  has  been  termed  the  Poor  Man's  Barometer.  Not 
the  pimpernel  alone  closes  its  flowers  when  exposed  to  damp  air,  but  many 
other  plants  are  equally  sensitive.  Stcllaria  Media,  or  Chickwccd,  and  many 
others,  shut  their  flowers  upon  tlie  approach  of  rain. 

Another  gardener  gives  the  following  list  as  a  choice  selection  for  a  small 
garden  : 

Ali/ssum  Ifaritimuon — Sweet  Alyssum. — A  very  desirable  dwarf  annual, 
with  small,  white,  honey-scented  flowers  in  great  profusion,  blooms  tor  a 
long  time. 

Asters. — Showy,  hardy  annuals.  The  fine  German  and  French  asters  are 
certainly  among  the  finest  flowers  we  have. 

Balsams. — ^The  camelia-flowered.  balsams  are  most  beautiful,  and  very 
desirable. 

Cacalia,  or  Tassel  Flower. 

Calliopsis,  or  Coreopsis. — Very  showy  and  rich. 

Candytuft. — A  large  quantity  should  be  grown  of  this  plant  for  bouquets. 

Clarkia. 

Eschscholtzia. — Yery  showy  and  handsome. 

Everlasting  Flower. — Fine  for  winter  bouquets. 

Four-o'' clocks. — A  well-known  plant,  desirable  in  large  gardens. 

Globe  Aniaranthus. — Excellent  for  winter  bouquets. 

Jacohca,  or  Senecio. — Very  pretty. 

Mari(jold. — The  dwarf  varieties  are  pretty. 

Miijiionette. — Sow  plenty  of  this  for  bouquets. 

Nasturtiums. — The  dwarf  varieties  much  resemble  Tom  Thumb  gera- 
niums, and  are  very  desirable. 

Nemophila,  or  Love  Grove. — Plants  with  very  small  but  prcttv  flowei*s. 
Dwarf. 

I'etunias. — Among  the  verj'  best  plants  ;  of  easy  culture,  and  flowering 
profusely  tlie  whole  season. 

Phlox  Drummondii. — The  very  best  annual;  of  long  duration  in  bloom, 
rich  in  color,  excellent  for  bouquets;  unequaled  in  all  respects,  in  my  esti-- 
mat  ion. 

J'oppies. — Very  showy,  and  great  variety. 

Portulaca. — One  of  the  best  annuals. 

Scalnosa,  or  Mourning  Bride. — Showy. 

Stocks. — Many  annual  varieties  are  cultivated,  and  are  very  desirable. 

Sweet  Sultan. — Quite  pretty. 
Whitlavia. — A  very  beautiful  blue  flowering  annual. 

Zinnia. — Very  showy,  free  flowering  plants. 

573.  Uardy  Flowering  Herbaceous  PlanlSt— The  following  list  gives  a  good 


Seo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN.  507 

assortment  of  some  of  the  most  desirable  hardy  flowering  plants,  some  of 
M-hich  grow  and  bloom  in  beauty  every  year  with  almost  no  care.  Of 
course  the  list  can  be  greatly  extended,  or  selections  can  be  made  from  this 
and  others  to  suit  each  taste.  To  many  who  do  not  know  what  to  select, 
tliese  lists  will  be  useful  guides.  We  will  briefly  notice  some  of  the  most 
desirable  sorts. 

Achilha  Ptarmica. — Of  the  double-flowering  variety,  dwarf,  continues  in 
bloom  a  long  time,  good  for  bouquets,  flowers  small,  of  a  pure  white. 

Aco?iite. — Monkshood,  mostly  with  blue  flowers ;  various  higlits. 

Althea  Rosea. — Hollyhock,  double  varieties,  very  beautiful,  all  colors ; 
six  or  seven  feet  liigh. 

Anemone  Ja/joniVa.— Japanese  "Wind-flower,  purplish  red  flowers,  double; 
about  two  feet  in  hight. 

Baptisia  Aiistralis. — False  Indigo,  fine  blue  flowers ;  two  to  three  feet 
high. 

Campanula. — Bell-flower,  many  varieties,  with  white  and  blue  flowers ; 
various  higlits,  all  pretty. 

Delphinium. — Larkspur,  one  of  the  best  herbaceous  plants,  with  fine  blue 
or  white  flowers.     D.formosum  and  grandijlorum  are  the  best. 

Diciammus  Fraximella,  or  Gas  plant. 

Diclytra,  or  Dicentra  Spectahilis. — The  very  finest  herbaceous  plant. 

lAmkia,  or  Day  lily,  many  varieties ;  all  desirable. 

Iris,  or  fleur  de  lis  (flower  de  luce).. 

Lychnis  Chalccdonica. — ^The  double  variety  has  splendid  scarlet  flowers. 

Phloxes. — A  splendid  class  of  plants,  all  beautiful,  witliout  any  exception. 

Pyreihrum. — Feverfew,  double  white  flowers,  very  neat  and  pretty. 

Sjjirca. — Meadow  Sweet,  many  varieties,  all  desirable. 

Tradescantia. — Spiderwort,  with  white,  blue,  or  red  flowers,  very  pretty. 

Valerian. — A  tall-growing  plant,  with  fragrant  white  flowers. 

Yiola  Odorata. — Sweet  Violet,  very  fragrant. 

Chrysanthe?num..—Mnc\i  improved  of  iate  years,  and  in  several  varieties, 
is  one  of  the  most  desii-able  of  hardy  flowering  plants,  and  is  very  much 
loved  wlierever  known.  It  is  one  of  the  very  last  to  flower  and  cheer  us 
with  its  many-headed  blossoms  for  the  last  tliree  months  of  the  departing 
year,  when  most  otiier  plants  have  gone  their  way.  Then,  again,  it  is  one 
of  the  very  best  window  plants.  It  not  only  flourishes,  but  luxuriates  in- 
doors, if  properly  cared  for.  As  floral  ornaments  for  the  green-house  and 
conservatory,  they  are  unsurpassed. 

To  get  early  flowers  from  chrysanthemum  seed-plants,  you  must  sow  the 
seed  early  in  April  in  pots  in  the  house,  and  transplant,  or  else  sow  seed  in 
a  very  nicely  prepared  warm  bed  in  May.  Be  careful  to  thin  out,  so  as  to 
give  ample  room  for  tlie  plants  to  branch  out. 

574.  Bulbous  Flowering  Plants. — The  earliest  flowers  of  the  garden  come 
from  bulbs  planted  in  autumn.  In  a  well-prepared  bed,  nicely  sheltered 
with  a  coat  of  leaves,  the  crocuses  begin  to  bloom  almost  as  soon  as  tlie 


508  TUE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

covering  is  removed,  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  All  tender  bulbs 
and  perennials  under  a  coating  of  leaves  will  keep  sound  till  spring.  It  is 
necessary  to  lay  brugh  or  something  else  over  the  leaves,  to  hinder  their 
blowing  away  by  tlie  winds.  Leaves  make  the  best  kind  of  covering  for  all 
tender  things.  Frost  rarely  penetrates  through  a  thick  coating  of  them,  as 
may  be  seen  during  our  most  severe  weather;  by  removing  a  bed  of  leaves 
the  ground  will  be  found  unfrozen. 

There  is  no  sight  more  striking  to  the  eye  than  the  effect  produced  in  early 
sjiring,  when  delicate  snowdrops  and  the  modest,  many-colored  crocuses 
enamel  the  lawn,  or  make  the  garden  lovely  with  their  stainless  purity,  and 
with  the  brilliancy  of  their  colors.  Coming,  as  they  do,  before  the  swallow, 
these  firstlings  of  the  season  have  a  special  claim  to  the  popular  regard, 
lliey  are  the  harbingers  of  buds  ajid  blossoms,  of  leafy  trees  and  unbound 
waters,  of  sunshine  and  of  singing  birds,  and  when  their  tender  green  spears 
begin  to  push  themselves  through  the  soil,  Ave  know  that  nature  is  awaken- 
ing from  her  winter  slumbers,  and  that  more  genial  weather  is  at  hand. 
These  little  pilgrims  that  come  to  us  with  glad  tidings,  and  that  put  on  for 
our  delight  the  gayest  robes,  and  silently,  yet  eloquently,  assure  us  that  we 
are  entering  upon  a  new  cycle  of  soft  sunshine,  and  bland  airs,  and  fragrant 
odors,  deserve  to  be  more  cherished  than  they  usually  are  by  all  country- 
women. Of  all  the  flowers  that  bloom,  those  that  come  to  us  earliest  are 
entitled  to  receive  the  most  cordial  welcome,  and  it  is  for  this  that  we  appeal 
in  behalf  of  the  more  general  culture  of  bulbous  flowers. 

"\Ve  appeal  to  all  farmers'  wives  and  daughters  for  a  more  general  cultiva- 
tion of  flower  gardens  and  parterres  around  the  house,  because  we  believe 
in  their  humanizing  influences ;  in  the  lessons  they  teach,  and  the  sympa- 
thies to  which  they  appeal.  We  believe  every  family  who  has  ground 
should  cultivate  Hyacinths,  Tulij>s,  Jonquils,  Crocus,  Crown  Imjx'rials, 
Iris,  Snowdrops,  Polyanthus,  Narcissus,  Double  Narcissus,  Lilies,  Gladio- 
lus, and  Dahlias.  To  these  add  Peonies,  Di^iytra  {Diccntra)  Spectahilis, 
and  many  other  hardy  herbaceous  plants,  such  as  Holly hocl's  and  the 
Phloxes,  Yucca  fiktmentosa,  etc. 

Of  all  the  bulbous  flowering  plants,  the  gladiolus  takes  the  lead,  accord- 
ing to  our  fancy.  The  varieties  of  G.  yandavensis  are  numerous,  robust, 
stately,  with  beautiful  taper  leaves  of  bright  green,  and  long  racemes  of  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  lily-shaped  flowei"s,  comprising  every  variety  of  shade 
of  colors,  which  can  be  kept  up  by  timely  planting  from  July  to  October  in 
the  open  air;  and  then,  before  hard  frosts  come,  if  stalks  with  undeveloped 
buds  are  cut  and  set  in  water  in  the  house,  they  will  continue  to  bloom  some 
time  longer.  The  bulbs  must  be  taken  up  for  winter,  and  need  about  the 
same  protection  as  onions. 

Several  bulbs,  hyacinths  in  particular,  may  be  grown  in  any  room  where 
water  will  not  freeze,  in  glasses  adapted  to  the  purpose,  so  that  the  bulb 
rests  in  the  mouth  of  the  glass,  and  sends  its  roots  down  into  the  water. 
Park-colored  glasses  arc  preferable  to  white  glass.     The  water  should  not 


Seo.  31.]  THE   FLOWER-GARDEN.  509 

be  allowed  to  rise  more  than  to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  bulb ;  otherwise 
they  will  rot.  When  first  put  in  glasses,  they  should  be  stored  away  in  a 
dark,  coel  place,  till  the  roots  are  about  an  inch  long.  If  the  roots  do  not 
grow  vigorously,  give  two  or  three  drops  of  hartshorn  fn  each  fresh  supply 
of  water,  and  put  in  the  glass  a  small  lump  of  charcoal.  Tlie  water  should 
bo  changed  every  foi'tnight,  or  three  weeks  at  farthest ;  but  to  do  tiiis  the 
plant  must  not  be  taken  out,  but  the  glass  held  horizontally,  and  the  water 
poured  ofl'.  Soft  or  rain-water  should  alwaj's  be  used.  By  this  mode  of 
treatment,  and  not  keeping  them  in  too  warm  or  close  a  place,  they  will 
bloom  beaiitifully. 

Tliey  may  also  be  grown  in  the  house  in  pots,  in  the  open  light  and  air. 
The  bottom  of  the  pot  should  have  plenty  of  broken  tiles  in  it  to  allow  of 
perfect  drainage,  and  be  frequently,  but  moderately,  supplied  with  water. 
Do  not  stand  the  pots  in  saucers  of  water. 

575.  The  Hollyhock  is  a  fine  flower  to  grow  in  clumps  about  a  lawn,  and 
may  be  made  perennial  by  not  allowing  the  stalks  to  ripen  seeds.     As  there 

-have  been  great  improvements  made  in  these  flowers,  we  annex  the  names 
that  two  dozen  fine  sorts  are  known  by  among  seedsmen. 

576.  Select  List  of  llollyhOCkSi — 1.  Anak  (Bircham). — Crimson  ;  flowers  of 
a  fine  form  and  full. 

2.  Black  Prince  (Gibbon). — Flowers  large  and  very  double ;  black. 

3.  Brennu^  (Bircham). — Light  crimson  ;  a  fine,  showy  variety. 

4.  Charles  Baron  (Chater), — Flowers  very  large  and  full ;  color  pink, 
shaded  with  salmon. 

5.  Beauty  of  Chestnut  (Paul). — Flowers  of  a  very  fine  form ;  spike  -ong, 
and  beautifully  furnished  with  flowers  of  a  beautiful  bright  rosy  red  ;  a  very 
fine  variety. 

6.  Charles  Turner  (Black). — Spike  very  close ;  flowers  of  fine  form,  large, 
and  of  good  substance ;  color  deep  crimson ;  extra  fine. 

7.  Commander-i?i-Chiey^  {Baron). — Flowers  large  and  showy;  dark-red. 

8.  Eva  (Roake). — Flowers  large,  shape  very  fine ;  color  peach. 

9.  Emperor  (Roake). — Form  quite  first-rate ;  color  a  beautiful  pink ;  one 
of  the  finest. 

10.  Felicia  (Bircham). — Flowers  and  spike  of  excellent  form  and  sub- 
stance; color  amethyst;  extra. 

11.  General  Bern  (Veitch). — Spike  very  fine,  flowers  full  size:  color 
bright  red. 

12.  Hon.  Jfrs.  Ashley  (Roake). — Flowers  medium-sized,  of  great  depth, 
and  very  double ;  color  a  delicate  peach. 

13.  Lilac  Model  (Chater). — Flowers  medium-sized,  full,  and  of  good  sub- 
stance. 

li.  Mrs.  Foster  (Turner). — A  noble  spike ;  flowers  large,  of  first-rate  forn) ; 
color  beautiful  light  rose. 

15.  Miss  Parsons  (Pai-sons). — Spike  full;  flowers  medium  and  close; 
color  pinkish  salmon  ;  fine. 

10.  3[agnum  Boman  (Baxon).- — Flowers  very  large;  guard  petals  broad, 
but  not  quite  substance  enough ;  very  showy. 

17.  Margaret  Ann  (Black). — Spike  very  fine;  flowers  good  form,  very 
compact;  color  bright  rose. 


510  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 

18.  Modd  of  Perfection  (Baron). — Many  Letter  models  at  the  present 
day  ;  color  creamy  white. 

19.  Susannah  (Veitch). — Flowers  medium-sized  and  moderately  smooth  ; 
color  creamy  white. 

20.  Pyramid  (Parsons). — Flower  medium-sized ;  spike  close  and  good ; 
color  buff. 

21.  Poupre  de  Tyre  (Bircham). — A  noble  spike ;  flowers  large  and  free ; 
color  rich  dark-purple;  a  first-rate  variety. 

22.  Penelope  (Bircham). — A  very  showy  and  beautiful  variety ;  color  fine 
rose. 

23.  Walden  Gem  (Chater). — Spike  very  fine ;  flowers  large  and  of  fine 
form  ;  color  deep  crimson. 

24.  Minnie  Gray  (Loring). — Size  medium,  form  good  ;  color  white. 

As  these  have  all  been  produced  by  planting  seeds,  and  saving  none  but 
the  finest  fiowering  plants,  we  recommend  a  continuance  of  the  practice  by 
all  who  grow  hollyhocks. 

577.  The  Verbena  is  an  almost  indispensable  plant  in  lawns,  it  is  so  pretty 
to  fill  up  cut  figures  in  the  sward.  The  name,  verbena,  is  an  unmeaning 
one,  being  derived  from  the  Latin  herba,  which  means  any  low,  S2:)reading 
plant.  This  plant  has  been  very  long  in  cultivation,  and  it  was  used  in 
ancient  times  in  some  of  the  sacred  ceremonies,  the  altars  and  priests'  heads 
being  wreathed  with  verbenas.  Celsus  speaks  of  the  use  of  verbenas  as  a 
febrifuge  in  sickness,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  the  same  plant  known 
now  by  this  name.  The  verbena  is  indigenous  in  the  country  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  was  taken  from  there  to  England  in  1825,  and  lo  this  country 
ten  years  later,  by  Eobert  Buist,  of  Philadelphia.  Now  it  is  known  every- 
where and  is  everywhere  a  favorite,  as  its  cultivation  is  simple,  and  its  low- 
creeping  habit  and  pretty  flowers  will  keep  it  in  favor  until  some  new  rival 
comes  to  take  its  place.  It  flourishes  best  in  sandy,  rich  loam,  in  garden- 
beds,  and  blooms  from  midsummer  till  late  in  autumn,  and  if  potteil,  con- 
tinues in  bloom  through  the  winter.  Verbenas  do  not  require  frequent 
watering ;  they  will  grow  upon  very  dry  ground,  and  wet  in  excess  mildews 
and  injures  them.  For  pots,  take  half-and-half  leaf-mold  and  good  loam, 
and  add  sand  enough  to  give  a  preponderance  of  sand  in  tiie  whole  mixture. 
As  it  is  naturally  a  running  plant,  it  must  bo  cultivated  in  that  way,  and 
not,  as  we  have  seen  it,  Avith  stift',  upright  stems.  Nothing  is  more  easy 
than  producing  new  varieties  of  colors  in  verbenas.  We  have  only  to  grow 
seedlings  and  select  the  best  and  cast  away  the  remainder.  All  colors,  ex- 
cept light-blue  and  yellow,  have  been  obtained.  The  following  are  the 
names  of  a  few  of  the  latest  new  varieties,  with  their  characteristics  an- 
nexed : 

Giant  of  Battles. — Flower  and  truss  large,  habit  good,  foliage  large;  color 
dark-scarlet,  with  purplish  eye ;  a  new  imporied  variety. 

Pred. — Flower  medium,  habit  weak,  a  good  bloomer,  but  of  a  dull,  pur- 
plish, lake  color  ;  pretty  for  variety. 

Admiral  Pandas. — Foliage  and  habit  good  ;  color  velvety  scarlet;  fine. 

Celestial. — A  strong,  rapidly  growing  variety,  the  leaves  often  two  inches 


5eo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN.  511 

across ;  truss  large,  elongated,  forming  a  fine  head ;  color  pink,  with  darker 
eye ;  desirable  for  its  size  and  color. 

"  Mrs.  Abbott. — Habit  and  foliage  good,  truss   small ;   color  very  dark, 
velvety  purple,  light  eye;  fine. 

Evening  tStar. — Color  dark-crimson,  with  well-defined  whitish-pink  eye ; 
growth  small ;  a  decided  novelty,  and  a  very  striking  fiower. 

Rosy  Gem. — A  lovely  verbena,  foliage  and  flower  of  medium  size ;  color 
rosy  lake,  with  light  eye ;  extra  fine. 

For  an  ordinary  purpose,  however,  some  that  have  been  long  in  use,  that 
can  be  bought  for  a  tenth  or  a  hundredth  part  of  the  price  of  these  new 
sorts,  might  give  equal  satisfaction,  for  the  varieties  have  been  so  multiplied 
that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  which  are  the  favorites. 

578.  Flowers  Grown  as  a  Farm  Crop. — There  are  many  persons  in  France 
who  grow  flowers  as  an  exclusive  crop.  It  is  their  sole  dependence.  "The 
growing  of  flowers,  for  the  production  of  fine  essential  oils  and  for  medicinal 
purposes,  is  confined  mainly  to  the  southern  portion  of  the  department  of 
Var,  lying  on  the  Mediterranean,  adjoining  the  late  Italian,  but  now. French, 
province  of  Nice.  There  are  extensive  factories  in  Nismes,  Montpelier, 
Kice,  and  in  Algeria,  but  the  great  center  of  this  branch  of  industry  is  the 
town  of  Grasse,  lying  some  few  miles  inland,  and  its  sea-port,  Cannes,  the 
winter  residence  of  Lord  Brougham. 

"  It  would  be  impossible  to  state,  even  approximately,  the  product  of  the 
flower-fields  of  this  interesting  region.  There  are  no  less  than  sixty  factories 
in  Grasse,  giving  employment,  in  the  various  departments  of  field  and  in-door 
labor,  to  5,000  persons.  Many  manufacturers  grow  their  own  flowers,  others 
buy  them  in  the  open  market  daily,  and  still  others  are  supplied  by  con- 
tracts. The  latter  system  prevails  among  the  leading  hoases.  Contracts 
are  made  at  a  fixed  price  for  a  term  of  years  for  the  total  product  of  a  farm, 
at  rates  varying  from  8  to  10  cents  per  kilogramme  (2}  lbs.)  of  rose  leaves, 
up  to  $1  for  tuberose  leaves,  and  even  higher  rates  for  violet  leaves,  which 
last  are  mainly  grown  at  Nice.     The  average  prices  are  about  as  follows  : 

Eoee  leaves 8  to  10  cents  the  kilogramme.  I  Acacia 60  to  80  cents  the  kilogramme. 

Jessamine 40  to  60      "  "  Tuberose 100  "  " 

Orange 40  "  "  |  Violet 80  to  1  "30  " 

"  These  are  the  leading  garden  flowers  used  in  Grasse  ;  only  small  quanti- 
ties of  the  jonquil,  narcissus,  mignonette,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  A  great 
breadth  of  land  is  devoted  to  lavender,  rosemary,  thyme,  and  other  medic- 
inal plants,  which  are  sold  at  much  lower  rates  than  the  above. 

"  Tlie  preparation  of  all  these  plants  divides  itself  mainly  into  four  classes  : 
essential  oils,  distilled  waters,  pomades  and  oils,  and  dried  flowers.  The 
great  bulk  of  essential  oils  produced  consists  of  lavender,  rosemary,  sage, 
thyme,  spikenard,  and  others  of  a  terebintiiine  nature  ;  the  most  valuable 
oils  produced  in  any  quantity  are  those  of  Neroli  and  Petits  Grains.  Tiio 
former  is  the  result  of  the  distillation  of  orange-flower  water  from  the  petals 
of  the  flowers  of  the  Bigarade,  or  bitter  orange  (the  sweet  or  Portugal  or- 
ange yielding  an  inferior  product),  and  t'.io  latter  is  obtained  from  the  green 


512  TUE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Cuxr.  V. 

leaves  of  the  same  tree.  Tlic  price  of  Neroli  varies,  with  the  seasons,  from 
$30  to  $45  the  pound,  and  of  Petits  Grains  from  $S  to  $12.  These  two  oils 
are  extensively  used  in  the  cotupositioii  of  Cologne  water,  and  in  combina- 
tion with  bergamot,  give  it  its  distinctive  character.  The  orange-flower 
M'ater  is  consumed  in  immeuse  quantities  in  France,  in  the  '  eau  sucrue,'  so 
universally  drank  in  the  hot  season.  This,  by  the  way,  is  the  only  shape  in 
which  a  Frenchman  will  drink  water  at  all.  The  Bigaradc  orange-tree  re- 
quires ten  years  to  mature  and  twenty  to  obtain  perfection,  and  yields  an 
average  of  seventeen  pounds  of  flowers  per  annum. 

"Rose  water  is  also  distilled  in  large  quantities.  A  result  of  its  distillation 
is  an  exceedingly  small  quantity  of  otto  of  rose  of  the  very  highest  quality  ; 
it  appears  in  small  supernatant  grains  or  drops,  which  are  carefully  skimmed 
off  and  rectified.  It  is  superior  to  the  famous  Kizanlik,  or  Turkish  otto, 
and  congeals,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  in  beautiful,  transparent  crystals. 
The  '  Rose  de  Mai,'  or  double  May  rose,  is  the  one  universally  grown. 

"  Another  very  costly  article,  of  which  less  than  one  ounce  had  been  pro- 
duced in  1S55,  is  the  essential  oil  of  jessamine.  Up  to  that  period  its  exist- 
ence in  the  plant  was  stoutly  denied  by  the  distillers,  altliough  to  what  other 
principle  the  fine  odor  of  the  plant  wtis  due,  they  failed  to  prove.  In  that 
year  an  Algerian  chemist  obtained  a  minute  quantity,  which  cost  him,  as 
we  were  informed,  at  the  rate  of  17,000  francs  the  kilogramme,  or  $90  the 
ounce.  It  has,  since  then,  been  produced  at  a  cheaper  rate,  but  still  toe 
dear  for  commercial  purposes.  The  wild  Arabian  jessamine  is  grafted  on 
the  cultivated  plant  of  the  same  species,  acclimated,  aud  bears  for  mau)"^ 
years,  if  not  winter  killed,  yielding  90  to  150  lbs.  of  flowers  per  thousand 
plants.  It  is  closely  trimmed  in  spring,  and  deeply  covered  in  winter.  The 
caterpillar  is  its  most  formidable  enemy. 

"  A  most  inqjortant  branch,  and  one  in  which  great  rivalry  exists,  is  the 
preparation  of  perfumed  pomades  and  otto,  which  have  a  two-fold  use  :  first, 
as  bases  for  the  finer  kind  of  pomatums  and  hair  oils  ;  and  next,  as  a  me- 
dium for  obtaining  spirituous  extracts  for  the  toilet,  such  as  Lubin's  well- 
known  extracts  for  the  handkerchief.  Their  preparation  is  the  most  in- 
teresting and  curious  feature  of  the  Grasse  establishments,  and  merits  a  word 
of  description.  For  the  oils,  the  inodorous  virgin  olive  oil  is  used,  expressed 
from  olives  just  before  their  maturity. 

"  The  pomade  '  body,'  -which  is  prepared  in  winter,  is  composed  of  one 
part  of  beef  suet  and  two  parts  of  leaf  lard,  thoroughly  hashed,  washed  in 
several  waters,  and  among  the  best  manufacturers  it  is  washed  several  times 
in  rose  water  to  deprive  it  of  all  unpleasant  odor,  and  then  carefully  melted 
and  stored  away  in  huge  tin  cans  in  airy,  cool  vaults,  for  use  in  the  sea- 
son of  flowers.  The  busy  operations  of  tlie  year  commence  with  the  rose 
season. 

"  There  are  two  processes  for  impregnating  the  pomade  body  and  the  oils 
with  the  floral  odors — one  by  infusion,  tlie  other  by  '  enfleurage.'  The 
first  is  employed  for  the  strong,  less  volatile  odors  of  the  rose,  orange,  and 


Seo.  31.]  THE  FLOWER-GARDEN".  513 

acacia  ;  the  latter  for  the  sensitive,  etliereal  perfumes  of  the  jessamine,  tube- 
rose, jonquil,  and  all  the  bulbous  tribe,  which  will  not  endure  the  applica- 
tion of  even  a  moderate  degree  of  heat. 

"And  first,  by  infusion;  about  TOO  kilogrammes  of  the  pomade  body  are 
put  into  a  tiii-planished  copper  %vater-bath,  melted  at  a  low  temperature,  and 
charged,  at  daybreak,  with  a  certain  cpiantit}^  of  the  freshly  gathered  flow- 
ers, which  are  stirred  constantly  during  the  day  and  night,  the  mass  being 
kept  only  warm  enough  to  maintaini  a  semi-fluid  state.  About  midnight  it 
is  removed  from  the  fire,  put  into  strong  l)ags  made  of  fish-cord,  and  sub- 
jected to  heavy  pressure  in  large,  perforated,  vertical  iron  cylinders,  stand- 
ing on  marble  bed-plates,  which  are  gently  warmed  to  prevent  the  conge- 
lation of  the  exuding  mass.  Next  morning  fresh  leaves  are  added,  and  the 
process  repeated  daily  until  the  desired  strength  of  perfume  is  obtained, 
^vhen  the  pomade  is  put  into  cylindrical  tin  boxes  and  sealed  up  for  ship- 
ment.    The  oils  are  treated  in  like  manner,  but  are  filtered  instead  of  pressed. 

"In  preparing  the  oils,  coarse,  heavy,  spongy  cotton  cloths,  made  especially 
for  this  purpose  at  Marseilles,  are  saturated  with  oil  and  spread  upon  the 
netted  frames ;  flowers  are  then  strewn  thickly  upon  them,  and  they  are 
piled  up  in  like  manner  as  the  pomades.  When  sufticienth'  charged  with 
odor,  the  oil  is  expressed  from  the  cloths  by  powerful  levers. 

"  Many  hundred-weight  of  flowers  and  herbs  are  dried  annually,  and  are 
variously  used  in  the  healing  art,  and  in  the  composition  of  scent-bags, 
cachous,  fuming  pastils  for  the  sick  chamber,  and  kindred  compounds  of  the 
perfumer's  art. 

"  The  Parmezan,  or  double  violet,  is  grown  under  the  shade  of  trees,  and 
yields  a  delicate  and  delightful  perfume.  It  was  the  favorite  odor  of  the 
Athenians  under  Pericles,  and  is  now  the  fashionable  scent  of  the  Parisian 
heau  monde. 

"The  flower  farms  receive  the  highest  culture;  under-draining  is  not 
practiced,  but  great  attention  is  paid  to  irrigation.  Some  fields  have  a  com- 
plete network  of  irrigating  tubes  substantially  laid  in  cement.  A  constant 
warfare  is  waged  upon  insects,  each  plant  having,  as  with  us,  its  pet  borer, 
grub,  or  bug,  and  '  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price'  of  success.  The  heat  in 
summer  is  intense,  though  tempered  by  the  sea  breeze,  and  the  winter  is  at 
times  as  rigorous  as  in  Washington  or  Richmond. 

"  Labor  costs,  per  day,  35  to  40  cents  for  males,  and  15  cents  for  females." 

There  is  no  other  reason  than  that  contained  in  the  last  sentence  why  flower 
farms  can  not  be  established  in  this  country  as  well  as  France.  The  ques- 
tion rests  entirely  upon  the  cost  of  labor. 

579.  Soil  for  Flowers— Compost  for  Potting— Protecting  from  Insects. — All 
flowers  require  a  deep,  rich,  well-drained  soil,  and  that  should  be  annually 
fertilized  with  a  fine  compost,  in  which  wood's  earth  or  leaf-mold  predom- 
inates. The  following  directions  of  a  practical  gardener,  though  given 
mostly  in  reference  to  potting  plants,  will  be  found  useful,  the  same  soil 
being  good  for  flower-beds,  particularly  for  an  annual  dressing. 


514  THE  GARDEN  AND  ITS  FRUITS.  [Chap.  V. 


"  To  liave  suitable  compost  for  plants,  the  different  soils  should  bo  mixed 
for  some  time  before  they  are  wanted.  In  making  composts,  the  foUowhicr 
soils  should  be  obtained:  First,  soil  and  turf  from  an  old  pasture  ;  second, 
decomposed  horse  or  cow  manure ;  third,  peat  soil  or  leaf-mold  from  tlie 
woods;  fourthj  white  sand  ;  fifth,  coarse  sand  or  gravel ;  sixth,  charcoal  and 
broken  pots.  The  charcoal  and  broken  pots  are  for  drainage.  A  suitable 
compost  for  fuchsias,  roses,  and  geraniums  consists  of  one  part  white  sand, 
one  of  leaf-mold,  and  one  of  decomposed  manure  and  turf-mold.  These 
should  be  well  mi.xed  together  and  sifted  before  using.  A  compost  for  cac- 
tus is  made  of  sand,  leaf,  and  turf-mold,  with  a  good  drainage  of  charcoal 
and  broken  pots.  All  bulbous  roots  require  a  very  rich  soil  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  sea  sand,  rotten  cow  manure,  peat  soil,  and  good  turf-mold. 

"  In  taking  plants  out  of  pots,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  put  the  hand  on 
top  of  the  dirt  and  then  turn  the  pot  bottom  up,  and  hit  a  gentle  rap,  and 
the  ball  of  earth  will  slip  out.  Most  jieople  water  plants  too  little.  Two  or 
three  times  a  week  is  necessary,  or  oftener  in  a  dr\-  stove  room. 

"  To  grow  flowers  in  the  greatest  perfection,  gardeners  often  cover  them 
and  take  great  pains  to  preserve  them  free  from  contact  of  insects  or  the 
pollen  of  other  flowers. 

'■  The  thing  of  most  importance  in  potting  is  suitable  soil.  Many  persons 
imagine  that  all  that  is  requisite  is  earth,  be  it  good  or  bad.  We  liave  seen 
plants  potted  in  coimnon  street  manure,  the  owners  laboring  under  the  im- 
pression that  it  was  the  very  best  kind  because  it  was  black. 

"Unsuitable  soil  and  large  pots  generally  given  to  small,  weak  plants  for 
the  purpose  of  causing  them  to  grow,  is,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  cause 
of  their  death. 

"  Giving  small  pots  to  weak  plants  encourages  the  growth  of  the  roots 
toward  the  side  of  the  pot  in  search  of  air  and  moisture.  In  potting  plants, 
glazed  pots  should  never  be  used,  as  they  prevent  the  evaporation  of  all  im- 
purities through  the  sides  of  the  pot. 

"  Of  all  the  insects  which  infest  house  plants,  the  green  fly,  red  spider, 
and  mealy  bug  arc  the  most  difScult  to  get  rid  of.  They  are  easily  de- 
stroyed in  the  green-house  by  tobacco  smoke.  For  parlor  plants,  take  a 
pail  of  soft  water,  invert  the  plant  over  the  pail,  cover  the  surface  of  the  pot 
with  a  piece  of  paper  to  prevent  the  soil  from  falling  out,  and  brush  the 
leaves  downward  with  a  dust  brush,  dipping  the  plant  in  the  water  several 
times.  The  mealy  bug  may  be  found  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  orange- 
trees,  camelias,  passion  flowers,  and  various  other  plants.  They  look  like 
small  specks  of  cotton,  and  are  only  to  be  got  rid  of  by  picking  them  of}". 
If  plants  should  happen  to  get  frozen,  they  should  be  syringed  with  cold 
water  and  screened  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Thus  plants  are  frequently 
saved  that  would  otherwise  be  destroyed." 

Library 
N.  C.  State  College 


MAY  84 


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